List of important plant parts/sites of PCD in a vascular plant suggested developmental PCD (dPCD) involved cellular differentiation of specific cell types.
\\n\\n
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7471",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Advanced Surface Engineering Research",title:"Advanced Surface Engineering Research",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Surface engineering has rapidly expanded in recent years as the demand for improved materials has increased. Surface engineering is a valuable tool for conceiving both surface and bulk properties, which cannot be achieved simultaneously either by the coating material or by the substrate material alone. The book is written on the current trends of surface engineering and relevant research. The applied and basic research as well as some worthy concepts of materials related to this area is explained clearly to understand the need for surface engineering in industrial applications. The different surface modification processes, properties, and their characterizations are discussed elaborately for future research and as a text book. Modification of surface properties by films or coatings is used in industrial applications. This is an area of interest to numerous fields: fabrication of parts, mechanics, transport, catalysis, energy, production, microelectronics, optoelectronics, the leisure industry, etc. The properties are considered for protection against corrosion, oxidation or wear, biocompatibility, wetting, adhesion, durability, catalytic activity, and toughness. The modern concept of engineering is discussed to ensure that the contributions of this subject minimize energy consumption. The book will be used as a state of the art for present and future researchers, industrial components design, and control.",isbn:"978-1-78984-340-8",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-339-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-827-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75772",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"advanced-surface-engineering-research",numberOfPages:230,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"4c1a23accacc46fd18b49f2e5c6d303e",bookSignature:"Mohammad Asaduzzaman Chowdhury",publishedDate:"November 14th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7471.jpg",numberOfDownloads:11274,numberOfWosCitations:19,numberOfCrossrefCitations:13,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:25,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:57,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 26th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 19th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 18th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 6th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 5th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"185329",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad Asaduzzaman",middleName:null,surname:"Chowdhury",slug:"mohammad-asaduzzaman-chowdhury",fullName:"Mohammad Asaduzzaman Chowdhury",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185329/images/system/185329.jpg",biography:"Mohammad Asaduzzaman Chowdhury is a professor of Mechanical Engineering at Dhaka University of Engineering and Technology (DUET), Gazipur, Bangladesh. His research interests are Engineering Tribology, Surface Engineering, Automation and Robotics, Coating Technology, Polymer and Composite Materials, Characterization of Materials. He is working as an Editorial Board Member of large number of International Reputed Journals. Currently, he is working as an editor, reviewer of many ISI and Scopus Indexed International Journals and books. He has also published many research and review papers in refereed International Journals and Conference Proceedings. He is working as a consultant, advisor and expert member of many government and autonomous organizations. His teaching & research experience about 21 years. He is involved himself with different cultural and social activities. He has engaged himself to write the articles, stories, lyrics and poems in different newspapers and relevant media.",institutionString:"Dhaka University of Engineering and Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"160",title:"Surface Science",slug:"surface-science"}],chapters:[{id:"62815",title:"Synthesis and Nonlinear Studies on Selected Organic Compounds in Nanostructured Thin Films",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79522",slug:"synthesis-and-nonlinear-studies-on-selected-organic-compounds-in-nanostructured-thin-films",totalDownloads:1101,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Organic compounds based on ferrocene, pyrazolone, and octahydroacridine exhibit high interest due to their unusual structure, with potential practical applications due to their special optical properties. Nonlinear optical (NLO) properties of some new synthesized derivatives are evaluated in relationship with the chemical structure by using DFT molecular modeling. In condensed state, ferrocene and other organic molecules were found in a staggered arrangement (D5d) as a nonpolar molecule, but the eclipsed (D5h) and twisted (D5) forms exhibit SHG capabilities. The molecular polarizability (α), first-order hyperpolarizabilities (βtot), dipole (μtot), and quadrupole (Q) moments were computed. The NLO efficiency was assessed by the relationship between high (βtot) and low HOMO-LUMO energy gap. The nonlinear optical properties of some new synthesized compounds were evaluated in thin films with nanometric morphology obtained using various methods: Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) thin films, sol-gel deposition, and layer-by-layer deposition.",signatures:"Ludmila-Otilia Cinteza and Maria Marinescu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62815",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62815",authors:[{id:"250975",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Maria",surname:"Marinescu",slug:"maria-marinescu",fullName:"Maria Marinescu"},{id:"250983",title:"Dr.",name:"Ludmila Otilia",surname:"Cinteză",slug:"ludmila-otilia-cinteza",fullName:"Ludmila Otilia Cinteză"}],corrections:null},{id:"62411",title:"Shot Peening of Austempered Ductile Iron",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79316",slug:"shot-peening-of-austempered-ductile-iron",totalDownloads:1053,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Austempered ductile iron (ADI) is a type of heat-treated cast iron, which offers numerous positive advantages including: good combination of mechanical properties and damping characteristics, lower density than steel and the possibility of casting components into near-net shape. However, surface engineering techniques are necessary to extend the use and prolong the lifetime of ADI engineering components. One such treatment for improving the bending fatigue strength of ADI is shot peening. This treatment creates compressive residual stresses and high dislocation densities at the surface of the treated components. However, the shot peening process is not always beneficial in improving the tribological characteristics of ADI. Its behaviour depends on the type of wear mechanism, applied loads, lubrication, heat treatment process parameters and the resulting surface finish of the components. This chapter will look into the effect of shot peening on ADI in more detail and will delve into a case study, which was carried out to analyse the bending fatigue resistance and tribological characteristics of Cu-Ni-alloyed ADI.",signatures:"Ann Zammit",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62411",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62411",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"62514",title:"Advanced Electro-Spark Deposition Process on Metallic Alloys",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79450",slug:"advanced-electro-spark-deposition-process-on-metallic-alloys",totalDownloads:1262,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This chapter will study the material base-surface multilayer system for various types of depositions (increasing the wear resistance of Fe-C alloy parts) whose compatibility with the substrate provides high-quality parts. Thus, this system of layers can be applied on both the new and worn parts, being able to recondition and reintroduce in an intensive exploitation regime any parts with complex configuration operating in dynamic conditions. Deposited layers will be obtained using electro-spark deposition (ESD) process, which is a technology that uses electrical energy stored in a capacitor to initialize an electrical spark between the cathode and the anode. The high temperature generated by the electrical spark leads to partial melting of substrate and mixing of it with the material of the electrode. Between the two electric sparks, the amount of the molten metal solidifies to form the surface layer. The ESD is a very well used process for materials manufacturing in many industrial sectors.",signatures:"Petrică Vizureanu, Manuela-Cristina Perju, Dragoş-Cristian Achiţei\nand Carmen Nejneru",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62514",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62514",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"62810",title:"Surface Manufacturing of Materials by High Energy Fluxes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79874",slug:"surface-manufacturing-of-materials-by-high-energy-fluxes",totalDownloads:925,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter aims to summarize the topics related to the application of a surface treatment by high energy fluxes (i.e., electron and laser beams) for developing of new multifunctional materials, as well as to modify their surface properties. These technologies have a large number of applications in the field of automotive and aircraft industries for manufacturing of railways, space crafts, different tools, and components. Based on the performed literature review, some examples of the use of laser and electron beams for surface manufacturing (i.e., surface alloying, cladding, and hardening) are presented. The present overview describes the relationship between electron beam and laser beam technologies, microstructure, and the obtained functional properties of the materials. The benefits of the considered techniques are extensively discussed.",signatures:"Stefan Valkov, Maria Ormanova and Peter Petrov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62810",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62810",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"62869",title:"The Potential of Pyrolytic Biomass as a Sustainable Biofiller for Styrene-Butadiene Rubber",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79994",slug:"the-potential-of-pyrolytic-biomass-as-a-sustainable-biofiller-for-styrene-butadiene-rubber",totalDownloads:908,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter explains the significant potential of the pyrolytic biomass char for use as a sustainable carbon black replacement filler for rubber materials. The manufacture of rubber filler is not only energy-consuming, contributing significantly to global CO2 emissions, but uses nonrenewable feedstock in production making it unsustainable. Ongoing work focused upon the development of carbonaceous rubber fillers based on coconut shell, a sustainable and renewable source, is presented in this chapter. A comparison between coconut char and commercial carbon black N772 demonstrates the profound potential of the pyrolytic coconut char to be used as filler. The char filler obtained was mixed with SBR and the resulting rubber product was evaluated for their technological performance, exhibiting high surface area and good tensile strength.",signatures:"Yiran Fan and Geoff D. Fowler",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62869",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62869",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"62520",title:"Ultrafast Laser Inscription of Buried Waveguides in W-TCP Bioactive Eutectic Glasses",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79577",slug:"ultrafast-laser-inscription-of-buried-waveguides-in-w-tcp-bioactive-eutectic-glasses",totalDownloads:901,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Since the first report of Davis in 1996, ultrafast laser inscription (ULI) has been widely used to fabricate buried optical devices such as active and passive waveguides inside dielectric materials. In this technique, ultra-short and ultra-intense laser pulses are tightly focused inside transparent materials leading to laser-induced nonlinear processes in the focal volume. The energy density deposited into the submicron focal volume can reach several of MJcm−3 and hence, may trigger dramatic changes in a strongly localized region, whereas the surrounding bulk material remains unchanged. This technique can be used from void formation to weak refractive index modification, which is the key feature to create buried optical waveguides. In this chapter, firstly, we review the fundamentals of the ultrafast laser inscription technique to produce optical waveguides inside dielectric materials such as crystals and glasses. Next, as an example, we revise the application of this technique to create buried waveguides inside bioactive glasses and specifically, inside W-TCP eutectic glasses.",signatures:"Daniel Sola and José I. Peña",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62520",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62520",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"62594",title:"Surface Modification of Fe3O4 as Magnetic Adsorbents for Recovery of Precious Metals",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79586",slug:"surface-modification-of-fe3o4-as-magnetic-adsorbents-for-recovery-of-precious-metals",totalDownloads:1746,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Magnetic nanoparticles such as magnetite have been studied intensively for their unique properties that are susceptible to a magnetic field, ready to coat with silica and able to modify with a variety of functional groups. The magnetite-silica core-shell system offers flexibility for extensive modification. The magnetic core is also important in the separation by the use of a magnetic field. The shell, meanwhile, is needed for protection of the magnetic core and further modification. Functional groups at the surface shell are critical in the reaction with target precious metal ions during application. In this contribution, we will have a comprehensive look at the preparation, characterization, and use of the magnetite core-shell modified with functional groups as a magnetic adsorbent. After adsorption, the materials together with the ions can be recovered by the use of magnet before further separation and purification.",signatures:"Roto Roto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62594",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62594",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"62867",title:"Hidden Resources of Coordinated XPS and DFT Studies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80002",slug:"hidden-resources-of-coordinated-xps-and-dft-studies",totalDownloads:1012,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Electronic configuration of chemically bound atoms, at the surface or in the bulk of a solid, contains the traps for energy absorption provided by the valence band electron transitions; the core-level excitation of any origin is coupled with traps forming the multichannel route for energy dissipation. This chapter displays tracing over these channels by means of X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and density functional theory (DFT). Conformity between energy losses in the XPS spectra and electron transitions in relevant unit cells is verified by the examples of the pristine and half fluorinated graphite C2F, and the Br2-embedded C2F. Perfect XPS-DFT combination can be useful for material science providing exhaustive data on state and geometry of the atoms in a sample, regardless the field of its application. The valence band is insensitive to the energy source for its excitation. It makes the behavior of energy losses in XPS spectra of the atoms to be a descriptor of bonding between these atoms in multicomponent materials. Moreover, the state of any component can be tracked through change or invariability of satellites in the relevant XPS spectra, obtained in the course of the external influence, thus revealing a wear performance of the material.",signatures:"Alexander R. Cholach",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62867",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62867",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"63360",title:"Efficient Microbial Decontamination of Translucent Liquids and Gases Using Optical Metamaterials",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80639",slug:"efficient-microbial-decontamination-of-translucent-liquids-and-gases-using-optical-metamaterials",totalDownloads:1177,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"An effective way of decontamination using optical metamaterials like photonic crystals consisting of glass microspheres or granulated quartz with various geometries is proposed. The efficient decontamination using the evanescent zone of metamaterials opens a new perspective in pathogen decontamination. We propose different topological structures of metamaterials to enlarge the contact surface of ultraviolet radiation with polluted translucent fluids. The approach is based upon the increased transfer of UV radiation via evanescent waves of metamaterials into contaminated translucent fluids. A series of experimental estimations of the decontamination rate of this type of metamaterials have been made. For these investigations, a decontamination core filled up with metamaterials is used through which the contaminated fluid freely flows. Experiments have conclusively proved that evanescent zone of quartz and optical fiber metamaterials can effectively inactivate Coliform (including Escherichia coli), or Enterococcus bacteria, as well as yeast and Kombucha cultures.",signatures:"Nicolae Enaki, Sergiu Bizgan, Andrei Nistreanu, Viorica Tonu,\nMarina Turcan, Tatiana Pislari, Elena Starodub, Aurelia Profir,\nGianina-Florentina Popescu-Pelin, Maria Badiceanu, Carmen-\nGeorgeta Ristoscu and Ion N. Mihailescu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63360",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63360",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"62588",title:"Advanced Surface Treatments for Improving the Biocompatibility of Prosthesis and Medical Implants",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79532",slug:"advanced-surface-treatments-for-improving-the-biocompatibility-of-prosthesis-and-medical-implants",totalDownloads:1189,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"During the last two decades, numerous surface treatments have been developed to improve the biocompatibility of different types of prosthesis and other medical implants. Some of these devices are subject to demanding loading and friction conditions (e.g., hip, knee, and spine prosthesis). However, for other implants, there are more specific requirements as it happens for coronary stents or pacemaker electrodes. The materials used for the manufacture of the aforementioned devices are subjected to very high restrictions in terms of biocompatibility, in particular on chemical composition, corrosion resistance, or ion release. As a consequence, most of prosthesis and other implants are made of a limited number of materials such as titanium alloys, stainless steels, cobalt-chromium alloys, UHMWPE, or PEEK. Unfortunately, from a strict point of view, none of these materials meet all the requirements that would be desirable in terms of durability and prevention of infections and inflammatory processes. Coatings and other surface treatments have been developed to solve these problems and to improve biocompatibility. In this chapter, we present an updated review of the most used surface engineering technologies for biomaterials, like novel PVD coatings, ion implantation, and other plasma spray treatments, as well as a critical review of the characterization techniques. This study is completed with an insight into the future of the field.",signatures:"José A. García, Pedro J. Rivero, Rocío Ortiz, Iban Quintana and\nRafael J. Rodríguez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62588",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62588",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7770",title:"Friction, Lubrication and Wear",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9811d708b3a24330f50e319ee70c003f",slug:"friction-lubrication-and-wear",bookSignature:"Mohammad Asaduzzaman Chowdhury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7770.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185329",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad Asaduzzaman",surname:"Chowdhury",slug:"mohammad-asaduzzaman-chowdhury",fullName:"Mohammad Asaduzzaman Chowdhury"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9867",title:"Composite Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30cffe429a772008121d9ec81db6224a",slug:"composite-materials",bookSignature:"Mohammad Asaduzzaman Chowdhury, José Luis Rivera Armenta, Mohammed Muzibur Rahman, Abdullah Asiri and Inamuddin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9867.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185329",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad Asaduzzaman",surname:"Chowdhury",slug:"mohammad-asaduzzaman-chowdhury",fullName:"Mohammad Asaduzzaman Chowdhury"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7550",title:"Corrosion Inhibitors",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4d09bcd91e393d15a578f1b632f118e7",slug:"corrosion-inhibitors",bookSignature:"Ambrish Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"215348",title:"Dr.",name:"Ambrish",surname:"Singh",slug:"ambrish-singh",fullName:"Ambrish Singh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7253",title:"Coatings and Thin-Film Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"98b8dfac28575877f1846a661c9150bc",slug:"coatings-and-thin-film-technologies",bookSignature:"Jaime Andres Perez-Taborda and Alba G. 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Surface polaritons are a special type of electromagnetic waves propagating along the interface of two partnering materials whose material functions (e.g., permittivities) have opposite signs that are typical for a metal-dielectric boundary [1]. These waves are strongly localized at the interface and penetrate into the surrounding space over a distance of wavelength order in a medium, and their amplitudes fall exponentially away from the surface. Observed strong confinement of electromagnetic field in small volumes beyond the diffraction limit leads to enormous increasing matter-field interaction, and it makes attractive using surface waves in the wide fields from the microwave and photonic devices to solar cells [2, 3]. Furthermore, surface electromagnetic waves are highly promising from physical point of view because from the character of their propagation, one can derive information about both interface quality and electromagnetic properties of partnering materials (such as permittivity and permeability). High sensitivity to the electromagnetic properties of media enables utilization of surface waves in the sensing applications, particularly in both chemical and biological systems [4]. Thus, studying characteristics of surface waves is essential in the physics of surfaces and optics; in the latter case, the research has led to the emergence of a new science—plasmonics.
Today plasmonics is a rapidly developing field characterized by enormous variety of possible practical applications. In many of them, an ability to control and guide surface waves is a crucial characteristic. Thereby in last decades, many efforts have been made to realize active tunable components for plasmonic integrated circuits such as switchers, active couplers, modulators, etc. In this regard, searching effective ways to control characteristics of plasmon-polariton propagation by utilizing external driving agents is a very important task. In particular, the nonlinear, thermo-optical, and electro-optical effects are proposed to be used in the tunable plasmonic devices for the control of plasmon-polariton propagation [5, 6, 7, 8]. In such devices, the tuning mechanism is conditioned by changing the permittivity of the dielectric medium due to applying external electric field or temperature control. At the same time, utilization of an external magnetic field as a driving agent to gain a control over polariton dispersion features is very promising, since it allows changing both permeability of magnetic materials (e.g., ferrites) and permittivity of conducting materials (e.g., metals or semiconductors). It is worth mentioning that the uniqueness of this controlling mechanism lies in the fact that the polariton properties depend not only on the magnitude of the magnetic field but also on its direction. An applied magnetic field also produces additional branches in spectra of magnetic plasmon-polariton resulting in the multiband propagation accompanied by nonreciprocal effects [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16]. Thus, a combination of plasmonic and magnetic functionalities opens a prospect toward active devices with an additional degrees of freedom in the control of plasmon-polariton properties, and such systems have already found a number of practical applications in integrated photonic devices for telecommunications (see, for instance [3, 8] and references therein).
In this framework, using superlattices (which typically consist of alternating layers of two partnering materials) that are capable to provide a combined plasmon and magnetic functionality instead of traditional plasmonic systems (in which the presence of a metal-dielectric interface is implied) has great prospects. Particularly, it conditioned by the fact that the superlattices demonstrate many exotic electronic and optical properties uncommon to the homogeneous (bulk) samples due to the presence of additional periodic potential, which period is greater than the original lattice constant [14]. The application of magnetic field to a superlattice leads to the so-called magneto-plasmon-polariton excitations. Properties of the magnetic polaritons in the superlattices of different kinds being under the action of an external static magnetic field have been studied by many authors during several last decades [10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16]. The problem is usually solved within two distinct considerations of gyroelectric media (e.g., semiconductors) with magneto-plasmons [10, 14] and gyromagnetic media (e.g., ferrites) with magnons [11, 12, 13, 16], which involve the medium characterization with either permittivity or permeability tensor having asymmetric off-diagonal parts. This distinction is governed by the fact that the resonant frequencies of permeability of magnetic materials usually lie in the microwave range, whereas characteristic frequencies of permittivity of semiconductors commonly are in the infrared range.
At the same time, it is evident that combining together magnetic and semiconductor materials into a single gyroelectromagnetic superlattice in which both permeability and permittivity simultaneously are tensor quantities allows additional possibilities in the control of polaritons using the magnetic field that are unattainable in convenient either gyromagnetic or gyroelectric media. Fortunately, it is possible to design heterostructures in which both characteristic resonant frequencies of semiconductor and magnetic materials are different but, nevertheless, closely spaced in the same frequency band. As a relevant example, the magnetic-semiconductor heterostructures proposed in [17, 18, 19, 20] can be mentioned that are able to exhibit a gyroelectromagnetic effect from gigahertz up to tens of terahertz [21]. Thus investigation of electromagnetic properties of such structures in view of their promising application as a part of plasmonic devices is a significant task.
This chapter is devoted to the discussion of dispersion peculiarities of both bulk and surface polaritons propagating in a finely-stratified magnetic-semiconductor superlattice influenced by an external static magnetic field. It is organized as follows. In Section 2, we formulate the problem to be solved and derive effective medium expressions suitable for calculation of the properties of modes under the long-wavelength approximation. Section 3 describes the problem solution in a general case assuming an arbitrary orientation of the external magnetic field with respect to the direction of wave propagation and interface of the structure. The discussion about manifestation of mode crossing and anti-crossing effects is presented in Section 4 involving a concept of the Morse critical points from the catastrophe theory. In Section 5, we reveal dispersion peculiarities of bulk and surface polaritons in the given superlattice for three particular cases of the vector orientation of the external magnetic field with respect to the superlattice’s interface and wave vector, namely we study the configurations where the external magnetic field is influenced in the Voigt, polar, and Faraday geometries. Finally, Section 6 summarizes the chapter.
Thereby, in this chapter, we study dispersion features of surface and bulk polaritons propagating in a
Schematic representation of a magnetic-semiconductor superlattice influenced by an external static magnetic field
In the general case, when no restrictions are imposed on characteristic dimensions (
In order to obtain expressions for the tensors of effective permeability and permittivity of the superlattice in a general form, constitutive equations,
where
In the given structure geometry, the interfaces between adjacent layers within the superlattice lie in the
and substituted into equations for components
Relations (2) and (3) are then used for the field averaging [24].
With taking into account the long-wavelength limit, the fields
In view of the continuity of components
and with using Eqs. (2) and (3), we can obtain the relations between the averaged field components in the next form:
Here, we used the following designations
Expressing
with components
The expressions for tensor components of the underlying constitutive parameters of magnetic (
where
For magnetic layers [29], the components of tensor
For semiconductor layers [23], the components of tensor
Permittivity
Hereinafter, we consider two specific orientations of the external magnetic field vector
When
and for the components of tensor (7), we have following expressions:
In the second case, when
In this configuration, the components of tensor (7) can be written as follows:
For further reference, the dispersion curves of the tensor components of relative effective permeability
Dispersion curves of the tensor components of (a, c) relative effective permeability
From Figure 2, one can conclude that in both the Voigt and Faraday geometries, the next relations between the components of effective tensor (7) hold
To sum up, with an assistance of the homogenization procedures from the effective medium theory, the superlattice under study is approximately represented as a uniaxial or biaxial anisotropic uniform medium when an external static magnetic field
In order to obtain a
In a general form [26], the electric and magnetic field vectors
where a time factor
From a pair of the curl Maxwell’s equations
where
For the upper medium (
where
For the composite medium (
where
with
In order to find a nontrivial solution of system (15), we set its determinant of coefficients to zero. After disclosure of the determinant, we obtain an equation of the fourth degree with respect to
whose coefficients
The dispersion relation for
In order to find the dispersion law of surface polaritons from four roots of (16), two physically correct ones must be selected. In general, two such roots are required to satisfy the electromagnetic boundary conditions at the surface of the composite medium. We define these roots as
where
In (18), unknown quantities
Taking into consideration that two appropriate roots
where
Involving a pair of the divergent Maxwell’s equations
where
The boundary conditions at the interface require the continuity of the tangential components of
The system of Eq. (22) has a nontrivial solution only if its determinant vanishes. Applying this condition gives us the required dispersion equation for
Finally, the amplitudes
Here, the problem is considered to be formally solved, and the dispersion relations are derived in a general form for both bulk and surface polaritons.
Further, for brevity, obtained dispersion equations for the bulk and surface polaritons are denoted in the form:
Numerical solution of Eq. (24) gives a set of dispersion curves
From the mathematical point of view the found extreme states in dispersion curves exist in the region where the differential
Sketch of the band diagrams presenting different kinds of interaction between two neighboring modes: (a) weak interaction, (b) intermediate interaction, (c) strong interaction, and (d) accidental degeneracy. Areas where the critical points exist are pointed by circles.
where
The type of each extreme state defined by set of Eq. (25) can be uniquely identified from the sign of the Hessian determinant [35]. For instance, when
In general, when conditions (25) are met, the type of interacting modes in the vicinity of the corresponding Morse critical point can be defined as follows [33]:
The strength of modes interaction within the found extreme states in the region of their coupling can be identified considering the classification introduced in paper [37], which concerns on the mode behaviors appearing in axial waveguides. In particular, (i) a weak interaction takes place when frequency band gap between dispersion curves of interacting modes is high enough (Figure 3a), (ii) an intermediate interaction of modes leads to formation of very flattened parts in the dispersion curves (Figure 3b), (iii) a strong interaction appears when the repulsion between modes is strong enough resulting in formation of dispersion curve having anomalous dispersion line (Figure 3c), and (iv) an accidental degeneracy arises when two dispersion branches are merged within the critical point which leads to nonzero group velocities at
The strong interaction with forming negative-slope region in dispersion curve of one of interacting modes (as it is depicted in Figure 3c and d) leads to some unusual effects [37]. First, zero group velocity (
At the same time, the intermediate interaction with forming extremely flattened part in the mode dispersion curve (see Figure 3b) leads to strong divergence in density of states, and it can be utilized in designs of low-threshold lasers [37].
Since further our goal is to elucidate the dispersion laws of the bulk and surface polaritons (which are in fact
We consider three particular orientations of the external magnetic field
Three particular orientations of the external magnetic field vector
With respect to the problem of polaritons, in any kind of an unbounded gyrotropic medium, there are two distinct eigenwaves (the bulk waves), whereas the surface waves split apart only for some particular configurations (e.g., for the Voigt geometry), and generally, the field has all six components. Such surface waves are classified as hybrid EH modes and HE modes, and these modes appear as some superposition of longitudinal and transverse waves. By analogy with [38], we classify hybrid modes depending on the magnitude ratio between the longitudinal electric and magnetic field components (
The polariton dispersion relations for these specific cases of magnetization can be obtained using general results derived in Section 3 with application of appropriate boundary and initial conditions.
When an external static magnetic field is influenced in the Voigt geometry (
where
Under such magnetization, the dispersion equation for the surface polaritons at the interface between vacuum and the given structure has the form [26]:
where substitutions
We should note that in two particular cases of the gyroelectric and gyromagnetic superlattices, dispersion relation (32) coincides with Eq. (33) of Ref. [10] and Eq. (21) of Ref. [15], respectively, which verifies the obtained solution.
It follows from Figure 4b that in the Voigt geometry, the magnetic field vector in the TM mode has components
Importantly, since the dispersion equation consists of a term which is linearly depended on
A complete set of dispersion curves obtained from solution of Eq. (30) that outlines the passbands of the TE bulk polaritons as a function of the filling factor
(a) A set of dispersion curves of the TE bulk polaritons for different filling factors
In this study, we are mainly interested in those curves of the set which have greatly sloping branches and exhibit the closest approaching each other (i.e., they manifest the anti-crossing effect) or have a crossing point, since such dispersion behaviors correspond to the existence of the Morse critical points. Hereinafter, the areas of interest in which these extreme states exist are denoted in figures by orange circles.
It follows from Figure 5a that in the Voigt geometry, both the anti-crossing (
The crossing effect is found to be at
In the polar geometry (
where
Hereinafter, we distinguish these two kinds of waves as ordinary and extraordinary bulk polaritons, respectively (note: such a definition is common in the plasma physics [43]).
In order to elucidate the dispersion features of hybrid surface polaritons, the initial problem is decomposed into two particular solutions with respect to the vector
where
For two particular cases of the gyroelectric and gyromagnetic superlattices, dispersion relation (36) coincides with Eq. (23) of Ref. [10] and Eq. (21) of Ref. [13], respectively, which verifies the obtained solution.
Complete sets of dispersion curves calculated from the solution of Eqs. (34) and (35) that outline the passbands of both ordinary (blue curves) and extraordinary (red curves) bulk polaritons as functions of the filling factor
Complete sets of dispersion curves of (a) ordinary (blue curves) and (b) extraordinary (red curves) bulk polaritons for different filling factor
From Figure 6a one can conclude that there are two isolated areas of existence of the ordinary bulk polaritons. The upper passband starts at the frequency where
As shown in Figure 6b, there are two separated areas of existence of extraordinary bulk polaritons for each particular filling factor
The value of the critical filling factor
At the same time, for all present values of filling factor
For all other values of filling factor
From Figure 6a and b, one can conclude that the upper passband possesses typical behaviors in the
In the Faraday geometry (
where
The surface polaritons are hybrid EH and HE waves, and their dispersion relation can be written in the form [44]:
In Eq. (38), two distinct substitutions
For the semiconductor superlattice, the dispersion Eq. (38) agrees with Eq. (38) of Ref. [10], while in the case of magnetic superlattice, it coincides with Eq. (13) of Ref. [12], which verifies the obtained solution.
Complete sets of dispersion curves that outline the bands of existence of the bulk polaritons (see Eq. (37)) as functions of filling factor
(a, b) Complete sets of dispersion curves of both right-handed (blue curves) and left-handed (red curves) elliptically polarized bulk polaritons for different filling factor
One can conclude that the dispersion characteristics of the left-handed elliptically polarized bulk waves of the given gyroelectromagnetic structure are different from those ones of both convenient gyroelectric and gyromagnetic media. Indeed, in contrast to the characteristics of the left-handed circularly polarized waves of the corresponding reference medium whose passband has no discontinuity, the passband of the left-handed elliptically polarized bulk polaritons of the superlattice is separated into two distinct areas. This separation appears nearly the frequency at which the resonances of the functions
The dispersion curves of bulk waves, which have left-handed polarization, demonstrate significant variation of their slope having subsequent branches with normal and anomalous dispersion that possess approaching at some points (extreme states) as depicted in Figure 7c and e. The features of these dispersion curves in the vicinity of the critical points are different for the composite structure which has predominant impact either semiconductor (i.e.,
Moreover, a particular extreme state in dispersion curves is found out where the upper branches of the left-handed and right-handed elliptically polarized bulk polaritons merge with each other (see Figure 6d) and crossing point (
We should note that in [37] some unusual and counterintuitive consequences of such behaviors of the dispersion curves (e.g., backward wave propagation, reversed Doppler shift, reversed Cherenkov radiation, atypical singularities in the density of states, etc.) for the TE and TM modes of an axially uniform waveguide are discussed, and it is emphasized that these effects are of considerable significance for practical applications.
Finally, in order to obtain the dispersion curves
For both initial problem considerations, dispersion Eqs. (36) and (38) have four roots from which two physically correct ones (denoted here as
Among all possible appearance of dispersion curves of the surface polaritons, we are only interested in those ones which manifest the crossing or anti-crossing effect. The search of their existence implies solving an optimization problem, where for the crossing effect the degeneracy point should be found. For the anti-crossing effect, the critical points are defined from calculation of the first
Manifestation of the crossing effect in dispersion curves of hybrid EH (red line) and HE (blue line) surface polaritons; (a) polar configuration (
To conclude, in this chapter, we have studied dispersion features of both bulk and surface polaritons in a magnetic-semiconductor superlattice influenced by an external static magnetic field. The investigation was carried out under an assumption that all characteristic dimensions of the given superlattice satisfy the long-wavelength limit; thus, the homogenization procedures from the effective medium theory was involved, and the superlattice was represented as a gyroelectromagnetic uniform medium characterized by the tensors of effective permeability and effective permittivity.
The general theory of polaritons in the gyroelectromagnetic medium whose permittivity and permeability simultaneously are tensor quantities was developed. Three particular configurations of the magnetization, namely, the Voigt, polar, and Faraday geometries, were discussed in detail.
The crossing and anti-crossing effects in the dispersion curves of both surface and bulk polaritons have been identified and investigated with an assistance of the analytical theory about the Morse critical points.
We argue that the discussed dispersion features of polaritons identified in the magnetic-semiconductor superlattice under study have a fundamental nature and are common to different types of waves and waveguide systems.
Plant cells can cope up with fluctuating environments by modulation of different cellular processes [1]. Programmed cell death (PCD) is the process in which the cell(s) voluntarily commit suicide on several occasions among which the most prominent reasons are morphogenic or developmental changes and stress responses. In plants and animals, PCD plays significant role during development, structure formation, or removing unwanted tissues [2, 3]. It has been also reported that PCD act as a defense mechanism of an organism to prevent the pathogen spread from the infected cell [4].
In general, PCD is grouped into three broad categories;
Our present study emphasized on current understanding of plant PCD in different dimensions such as understanding the PCD response towards stress, types of PCDs occurs, cellular-hormones signaling mechanism, and proteases involved in different stress conditions and developmental processes. Additionally, our comparative studies showed that the process of true apoptosis is absent in plants but has several similarities, hence this process is termed apoptosis-like PCD (AL-PCD). The
Inductions of morphogenetic changes are an integral part of the development of an organism. PCD is one of the major fundamental cellular processes that plays crucial role in morphogenetic changes in plant systems [13]. In plants, the occurrence of cell death during development is termed developmental PCD (dPCD). PCD can occur throughout the life cycle at any cell type, tissue, and organ part of the plant (Table 1).
Plant Part | Mechanism | Reference |
---|---|---|
Pollen | ROS mediate | [14] |
[15] | ||
ROS mediate | [16] | |
PERSISTENT TAPETAL CELL2 mediate | [17] | |
AtLSD1 deathosome mediate | [18] | |
Female floral buds | [19] | |
Female gametophyte | Auxin efflux | [20] |
Fruit | Ca2+-dependent nuclease | [21] |
Double Fertilization | ROS mediate | [22] |
Vegetative cells | [23] | |
Zygotic Embryogenesis | [24] | |
Somatic Embryogenesis | K+ATP channel activity | [25] |
Phenol-storing cells | [26] | |
Embryonic Suspensor Cell | — | [27] |
List of important plant parts/sites of PCD in a vascular plant suggested developmental PCD (dPCD) involved cellular differentiation of specific cell types.
Among the two other types of cell death, apoptosis is the most understood type of PCD [5]. In plants, the process of true apoptosis is absent but has a similar kind of programmed cell death termed apoptotic like programmed cell death (AL-PCD). AL-PCD is morphologically and biochemically similar to apoptosis, but due to the structural and functional differences of plant cells, there are some changes in the execution process. The general similarities between apoptosis and AL-PCD include (1) cell shrinkage (2) chromatin condensation, (3) mitochondrial permeabilization and depolarization, (4) cytochrome c release, (5) vacuole leakage and fusion with plasmalemma. In the case of mitochondrial permeabilization, the release of cytochrome
Central role of PCD across the plant life cycle. Pre-zygotic and post-zygotic developmental changes such as tapetum layer degeneration, daughter cell degeneration, antipodal-synergids cell degeneration, pollen tube degeneration, aleurone layer, central endosperm, suspensor cell death are controlled by PCD. The process of xylogenesis is also influenced by PCD [
Developmental PCD (dPCD) is triggered by vascular cell death [30]. Vascular cell death is mainly associated with developmental stages includes morphogenesis and senescence. The existence of vascular system in the plant cell is the key difference from an animal cell. Vacuolar cell death in plants resembles autophagy in animals. A large portion of the plant cell is occupied by vacuoles and the presence of these lytic vacuoles plays a major role in plant cell death. This type of cell death is known as vacuolar cell death [30]. The mechanism involved in this vacuolar cell death involves the increase in the size of the vacuoles by fusing small vacuoles and results in the formation of larger vacuoles. Autolytic PCD occurs due to tonoplast rupture and the clearance of cytoplasm. It is not clear the exact reason for the rupture of tonoplast but the clearance of cytoplasm is due to the flow of hydrolases enzyme that degrades the cytoplasm [31, 32] which is released to aid differentiation of tracheary elements [30, 33]. The dPCD involved to develop various organs like integuments [34], megasoprogenesis [35], pollen tube development [36], leaf senescence [37].
Plant cells contain two types of vacuoles in different types of tissues, lytic vacuole (LV) and protein storage vacuole (PSV) [38]. PSV may contain many kinds of proteins especially defense and stress-related, and the pH value found close to neutral [39, 40, 41]. Unlike the PSV, LV helps in ion and water homeostasis of the cell [42]. It is reported that PSV of cereal aleurone transformed from storage compartments to lytic organelles and fusion of several PSV, acidification takes place in the vacuolar lumen [43].
Studies also suggest that a particular cysteine protease called the ‘vacuolar processing enzyme’ (VPE) functions as a key regulator or the executioner of plant vacuolar PCD during development and also during stress [44]. Located in the vacuole, VPE ruptures the lytic vacuolar membrane. VPE is a cysteine protease and involved in cleaves the peptide bond at the C-terminal side of asparagine and aspartic acid [45]. The up-regulation of VPE genes was associated with various types of cell death under stressed conditions. This is essential in processing seed storage proteins and for mediating the susceptible response of toxin-induced cell death [46]. The collapse of the vacuolar membrane allows the release of hydrolytic content and causes the destruction of other organelles [47]. For example degradation of nuclear and chloroplast DNA, without condensation of DNA, can be completed immediately within 20 minutes of vacuole rupture, but chlorophyll degradation takes more time. Even the plasma membrane can be completely degraded as observed in endosperm tissue. However lignified tissues are exempted from this degradation. Furthermore, PCD in tracheary cells and fiber cells is delayed so that more lignification can take place to allow those cells to become more rigid for structural support [47].
Arabidopsis genome codes for at least 4 VPE homologous αVPE, βVPE, γVPE, δVPE. All of which are located in the vacuole [48]. The last one (δVPE) is only found in dicots [49]. Among these βVPE is specifically located to seeds, whereas αVPE and γVPE are specific to vegetative organs [50] and the δVPE is expressed in seed coat development at the early stage of seed formation [51]. However, the number of VPE genes in various plant species differs, for example four genes have been described in Arabidopsis [52], eight in the case of barley [53], 5 in rice [54], and 14 in tomato [55]. In the recent advancement of the genomic and transcriptomic data, the activities of VPE genes along with their expression pattern will become clearer. In an experiment, it has been proved that when all 4 VPE genes are mutated in Arabidopsis (VPE null mutant) and detectable activities of caspase-1 or VPE in the fungal toxin fumonisinB1 (FB1)-treated leaves whereas wild-type leaves had the caspase-1 and VPE activities [46]. It demonstrated that in planta VPE is solely responsible for caspase-1 activity [52].
In plants, there are mainly three types of PCD that have been reported
Morphological comparison, the hallmark features of types of cellular dysfunction in response to PCD. (A) Apoptosis-like PCD mediated by shrinkage of the plasma membrane move away from the cell wall, membrane blebbing, condensation of the cytoskeleton into bundles, DNA laddering, PS externalization, cytochrome c release, protease activation, increase in ROS, decrease in ATP, the release of DAMPs. (B) Senescence-associated death initiated through the decline in the rate of photosynthesis, stops in senescing cells, stops lipid metabolites, lipid-protein particles accumulate between lipid bilayers, causing the membrane to become leaky. In the degenerative phase, autolysis of cellular organelles and macromolecules takes place. And in the terminal phase cell separation takes place at the abscission accumulation by massive reprogramming of gene expression. (C) Vacuole-mediated cell death or autophagic PCD can be characterized by vacuolization of the cell on a large scale. The cytoskeleton thickens into bundles, organelles aggregate, and larger vesicles and vacuoles begin to form in the cytoplasm. Vesicles accumulate in the vacuole containing cytoplasm and degraded organelles. The vacuole membrane eventually ruptures, releasing lytic enzymes into the cytoplasm and furthering cell death.
Although presence of rigid cell wall associated with cell membrane prevents to form apoptotic body and lack of true caspase as well as phagocytic cells are main reason for absence of true apoptosis in plants but plants exhibit another mechanism that shows striking similarity to apoptosis which is known as apoptotic-like cell death (AL-PCD) [57, 58]. Like animals, when a plant cell is subjected to PCD several changes occur for example cell shrinkage, condensation of chromatin, chromosome fragmentation, mitochondrial permeabilization, cytochrome C release, etc. Figure 2A represents these events schematically [59, 60]. Chromatin condensation and chromosome fragmentation are two characteristic features that are also observed during necrotic and autophagic mode cell death.
Hypersensitive reaction (HR) also results of protoplast shrinkage, similar to apoptotic cell shrinkage. But in the case of animal apoptosis, there is a distinct morphology by which apoptosis can be recognized, the plasma membrane retains its integrity, while the cell shrinks. Animal cells form apoptotic bodies -a vesicle containing segments of a dying cell and apoptotic bodies are formed during the execution phase of the apoptotic process, where the cell’s cytoskeleton collapse and causes the membrane to bulge outward surrounding cells which might cause damage (like an inflammatory response) to them. However, unlike animal cells, in plant cells, the content of dead cells remains in the cell itself and there is no membrane blabbing and the process of phagocytosis is also absent [57, 61]. In comparison to animal PCD the true detailed mechanism of AL-PCD is unclear [45]. Plant cells do not undergo ‘classic’ form of apoptosis because of their rigid cell walls that rule out the necessity or possibility of a breakdown of plant cells into apoptotic bodies and also there are no phagocytic cells in plants [57].
Activation of PCD triggering proteases occurs may be due to a result of a certain change in the cellular environment. It is reported that the activation and dimerization of cysteine C13 protease legumain occur during the low pH. The evidence supporting this includes wheat homolog triticain-α is activated in low pH [62]. In
In response to heat stress in cucumber cotyledons, releases of cytochrome c from mitochondria indicate that cyt-c functions differently in plants to initiate PCD in the absence of Bcl-2 proteins [64, 65, 66]. The presence of all the cyt-c is detected in the cytoplasm after 1 hour of heat stress although it is completely absent in mitochondria after 3 hours of the heat stress. Self-incompatibility (SI) induction in incompatible pollen tubes is also stimulated by the cytochrome c relocation from mitochondria to cytosol [67]. Like animals, cytochrome c is released in response to stress in plants, but studies suggest that it is functionally different as in the case of apoptosis [60, 64]. Caspase-driven cell death is the process that only present in animal kingdom, but the plant genome lacks core apoptotic proteins like BCL-2 family and caspase [68]. Two caspase-like protein families have been recognized,
Differential expression pattern of caspase genes in response to developmental stage, abiotic stress, and metabolic stimuli like plant growth regulators.
Unlike animal cells, the formation of the apoptotic body is absent in plant cells but in response to the biotic and abiotic stress, the apoptotic body-like structures are also observed in the plant cell [71]. According to the most recent proposed model by Thanthrige
Pictorial presentation of molecular signature of plant PCD. Seven Arabidopsis BAG members (BAG 1–7) were localized throughout the cell in organelles. AtBAG1–4 (cytoplasm) AtBAG5 (mitochondrion), AtBAG6 (Vacuole, nucleus) and AtBAG7 (ER, nucleus) mechanized PCD in plant system.
In
Plant PCD occurs mainly during the time of plant-pathogen interaction as well as in response to different abiotic stresses [73]. There are several indentified major causal biotic and abiotic factors that induce plant PCD are presented in Figure 5.
Diagrammatic presentation of various biotic and abiotic factor-induced PCD in the plant.
Plant-pathogen interaction mediated hypersensitivity response (HR) is a mode of broad-spectrum resistance in plants. Whether the pathogen is compatible or incompatible is determined by the interaction between resistance genes in the host and the avirulence gene in the pathogen as explained in Flor’s hypothesis [74]. Hypersensitive cell death is the localized rapid death of cells at the point of infection, and it serves not only to restrict the growth but also stop the invasion of pathogens to other cells/tissue of the plant by undergoing suicide of the infected cells. The complex signalling of this hypersensitive reactions involves cascade of events such as protein phosphorylation, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and modification of ion fluxes [75].
HR is known as a defense mechanism against biotrophic plant pathogens or microbes, which depend on nutrients for survival on the host. However, it is observed that HR might be beneficial in the early stages for local adaptation against the infection but not in the later stages [76]. HR is observed in most plant species and it can be influenced by a wide range of plant pathogens such as oomycetes, viruses, fungi, and even insects [77]. All HR-induced PCD have one feature in common which distinguishes it from vacuolar-type, that is, this type of PCD is not initiated by vacuolar swelling and release of lytic enzymes inside plant cell (i.e. non-destructive). However, this type of response may include the release of vacuolar content by fusion with the plasma membrane [78]. Even it has been proved that VPE is essential for a virus-induced HR that involves PCD [11]. Thus it leaves no doubt that vacuolar rupture might take place during HR. Besides that, necrotic cell death is mainly triggered by abiotic stress in plants. The cell death via AL-PCD or necrosis is dependent upon the severity of the stress that the higher heat stress leads to necrosis, while moderate heat stress leads to AL-PCD [57]. Previous study also suggests some difference between AL-PCD and necrosis. These include (1) shrinking of protoplast is absent in necrosis while in AL-PCD protoplast shrinks from the cell wall; (2) unlike apoptosis, necrosis is an energy-independent process which proceeds through sudden permeabilization of the plasma membrane and plasma membrane leakage. Additionally, a array of researcher revealed that PCD can induced by a range of abiotic stress tolerance. For more details description see Table 2.
Stress | Studied plants | Cellular responses | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Heat shock | Carrot Arabidopsis Tobacco Soybean | Cytoplasmic condensation | [79, 80, 81, 82, 83] |
H2O2 | Arabidopsis | AL-PCD | [79] |
Toxin victorin | Oats | Cell shrinkage associated with death | [84] |
TMV | Tobacco | DNA Cleavage into 50-kb fragments | [85] |
Fungal infection | Cowpea | Internucleosomal cleavage | [86] |
D-mannose treatment | Arabidopsis root Maize suspension culture | Oligonucleosomal fragmentation of DNA | [87] |
Ultraviolet light or H2O2 | Metacaspase-8 knockout lines of Arabidopsis | Reduced cell death | [88] |
Mycotoxin | Arabidopsis | Detected the presence of Vascular processing enzyme | [52] |
List of studies depicted the environmental stress stimulate PCD in plants.
Hormones play an important role in plant PCD. Ethylene, methyl jasmonate, and salicylate have been identified as key regulators which involved in the different developmental process like senescence [89]. The increased production of ethylene and salicylic acid associated with ROS-dependent PCD has been investigated [90]. In response to PCD, identified up-regulated genes and associated metabolism processes are autophagy transport, response to ROS, ABA signaling, metal-ion binding, DNA/Protein binding, carotene metabolism, glutamine synthase 2, caspase activity, pectinesterase activity, ethylene signaling, and lipid catabolism. Simultaneously down-regulated genes and associated metabolism processes amino acid metabolism, chlorophyll biosynthesis, carotenoid biosynthesis cytokinin-mediated signaling, glycine metabolism, photosynthesis, glutamine synthase 1 [91]. In response to PCD expression profile of ROS-scavenging enzymes such as peroxidase, ascorbate peroxidase (APX), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPX)) and non-enzymatic antioxidants ascorbic acid (AsA) and glutathione (GSH) also be studied in
PGRs/Metabolites | Identified pathways/mechanism | Plant species | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Auxin | Auxin may restrict the cellulose biosynthesis inhibitor such as Thaxtomin A (TA) and protect PCD. | [93] | |
Modulate ROS accumulation, anthocyanin production, and the release of mitochondrial cytochrome pathways by auxin antagonist auxinole, auxin inhibitor NPA. | [94] | ||
Nitric oxide | Pathogenesis-related 1 (PR-1) and phenylalanine ammonia-lyase genes and cyclic GMP (cGMP) and cyclic ADP-ribose (cADPR), found to be involved in PCD signaling pathways in abiotic stress. | — | [95] |
ROS | [96] | ||
Salicylic acid (SA) | SA-regulated alternative oxidase (AOX) plays a crucial role in the reduction of mitochondrial ROS and cell death mechanisms. | — | [97] |
Ethylene | Ethylene-responsive element binding factors 2 (ERF2) in | [98] | |
Ethylene-mediated ROS signaling plays a role in aerenchyma formation. | [99] | ||
MI modulate ROS-induced PCD through SA-dependent and ethylene-dependent pathways. | [100] | ||
Phenolic compound | Pyrogallic acid induce PCD in cyanobacteria ( | [101] | |
Rosmarinic acid | Rosmarinic acid modulates ROS and mitochondrial dysfunction | [102] |
List of plant growth regulators (PGRs), other metabolites, and their role in plant PCD.
In the present study, we have discussed the recent status of occurrence, cellular dysfunction and molecular mechanism of the most complicated fundamental processes of PCD in the plant. Due to the lack of sufficient study on PCD in plant systems, we are unable to identify and describe the exact molecular mechanism. The complex process of PCD is triggered in normal development as well as in response to stress. To understand (1) how plant cell sense or become competent towards PCD? (2) what are the specific signaling pathways correspond to different types of plant PCD?, integrated omic study is helpful in the near future. In our recent study, we have identified novel Cell division cycle and apoptosis regulator 1 (CCAR1) protein in plant system and computationally characterized their function in plant PCD [103]. Thus spectaculars study will be required for understanding the PCD in plant system.
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\n\nOut of all of the publishing options available to researchers, why choose to contribute your research to an IntechOpen Edited Volume? The reasons are simple. IntechOpen has worked exceptionally hard over the past years to fine tune the Open Access book publishing process and we continue to work hard to deliver the best for all of our contributors. The quality of published content is of utmost importance to us, followed closely by speed, and of course, availability and accessibility. To view current Open Access book projects that are Open for Submissions visit us here.
\n\nQUALITY CONTENT
\n\nOver the years we have learned what is important. What makes a difference to the researchers that work with us, what they value. Something that is very high not only on their lists, but our own, is the quality of the published content.
\n\nOur books contain scientific content written by two Nobel Prize winners, two Breakthrough Prize winners and 73 authors who are in the top 1% Most Cited.
\n\nWith regular submission for coverage in the single most important database, the Book Citation Index in the Web of Science™ Core Collection (BKCI), and no rejected submissions to date, over 43% of all Open Access books indexed in the BKCI are IntechOpen published books.
\n\nIn addition to BKCI, IntechOpen covers a number of important discipline specific databases as well, such as Thomson Reuters’ BIOSIS Previews.
\n\nACCESS
\n\nThe need for up to date information available at the click of a mouse is one thing that sets IntechOpen apart. By developing our own technologies in order to streamline the publishing process, we are able to minimize the amount of time from initial submission of a manuscript to its final publication date, without compromising the rigor of the editorial and peer review process. This means that the research published stays relevant, and in this fast paced world, this is very important.
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\n\nCan collaboration be inspired by a publishing format? At IntechOpen, the answer is yes. The way the research is published, the way it is accessed, it’s all part of our mission to help academics make a greater impact by giving readers free access to all published work.
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. 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From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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The determination of U is held from the Nusselt’s number, which is related to the dimensionless Reynolds and Prandtl’s, and from the fluid’s viscosity relation that is being agitated in the bulk temperature and the viscosity in the wall’s temperature of heat exchange. The aim of this chapter is to present a summary for the literature concerning heat transfer in agitated vessels (equipped with jackets, helical coils, spiral coils, and vertical tube baffles) and also the many parameters of Nusselt’s equation for these surfaces. It will present a numerical example for a project in an agitated vessel using vertical tube baffles and a 45° pitched blade turbine. Subsequently, the same procedure is held with a turbine radial impeller, in order to compare the heat transfer efficiencies.",book:{id:"5395",slug:"heat-exchangers-design-experiment-and-simulation",title:"Heat Exchangers",fullTitle:"Heat Exchangers - Design, Experiment and Simulation"},signatures:"Vitor da Silva Rosa and Deovaldo de Moraes Júnior",authors:[{id:"187128",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Vitor",middleName:null,surname:"Rosa",slug:"vitor-rosa",fullName:"Vitor Rosa"},{id:"188792",title:"Dr.",name:"Deovaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Moraes Júnior",slug:"deovaldo-moraes-junior",fullName:"Deovaldo Moraes Júnior"}]},{id:"40354",title:"Calculation Methods for Heating and Ventilation System of Electrical Machines",slug:"calculation-methods-for-heating-and-ventilation-system-of-electrical-machines",totalDownloads:5436,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"3091",slug:"heat-transfer-phenomena-and-applications",title:"Heat Transfer Phenomena and Applications",fullTitle:"Heat Transfer Phenomena and Applications"},signatures:"Otilia Nedelcu and Corneliu Ioan Sălişteanu",authors:[{id:"142213",title:"Dr.",name:"Otilia",middleName:null,surname:"Nedelcu",slug:"otilia-nedelcu",fullName:"Otilia Nedelcu"},{id:"154781",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioan Corneliu",middleName:null,surname:"Salisteanu",slug:"ioan-corneliu-salisteanu",fullName:"Ioan Corneliu Salisteanu"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"826",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"80334",title:"Zero Emission Hydrogen Fuelled Fuel Cell Vehicle and Advanced Strategy on Internal Combustion Engine: A Review",slug:"zero-emission-hydrogen-fuelled-fuel-cell-vehicle-and-advanced-strategy-on-internal-combustion-engine",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102057",abstract:"Global energy consumption has gradually increased as a result of population growth, industrialization, economic development, and rising living standards. Furthermore, as global warming and pollution worsen, the development of renewable energy sources is becoming more essential. Hydrogen is one of the most promising clean and sustainable energy carriers because it emits only water as a byproduct without carbon emission and has the highest energy efficiency. Hydrogen can be produced from a variety of raw resources, including water and biomass. Water electrolysis is one of many hydrogen production technologies that is highly recommended due to its eco-friendliness, high hydrogen generation rate, and high purity. However, in terms of long-term viability and environmental effect, Polymer Electrolyte Membrane water electrolysis has been identified as a potential approach for producing high-purity, high-efficiency hydrogen from renewable energy sources. Furthermore, the hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) produced are directly employed in fuel cells and other industrial uses. As a result, an attempt has been made in this work to investigate hydrogen synthesis and utilization in fuel cell vehicles. Low-temperature combustion technology has recently been applied in engine technology to reduce smoke and NOx emissions at the same time. The advantages and limitations of homogeneous charge compression ignition, partially premixed charge compression ignition, premixed charge compression ignition, and reactivity regulated compression ignition are described separately in low-temperature combustion strategy.",book:{id:"11164",title:"Diesel Engines and Biodiesel Engines Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11164.jpg"},signatures:"Babu Dharmalingam, Ramakrishna Reddy Ramireddy, Santhoshkumar Annamalai, Malinee Sriariyanun, Deepakkumar Rajagopal and Venkata Ramana Katla"},{id:"82176",title:"Replacement of Diesel Fuel by DME in Compression Ignition Engines: Case for India",slug:"replacement-of-diesel-fuel-by-dme-in-compression-ignition-engines-case-for-india",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104969",abstract:"Decarbonising of transport, industrial and all sectors of economy is a necessity to stop or reverse global warming. Use of batteries, fuel-cells, hybrid topographies with smaller IC engines and use of alternative fuels like methanol, ethanol, DME in the IC engines are some of the ways through which emission of green-house gases can reduced/eliminated. Diesel engines are highly efficient due to higher compression ratios and are used in the heavy-duty transportation vehicles. DME is a single molecule fuel having high cetane number and which can be used as a drop-in fuel on the diesel engines albeit with retro-fitment of these engines with a new pressurized fuel system. DME with a chemical formula CH3-O-CH3 can be produced by different feedstocks such as coal, natural gas, biomass and bio-waste and municipal solid waste. India has a large reserve of high ash coal and generates high quantities of biomass and MSW, all of which can be converted to DME by use of clean production technologies. India’s transport and industrial sectors consume about 100 billion liters of diesel fuel per year produced entirely from imported petroleum. This amount of diesel can be replaced by indigenously produced DME from locally available coal, biomass and MSW.",book:{id:"11164",title:"Diesel Engines and Biodiesel Engines Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11164.jpg"},signatures:"Anirudh Gautam and Ankita Singh"},{id:"81979",title:"The Influence of Exhaust Gas Recirculation on Performance and Emission Characteristics of a Diesel Engine Using Waste Plastic Pyrolysis Oil Blends and Conventional Diesel",slug:"the-influence-of-exhaust-gas-recirculation-on-performance-and-emission-characteristics-of-a-diesel-e",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105011",abstract:"Through an experimental study, this work focused on finding the influence of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) on waste plastic pyrolysis oils (WPPOs) with diesel as a base comparison fuel. The results show the amount of carbon monoxide emissions seemed to decrease at low engine loads up to intermediate loads of (50%), thereafter continued to increase significantly but marginally. Among fuels tested, blend WPPOB100 reported the highest BSFC, at 0% EGR flow rate. The value was 0.4751g/kW.hr. compared with 0.7235 g/kW.hr. at 30% EGR flow rate. Increased blend ratio had a direct decrease in brake power linearly. At 30% engine load, CD, WPPOB10, WPPOB20, WPPOB30 and WPPOB40 recorded values of 2.125 kW, 2.15 kW, 2.05 kW, 1.98 kW, 1.86 kW and 1.75 kW, respectively. Exhaust gas temperature (EGT) at 30% EGR flow rate, blend WPPOB10 had the highest reduction in temperature compared with the any other WPPO blends at 320°C. Increased blend ratio and EGR percentage flow rate increased smoke emissions within the test fuels blends. At 15% EGR flow rate, the following data were recorded: 7.53%, 7.1%, 6.72%, 6.25%, 6.0% and 5.4% for CD, WWPO10, WPPO20, WPPO30, WPPO40 and WPPO100, respectively.",book:{id:"11164",title:"Diesel Engines and Biodiesel Engines Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11164.jpg"},signatures:"Semakula Maroa and Freddie L. Inambao"},{id:"81895",title:"Performance and Emission Characteristics of Hydrogenation Derived Renewable Diesel as Diesel Engine Fuel",slug:"performance-and-emission-characteristics-of-hydrogenation-derived-renewable-diesel-as-diesel-engine-",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104820",abstract:"Growing anxieties about the continued depletion of fossil fuel reserves, improving the performance of diesel engines, and mandates to reduce greenhouse gas emissions have made the search for alternative fuels for diesel engines more imperative. Hydrogenation Derived Renewable Diesel (HDRD) is recognized as a sustainable, reliable, and cost-effective alternative to petroleum-based diesel (PBD) fuel for compression ignition (CI) engines. This may be because the physicochemical properties of HDRD are similar to that of PBD fuel. The current effort examines the performance and emission characteristics of HDRD in unmodified CI engines. Performance emissions characteristics such as power, torque, brake specific fuel consumption, thermal efficiency, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, particulate matter, and exhaust gas temperature were interrogated and compared with that of PBD fuel in a CI engine. The outcome of the study shows that HDRD is better than biodiesel and a sustainable replacement for PDB fuel to achieve improved performance and reduced emissions of CI engines. Going forward, more investigations are needed to further simplify the preparation and democratize the utilization of HDRD as CI fuels for various applications.",book:{id:"11164",title:"Diesel Engines and Biodiesel Engines Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11164.jpg"},signatures:"Omojola Awogbemi, Daramy Vandi Von Kallon and Josiah Pelemo"},{id:"81114",title:"Research and Innovation to Improve the Efficiency of Modern Diesel Engines",slug:"research-and-innovation-to-improve-the-efficiency-of-modern-diesel-engines",totalDownloads:10,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102759",abstract:"Modern diesel engines are one of the main mobile energy sources and are characterized by a high degree of workflow completeness, design, and manufacturing technology. The chapter summarizes the authors’ experience in improving diesel engines, increasing specific volume power, and reliability, ensuring a low level of environmental pollution emissions. The results of research using industry 4.0 technologies for systematization, choice of directions, and the search for rational ways to improve the efficiency of diesel engines are presented. The application of anergo-exergy method for analyzing the efficiency of the working process of the engine and its systems is considered. Taking into consideration the operating conditions, technical solutions are proposed to improve the reliability of the most heat-stressed parts of high-powered engines. The possibilities for a comprehensive assessment of the fuel efficiency and environmental qualities of diesel engines have been expanded taking into account CO2 emissions when using traditional, alternative, and hybrid diesel fuel.",book:{id:"11164",title:"Diesel Engines and Biodiesel Engines Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11164.jpg"},signatures:"Andriy Marchenko, Igor Parsadanov, Volodymyr Pylyov, Oleksandr Osetrov, Linkov Oleh, Serhii Kravchenko, Oleksandr Trynov, Denys Meshkov, Serhii Bilyk, Anatolii Savchenko, Inna Rykova and Rasoul Aryan"},{id:"81849",title:"A Comparative Evaluation of Biodiesel and Used Cooking Oil as Feedstock for HDRD Application: A Review",slug:"a-comparative-evaluation-of-biodiesel-and-used-cooking-oil-as-feedstock-for-hdrd-application-a-revie",totalDownloads:23,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104393",abstract:"The search for clean energy for transportation fuel across the globe has grown in intensity. The use of biodiesel as a fuel for compression ignition (CI) engines has shown some deficiencies, e.g., poor storage, and poor pour point. The carbon chain of biodiesel is one of the factors to be considered; the longer carbon chain length leads to decreased ignition delay, which leads to the formation of OH during the premixed combustion phase. The major challenges that render biodiesel inefficient are discussed, like higher viscosity, lower energy content, higher nitrogen oxide (NOX) emissions, lower engine speed and power, injector coking, engine compatibility, high cost, and higher engine wear. The novelty of this work is that it shows that biodiesel conversion to green diesel is possible using a biowaste heterogeneous catalyst to obtain quality and high yield of HDRD with lower cost. This renewable energy (HDRD) possesses properties that are directly compatible with CI engines and transportation engines. This research reviewed biodiesel and UCO as feedstocks for the production of HDRD, including the cost–benefit of these feedstocks. Hydrogenation of biodiesel has the potential to overcome the drawbacks of conventional chemically catalyzed processes.",book:{id:"11164",title:"Diesel Engines and Biodiesel Engines Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11164.jpg"},signatures:"Josiah Pelemo, Kayode Timothy Akindeji, Freddie L. Inambao, Omojola Awogbemi and Emmanuel Idoko Onuh"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:12},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:33,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"426586",title:"Dr.",name:"Oladunni A.",middleName:null,surname:"Daramola",slug:"oladunni-a.-daramola",fullName:"Oladunni A. Daramola",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Technology",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"357014",title:"Prof.",name:"Leon",middleName:null,surname:"Bobrowski",slug:"leon-bobrowski",fullName:"Leon Bobrowski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bialystok University of Technology",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"354126",title:"Dr.",name:"Setiawan",middleName:null,surname:"Hadi",slug:"setiawan-hadi",fullName:"Setiawan Hadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Padjadjaran University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"332603",title:"Prof.",name:"Kumar S.",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"kumar-s.-ray",fullName:"Kumar S. Ray",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Statistical Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"415409",title:"Prof.",name:"Maghsoud",middleName:null,surname:"Amiri",slug:"maghsoud-amiri",fullName:"Maghsoud Amiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Allameh Tabataba'i University",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. 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