Various types of illness due to water.
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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Avci",slug:"munevver-ertek-avci",email:"Munevver.ErtekAvci@calikdenim.com",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"7242",title:"Engineered Fabrics",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Engineered Fabrics",slug:"engineered-fabrics",publishedDate:"February 13th 2019",bookSignature:"Mukesh Kumar Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7242.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36895",title:"Dr.",name:"Mukesh Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"mukesh-kumar-singh",fullName:"Mukesh Kumar Singh"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"8807",leadTitle:null,title:"Organic Synthesis",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tOrganic synthesis has always been one of the central topics of research for the scientific community in the academic laboratories and industrial world. Many striking journal articles and remarkable reviews and books have been published in the past year describing the practicability and applications of the subject demonstrating the importance of organic synthesis. In the present book, we will be putting together the topics in organic synthesis which may include but not limited to, (1) the basic terms and concepts, (2) various organic reactions including reduction, oxidation, addition, elimination, rearrangements, and cycloadditions, (3) Total Synthesis of Natural products, (4) transition metal catalysts, organocatalysts, enzymes and biotransformations, (5) applications in medicinal chemistry and drug design and development, (6) purification methods and characterization techniques, etc. To set a limit and to increase the scope of the book, author(s) are encouraged to send the chapters that include selected examples with practical applications and good yielding reactions reported within the past decade. Older topics with significant findings or their essence to prepare the foundation may be included in the chapter are welcomed as well.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:null,priceUsd:null,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f3bbbd989d0896f142d317ccb8abcc35",bookSignature:"Dr. Prashant S Deore",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8807.jpg",keywords:"Natural Product Synthesis, Organic Reaction Mechanism, Stereoselective synthesis, Chirality, C-H Functionalization, Cross-Coupling Reactions, Heterogeneous Catalysis, Homogeneous Catalysis, Green Synthesis, Green Solvents and Reagents, Bioorganic synthesis, Click Chemistry",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"December 10th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"January 14th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 15th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 20th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 19th 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"251769",title:"Dr.",name:"Prashant",middleName:"S",surname:"Deore",slug:"prashant-deore",fullName:"Prashant Deore",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251769/images/system/251769.png",biography:"Dr. Prashant S. Deore was born in India. He received a Master’s degree in organic chemistry from Pune University in 2007. In the same year, he qualified with the SET and CSIR-NET (JRF) and joined in the group of Prof. Narshinha P. Argade for the doctoral studies in National Chemical Laboratory, India. In 2014, he awarded with a Ph. D. in Chemistry and was a recipient of the 2nd prize in “2014 Eli Lilly and Company Asia Outstanding Thesis Awards”. In July 2014 he moved to Canada and joined as a postdoctoral researcher in the group of Prof. Richard Manderville at the University of Guelph, Canada. Presently, Dr. Deore is working on the collaborative project between the University of Guelph and Aterica health Inc., and providing consulting to the company. His research interest includes organic synthesis, fluorescent probes development, nucleic acid synthesis and modifications, and aptasensor development for proteins and food toxins.",institutionString:"University of Guelph",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"8",title:"Chemistry",slug:"chemistry"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"270935",firstName:"Rozmari",lastName:"Marijan",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/270935/images/7974_n.png",email:"rozmari@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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Without water no one can think of life on earth. About 71% of earth is covered with water. Of that 71% water about 97% resides in oceans and only 3% of water is fresh water (Figure 1a) and of that 3% about 68.7% of freshwater is locked up in icecaps and glaciers (Figure 1b), and it is quite a surprising fact that almost all the remaining fresh water is below the ground. Of all the freshwater on the surface of earth only 0.3% is contained in fresh lakes, and rivers [1].
(a) Water distribution on the earth and (b) freshwater distribution on the earth.
As the population is increasing day by day the water availability per capita is decreasing. So the challenge of limited amount of freshwater and its decreasing per capita availability is an issue of concern but another major challenge is water pollution that has not only environmental impact but also have a major effect on human health. As per the statistics 783 million people do not have access to clean and safe water worldwide [2]. Around 319 million people in Sub-Saharan Africa are without the access to improved reliable drinking water sources. One in nine people worldwide do not have access to safe and clean drinking water. 443 million school days are lost each year due to water-related diseases [3]. In developing countries, as much as 80% of illnesses are linked to poor water and sanitation conditions [4]. 2.6 billion people in the world lack adequate sanitation and which contributes to about 10% of the global disease burden [5]. Half of the world’s hospitals beds are filled with people suffering from a water-related disease [6].
There are various type of illnesses due to water and are summarized in Table 1.
Type of diseases | Source | Example | References |
---|---|---|---|
Water borne | Human or animal waste | Cholera, typhoid, and dysentery, | [7] |
Water washed | Lack of clean water for washing | Skin and eye infections | [8] |
Water based | Organism developed in water and then become parasite | Schistosomiasis | [9] |
Water-related insect vector | Mosquitoes breed in water | Malaria and dengue | [9] |
Various types of illness due to water.
As we have seen that the contaminated water has a very bad impact on human health even some heavy metals that if taken for long time it can cause cancer such as arsenic is considered as one the carcinogenic contaminant in water. After understanding the health issues related to contaminant water there is need to understand the source of contamination and major contaminants that pollute the water.
In recent years, magnetic materials have been potentially used for removal of water pollutants, particularly organic contaminates (dyes, chlorinated hydrocarbons, aromatics), pesticides, as well as heavy metals [10]. There are a large number of techniques available for water treatment for safe drinking water including adsorption, precipitation, solvent extraction, ion exchange, reverse osmosis, membrane separation, evaporation, and photocatalysis. The development of nanoscience and nanotechnology shows their potentiality in removing toxic elements from water bodies with better water treatment process. The design and development of nanomaterials which belong to the size range of 1–100 nm exhibiting unique properties as compared to the bulk materials leads to the enormous improvements in many sectors including, health, manufacturing, electronics, environmental remediation as well. The magnetic nanomaterials (paramagnetic or ferromagnetic or superparamagnetic) with tailored surface chemistry have already expanded their scope of application in water treatment. In this chapter, various processes of drinking water treatment and waste water treatment using advanced magnetic materials in removing toxic metal ions, organic and inorganic solutes, bacteria and viruses has been discussed.
There are many sources of drinking water and the main sources are ground water, lakes, canals, reservoirs, rain water, fog water and sea water. These sources are contaminated in different ways and broadly the source of contamination can be divided in to two categories:
Direct sources or point sources
Indirect sources or non-point sources
Direct sources basically include effluent from industries, treatment plants, refineries, factories, etc. However, indirect sources or non-point sources include the water contamination entering to the water body through a number of processes, e.g., while putting the fertilizers and pesticides to the agricultural field, the elements presents in the chemical percolates down to the groundwater and ultimately pollute the water.
There are various types of water contaminants, however in the following subsections organic contaminants, inorganic contaminants and pathogens are briefly discussed.
Organic contaminants present in drinking water create severe problem on human health. Pollution by organic chemicals in water bodies occurs by various mechanisms. Industrial waste containing various organic chemical contaminants pollutes the water bodies. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), pesticides, phenolic compounds, phthalates, and nitrogen-containing compounds, are often detected in polluted water [11]. Many of these compounds have been found to be carcinogenic, even in very low concentrations. WHO Guidelines for drinking water quality, levels are set for 28 organic constituents (i.e., microcystin-LR, chlorinated alkanes, chlorinated benzenes and miscellaneous), 33 pesticides, and 9 disinfectant by-products, due to their health effects on humans [12]. It is noteworthy to mention that, occurrence of pharmaceutical and personal care products and perfluoroalkyl acids in aquatic environment has been recognized as emerging issue in environmental chemistry [13].
Inorganic contaminants include metals, salts and other compounds that do not contain carbon. Many of them are naturally occurring and should be considered as an integral part of those waters, e.g., calcium carbonate and bicarbonate in hard water. The metal ions such as Hg(II), Pb(II), Cr(III), Cr(VI), Ni(II), Co(II), Cu(II), Cd(II), Ag(I), As(V) and As(III) are toxic from eco toxicological point of view. Besides, the pollution by the radioactive elements is of major concern looking into their long-term hazardous impacts.
Pathogens such as bacteria, viruses and parasites may be present in very low concentration in drinking water; but cause many infectious diseases and are considered as one of the major risk factors with drinking water safety [14]. The pathogenic microorganisms enter in to water body through sewage discharge as a major source or through the wastewater from industries like slaughterhouses. Water-borne pathogens have been the causes of many disease outbreaks such as diarrhea, cholera, gastro-intestinal illness [15]. The recurrence of water-borne pathogens is due to a number of reasons like heavy water contamination, population explosion, change in potable water treatment methods, globalization of commerce and travel. It has been made possible to detect pathogen based water contamination to a large extent owing to the improved methods for detection and source tracking [16, 17]. The most serious health risk is related with ingestion of water which is contaminated with fecal matter and the discharge of wastewater into various ambient water bodies is what contributes to the multiplication of numbers of such pathogens (bacteria, viruses, protozoa and helminthes) [18].
Water treatment is defined as the removal of the above contaminants using some specific process. In most of the water treatment processes, conventional adsorption process with activated carbon is adopted and the adsorption capacity is substantially decreased in presence of high concentration of organic matters in water where the active sites are mostly occupied by these materials. In recent times, there are various technologies have been employed for the removal of water contaminants such as filtration (ceramic, bio sand, membrane, and activated carbon based filtration), heat and UV radiation, chemical treatment (coagulation-flocculation, chemical disinfection), and desalination (reverse osmosis, distillation). The various techniques in water treatment can categorized into following six classes [19]:
Adsorption
Biotechnology
Catalytic processes
Membrane processes
Ionizing radiation processes
Magnetically assisted processes.
There are specific advantages and disadvantages for a particular process. The nanotech based processes are promising option in current water treatment processes because of their target specificity, ease of separation, high adsorption per unit area, as well as less maintenance.
There has been increased interest in using magnetic materials in water treatment which are basically composed of magnetic core of iron oxides organic compounds, carbon materials, etc. Recently, nanomaterials in different shapes, morphologies, forms, e.g., metal-containing nanoparticles, carbonaceous nanomaterials, zeolites, dendrimers, carbon nanotubes, nanofibers have been used for water purification [20]. However, the difficulty arises in using these materials is the separation of solid materials from liquid and which is more difficult as the particle size decreases in nanoscale. On the other hand, the using of magnetic, particularly the magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) materials have the advantage of magnetic filtration in separation of solid from liquid and are more efficient [21].
However solid/liquid (S/L) separation is more difficult as the particle size decreases. On the other side, in case of magnetic sorbents based on Fe oxides, the magnetic filtration may be applied for S/L separation. Furthermore, the removal of particles from solution with the use of magnetic fields is more selective and efficient (and often much faster) than centrifugation or filtration (Yauvuz et al.) [21]. Here are the advantages of using MNPs adsorbent for water treatment processes:
Small size and thus high surface to volume ratio
Solid/liquid separation through magnetic filtration is selective, faster than centrifugation and filtration techniques
Reusability
Greater biocompatibility
Magnetic separation
Different types of magnetic materials have been synthesized and designed for development of advanced materials and applied effectively in widespread uses such as biomedicine, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), catalysis, spintronics, robotics, engineering, environmental remediation, etc. [22] There are different synthesizing methods viz. co-precipitation, solvothermal, hydrothermal, microemulsion, sonochemical, etc. which determine their particle size, distribution, morphology, surface functionality, and magnetic properties and in turn of their various application [22]. Magnetic materials are made from mixtures of metals of iron, cobalt, nickel, and alloys and their oxides (of the type MFe2O4, where M is a metal). Out of these materials, iron (zero valent iron) and its oxides, i.e., usually γ-Fe2O3 (maghemite) and Fe3O4 (magnetite) nanoparticles have attained significant interest in recent years and have been used for water treatment processes. The various composite magnetic materials such as Fe3O4@C [23, 24], Fe@SiO2 [25], Fe3O4@TiO2 [26], Fe3O4@PPO (poly(propylene oxide)), PEO (poly(ethylene oxide) [27], Fe3O4@PDA (polydopamine) [28], Fe3O4@PNIPAM (poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)) [29], Fe3O4@MIPs (molecularly imprinted polymer-encapsulated particles) [30], Fe3O4@CNTs (multi-walled carbon nanotubes) [31], Fe@CS (carbon spheres) [32], Fe/iron oxide-oxyhydroxide/rGO (grapheme) [33], etc. have been used for environmental applications. Singh and his co-workers synthesized a series of magnetic nanocomposites such as CoFe2O4–ZnS [34], Fe3O4@GTPs (green tea polyphenols) [35], Fe3O4–Cr2O3 [36], CoFe2O4-Cr2O3-SiO2 [37] and applied for wastewater treatment.
In addition to their suitable magnetic properties, i.e., ferrimagnetic, ferromagnetic and superparamagnetic (nanoparticle size less than 10 nm), their synthesis procedure is simple and cost-effective and they can be easily functionalized as desired for many applications. The size and shape and magnetism of these magnetic materials can be easily controlled based on their application and thus they can be easily dispersed in liquid medium and their stability can be retained for multiple uses. Moreover, these materials are non-toxic or less toxic, chemically inert, thermally stable as well as biocompatible.
Appearance of water pollution as a global threat demands the development of low-cost and reliable materials for effective waste water remediation. The magnetic materials have been used for clean water technology for both in laboratory as well as field scale [38, 39]. In recent years, iron oxide nanomaterials have been used as adsorbent or immobilizing agent and photocatalyst or the both depending on nature of contaminants in water [40].
Heavy metal contamination in water such as cadmium, zinc, lead, chromium, nickel, copper, vanadium, platinum, silver and titanium due to industrial activities is significantly increasing which is detrimental to human beings and animals. Magnetic nanomaterial adsorbents have been potentially used for removal of metallic ions such as Cr(VI), Cu(II), Co(II),Cd(II), As(V), As(III) and Hg(II) in water [41, 42] which are more effective as compared to micron size particles. The magnetic chelating resin based materials have been used for effective removal of Cu(II), Co(II), and Ni(II) ions [43]. The magnetic hydrogels based on 2-acrylamine-2-methyl-1-propansulfonic acid can be used for removal of many heavy metal ions such Cd(II), Co(II), Fe(II), Pb(II), Ni(II), Cu(II) and Cr(III) from water in repeated cycles [44]. The Cu(II) can also be effectively removed by functionalized mesostructured silica containing magnetite [45]. The acrylate-based polymer composites with magnetite can be used in selective removal of heavy metals from water (selectivity: Cu > Cr > Zn > Ni) [46]. Layered double hydroxide (LDH) prepared from Fe3+ and Ni2+ shows good adsorption of As and subsequent magnetic separation [47]. The magnetic zeolite composites are used for decontamination of heavy metals from water [48]. The composite materials of mesoporous magnetic MCM-41 with aminopropyls are used for selective removal of As(V), and Cr(VI) in presence of Cu(II) [49].
Magnetic nanoparticles are used as an adsorbent for the removal of various dyes and dyes stuff from aqueous solution. Removal of dyes from waste water has become a serious issue of concern because of its harmful impact on human. Dyes basically can be classified in to two categories, i.e., anionic dyes and cationic dyes.
Long et al. [50] synthesized Fe3O4@catechol/polyethylenimine (PEI) nanoparticles and tested for adsorption of three different kind of anionic dyes, i.e., methyl blue, orange G and amaranth and found the maximum adsorption capacities of 344.8, 192.3 and 146.2 mg/g, respectively. Saksornchai et al. [51] synthesized magnetite (Fe3O4) coated with cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) and tested for the adsorption of anionic dye Congo red (CR) removal. They found maximum adsorption capacity for CR dye to be 93.46 mg/g. Faraji et al. [52] synthesized triazine-based nitrogen-rich network-modified magnetic nanoparticles were synthesized for the adsorption of methyl orange. Sahraei et al. [53] reported the synthesis of magnetic bio-sorbent hydrogel beads based on modified gum tragacanth/graphene oxide for the removal of heavy metals and dyes from water. They found the adsorption capacity of 101.7 mg/g for Congo red dye. Ge et al. [54] fabricated Fe@MgO magnetic nanocomposites for the removal of heavy metal ions and dye from water. They found that the synthesized nanocomposite showed excellent adsorption capacity of 6947.9 mg/g for methylene orange. Wu et al. [55] fabricated multi-functional magnetic nanoparticle core covered with polyethylenimine (PEI) derived quaternary ammonium compounds (QAC) corona through electrostatic attraction for the removal of dyes and metal ion adsorption. The adsorption results corresponding to synthesized nanoparticle showed the maximum adsorption capacity of 653 mg/g for AF as a representative of dyes. Konicki et al. [56] synthesized Fe@graphite core shell nanocomposite for the removal of anionic dyes from aqueous solution. The synthesized nanoparticles were tested for the adsorption of two anionic dyes namely acid red 88 (AR88) and direct orange 26 (DO26) and the maximum adsorption capacity was found to be 63.7 mg/g and 42.7 for AR88 and DO26, respectively. Zhang et al. [57] synthesized the Fe3O4 nanoparticle modified with 3-glycidoxypropyltrimethoxysilane (GPTMS) and poly-lysine (P-Lys). They found that the synthesized MNPs could effectively remove anionic dyes including methyl blue (MB), orange I (OR-I), amaranth (AM) and acid red 18 (AR-18) from water solution.
Cationic dyes are most toxic because they can easily interact with negatively charged cell membrane surfaces, and also they can enter in to the cells and can concentrate in cytoplasm (Bayramoglu et al.) [58]. Ge et al. [59] have studied the adsorption of cationic dyes such as crystal violet, methylene blue and alkali blue 6B from aqueous solutions by use of polymer-modified magnetic nanoparticles. The cationic dyes could be quickly removed from water solution with high efficiency at pH 5–12. More significantly, the MNP showed high efficiency as a reusable adsorbent for fast and convenient removal of cationic dyes from water solution. Yan et al. [60] have synthesized full biodegradable magnetic adsorbent based on glutamic acid modified chitosan and silica coated Fe3O4 nanoparticles for removal of three different kinds of cationic dyes, methylene blue, crystal violet and cationic light yellow 7GL, from aqueous solutions. Chen et al. [61] have prepared magnetic adsorbent by fabrication of chitosan/polyacrylic acid multilayer onto magnetic Fe3O4 microspheres for removal of adsorption of two cationic dyes, methylene blue and crystal violet from aqueous solution. Amiri et al. [62] synthesized cobalt ferrite silica magnetic nanocomposite for the adsorption of Malachite green dye and found the adsorption capacity of 75.5 mg/g for that dye. Li et al. [63] synthesized wettable magnetic hypercrosslinked microporous nanoparticle for the water treatment. The synthesized nanoparticle consists of microporous organic polymer which combine sodium acrylate functionalized hypercrosslinked polymer with magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticle to form a hybrid. They tested the synthesized hybrid for the adsorption of Rhodamine B dye and found the maximum adsorption capacity of 216 mg/g. Singh et al. [64] had synthesized the superparamagnetic nanoparticles coated with green tea polyphenol by wet chemical method. They found that the particles have a very high adsorption capacity of (7.25 mg/g) for removal of methylene blue (MB) dye in wastewater treatment. Li et al. [65] synthesized magnetic peach gum bead bio-sorbent for the adsorption of MB dye and found the maximum adsorption capacity of 231.5 mg/g.
The presence of pharmaceuticals such as antibiotics, anticonvulsants, antipyretics drugs, hormones in surface and ground water possesses a major environmental challenge. Their contamination even at trace amount is a serious concern to the aquatic organisms as well.
Attia et al. [66] synthesized magnetic nanoparticles coated zeolite for the adsorption of pharmaceutical compounds from aqueous solution. They found that the synthesized magnetic nanoparticles can remove more that 95% of PPCPs in 10 min. Reddy et al. [67] reviewed spinal ferrite nanoparticles and found that SF and its derivatives can be used for remediation of various pollutants. Nadim et al. [68] Synthesized gallic acid coated magnetic nanoparticles (GA-MNP) and used as a photocatalyst for degradation of meloxicam; a commonly prescribed nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug.
Recently, M. Hayasi and his coworker described the use of magnetic poly (styrene-2-acrylamido-2-methyl propanesulfonic acid) (St-AMPS) as adsorbent for removal of the pharmaceuticals viz. ceftriaxone sodium, diclofenac sodium, and atenolol from water [69].
Liu [70] discussed the use of various magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) in pharmaceutical removal from waste water their recent review which are outlined below (Table 2).
Magnetic materials used | Pharmaceuticals present in water | Processes involved for decontamination | References |
---|---|---|---|
Nano zero-valent iron (nZVI) | Carbamazepine | Adsorption, chemical degradation (Fenton oxidation) | [71] |
Nano zero-valent iron (nZVI) and PEG and zeolite supported nZVI | Amoxicillin, ampicillin | Adsorption | [72] |
Zero valent iron (ZVI) | Carbamazepine | Chemical degradation | [73] |
Diazepam | Chemical degradation | [74] | |
Maghemite (Fe2O3) core confined in a silica porous layer | Atenolol, gemfibrozil, and sulfamethoxazole | Adsorption | [75] |
MFe2O4 (M = Fe, Mn, Co, Zn) | Tetracycline, oxytetracycline, and chlortetracycline | Adsorbent | [76] |
MnFe2O4/(activated carbon)AC | Sulfamethoxazole | Adsorption | [77] |
MgFe2O4/γ-Fe2O3 | Minocycline | Adsorption | [78] |
Fe3O4 MNPs in ultrasound (US)/H2O2 system | Sono-degradation | [79] | |
Fe3O4@α-MnO2 microspheres | Ciprofloxacin | Catalytic degradation | [80] |
Fe-ZnO | Diclofenac | Photocatalytic degradation | [81] |
Magnetic nanomaterials used for removal of pharmaceuticals.
Xu et al. [82] demonstrated that poly-allylamine-hydrochloride (PAAH) stabilized magnetic nanoparticles are powerful tools to remove pathogenic bacteria from drinking water with high efficiency and no significant toxicity was observed in the MNPs treated water. Over 99.5% of the pathogens (four main pathogens viz. Escherichia, Acinetobacter, Pseudomonas and Bacillus) can be removed when the bacterial count was less than 105 CFU/mL.
Zhang et al. [83] synthesized magnetic nanoparticle coated with Cu doped MgO through a hydrophilic carbon layer (Fe3O4@C@MgO-Cu). They found its potential application as disinfectant in water purification by examining the antibacterial activity of the Fe3O4@C@MgO-Cu composite toward Gram-negative Escherichia coli and Gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus.
Zhang et al. [84] synthesized magnetic poly-N,N′-[(4,5-dihydroxy-1,2-phenylene)bis(methylene)]bisacrylamide) (POHABA)-based core-shell nanostructure on the Fe3O4 core surface (Fe3O4@POHABA). The magnetic nanocomposite, Fe3O4@POHABA can be used in domestic water treatment against bacterial pathogens.
Rana et al. [85] synthesized ferromagnetic Ni-doped ZnO nanoparticles and applied as an antibacterial agent to control the growth of bacterial pathogens. They found the as synthesized material to be very effective against water related bacteria such as E. coli and V. cholera.
Shukla et al. [86] synthesized the iron oxide nanoparticles coated with chitosan oligosaccharide and used for the removal of pathogenic protozoan cysts, entamoeba cyst (which causes amebiasis) from water. They found that E. histolytica can be efficiently captured using the magnetic nanoparticles from contaminated water.
Zhang et al. [87] synthesized Fe3O4 nanoparticles surrounded with polyethylenimine-derived corona and found to be efficient in capturing the pathogens and heavy metals.
Zhan et al. [88] synthesized the amine-functionalized magnetic nanoparticle (Fe3O4-SiO2-NH2) and used for rapid removal of pathogenic bacteria and viruses. The magnetic materials can be effectively used to capture a wide range of pathogens including various bacteria such as S. aureus, E. coli O157:H7, P. aeuginosa, Salmonella, and B. subtilis.
Park et al. [89] developed a novel magnetic hybrid colloid (MHC) decorated with varying sized Ag nanoparticles. The MHC was prepared as a cluster of superparamagnetic Fe3O4 coated with silica shell. The MHC decorated with the Ag nanoparticle of 30 nm size (Ag30@MHC) exhibited the highest antimicrobial efficacy toward E. coli CN13 (6-log reduction) and the bacteriophage MS2 (2–3 log reduction).
Magnetic water treatment (MWT) is a new technique which is promising in environmental remediation in addition to its increased application in the area of medicine, agriculture and industrial process. The water molecules acquire unique physicochemical characteristics under the influence of the magnetic fields (MFs). It is a non-chemical method and the water molecules undergo change from their cluster of many loosely bound water molecules into very small, uniform and hexagonally organized clusters of molecules under the magnetic treatment [90]. These features of the magnetized water prevent the polluting agents to enter in to its cluster and also make their easy passage through the cells of plant as well as of animals. Moreover, the MFs have antimicrobial activity on water. Therefore, the magnetized water molecules depict as bio-friendly and eco-friendly compounds to environmental management as well as to plant and animal cells.
While taking sustainability in to consideration there are various factors over which it depends. Important factors include environmental impact on use of MNPs, toxicity associated with the MNPs, reusability, reactivity, adsorption capacity, biocompatibility, stability, etc. For example, uncoated nanoparticles are associated with some toxicity while coating can help them to make non-toxic. Similarly, their regeneration and reusability are the main factors for making them technically more viable and economically sustainable materials for commercial uses.
In this chapter the removal of water pollutants by using magnetic materials of zero valent iron, magnetite (Fe3O4), maghemite (γ-Fe2O3) as adsorbent, photocatalyst and coagulants have been described. The MNPs have been used in removal of water pollutants through their various surface functionalities (e.g., coating with polyphenols, amino acids, sugars, alkaloids, terpenoids, proteins, carbonyl, carboxyl, carbon, polysaccharides, and semiconductors) with desired size and shapes, and magnetic behavior. Looking in to the fast development of magnetic materials in different technological and scientific fields, magnetic nanomaterials appear to be extremely promising for water and wastewater treatment. The waste water treatment methods using these materials are fast, non-toxic, and eco-friendly as compared to the available physic-chemical treatments which make it attractive for materializing commercially. Their magnetic nature makes them attractive for waste water treatment because of their easy separation from aqueous medium after purification and can be reused in repeated treatment cycles. However, research for bulk production, controlling morphology, optimizing surface functionality and their stability, and biocompatibility should be essentially considered prior to commercial application from laboratory scale. Moreover, further studies needs to be addressed to detail mechanism of magnetic nanomaterials in water treatment. The magnetic nanoparticles and their composites with their high surface to volume ratio offer more surfaces for chemical as well as physical adsorption and thus show high reactivity which gives the prospects of using these materials in large scale removal of emerging water pollutants.
PID is regarded as the standard control structure of classical control theory. PID controllers are used successfully for single-input single-output (SISO) and linear systems due to their good performance and can be easily implemented. The control of complex dynamic systems using classic PID controllers is considered as a big challenge, where the stabilization of these systems requires applying a more robust controller technique. Many studies have proposed to develop a new hybrid PID controller with ability to provide better and more robust system performance in terms of transient and steady-state responses over the standard PID controllers. Lotfollahzade et al. [1] proposed a new LQR-PID controller to obtain an optimal load sharing of an electrical grid. The presented hybrid controller is optimized by Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) to compute the gain parameters of the PID controller. A new hybrid control algorithm was presented by Lindiya et al. for power converters [2]. They adopted a conventional multi-variable PID and LQR algorithm for reducing cross-regulation in DC-to-DC converters. Sen et al. introduced a hybrid LQR-PID controller to regulate and monitor the locomotion of a quadruped robot. The gain parameters of the hybrid controller is tuned using the Grey-Wolf Optimizer (GWO) [3]. In [4] a new PID and LQR control system was proposed to improve a nonlinear quarter car suspension system.
\nThe intent of this study is to design a new hybrid PID controller based on an optimal LQR state feedback controller for stabilization of 3DOF helicopter system. To this end an improvement in the system performance has been achieved in both the transient and steady-state responses. In the proposed system the classical PID and optimal LQR controller have been combined to formulate a hybrid controller system. Simulations were implemented utilizing Matlab programming environment to verify the efficiency and effectiveness of the proposed hybrid control method.
\nIn this section, basics and theory of integer and fractional order PID controllers are presented. Theory of an intelligent LQR controller, which is used with PID controller to combine a hybrid control system, is also introduced.
\nA PID is the most popular controller technique that is widely used in industrial applications due to the simplicity of its structure and can be realized easily for various control problems as the gain parameters of the controller are relatively independent [5, 6]. Basically, the controller provides control command signals \n
where \n
FOPID is a special category of PID controller with fractional order derivatives and integrals. Its concept was introduced by Podlubany in 1997. During the last decade, this controller approach has attracted the attention of control engineers in both academic and industrial fields. Compared with the classical PID controller, it offers flexibility in dynamic systems design and more robustness.
\nFractional order calculus is an environment of calculus that generates the derivatives or integrals of problem functions to non-integer (fractional) order. This fractional order mathematical operation allows to establish a more accurate and concise model than the classical integer-order method. Moreover, the fractional order calculus can also produce an effective tool for describing dynamic behavior for control systems [7].
\nFractional order calculus is a generalization of differentiation and integration to non-integer order fundamental operator which is denoted by \n
Grunwald – Letnikov (GL) definition:
\nwhere \n
Riemann-Liouville definition:
\nwhere \n
Laplace transform of differ-integral operator \n
Where \n
Fractional order PID controller denoted by \n
The block diagram of a FOPID structure.
Based on the above equation, it can be expected that the FOPID controller can enhance the performance of the control system due to more tuning knobs introduced. Taking the Laplace transform of Eq. (9), the system transfer function of the FOPID controller is given by:
\nWhere \n
PID controllers with fraction orders. (a) Classical. (b) Fractional order.
Linear quadratic regulator is a common optimal control technique, which has been widely utilized in various manipulating systems due to its high precision in movement applications [11]. This technique seeks basically a tradoff betwwen a stable performance and acceptable control input [12]. Using the LQR controller in the design control system requires all the plant states to be measurable as it bases on the full state feedback concept. Therefore, using the LQR controller to stabilize the 3DOF helicopter system based on the assumption that the system states are considered measurable. LQR approach includes applying the optimal control effort:
\nWhere \n
Where \n
Where \n
For \n
Based on the above expression, the control effort \n
so that the cost function Eq. (12) can be reformulated as in Eq. (16).
\nWhere \n
In this study, GA tuning approach has been invoked to tune the gain matrix of LQR controller used to approximate the gain parameters of PID controller for 3DOF helicopter system. GA is a global search optimization technique bases on the strategy of natural selection. This optimization method is utilized to obtain an optimum global solution for more control and manipulating problems. The procedure of GA approach includes three basic steps: selection, crossover and mutation, that constitute the main core of GA with powerful searching ability.
\nSelection: This step includes choosing individual genomes with high adaptive value from the current population to create mating pool. At present, there mainly are: sequencing choice, adaptive value proportional choice, tournament choice and so on. In order to avoid the best individuals of current population missing in the next generation due to destruction influence of crossover and mutation or selection error, De Jong put forward to the cream choice strategy [3xxx];
\nCrossover: This operation is the process of mimicking gene recombination of natural sexual reproduction, through combining the
Mutation: In this process one or more indivisual values in a chromosome are altered from its initial state. This can result in entirely new gene values being added to the gene pool. This stage is also important by the view of preventing the genes local optimal points.
\nApplying these main operations creates new individuals which could be better than their parents. Based on the requirements of desired response, the sequence of GA optimization technique is repeated for many iterations and finally stops at generating optimum solution elements for the application problems. The sequence of the GA tuning method is presented in Figure 3 [13, 14]. The steps of the GA loop are defined as follows:
Initial set of population.
Choose individuals for mating.
Mating the population to create progeny.
Mutate progeny.
Inserting new generated individuals into populations.
Are the system fitness function satisfied?
End search process for solution.
Process loop of GA optimization method.
In this study, the aim of using GA optimization method is to tune the elements of the state weighting matrix \n
PID controller is a simple manipulating technique that can be successfully implemented for one dimension control systems. For multi dimensions systems it can use a multi channel PID controller system to control the dynamic behavior of these systems. Currently, there is a considerable interest by many researchers in development new control approaches using PID controller. Xiong and Fan [15] proposed a new adaptive PID controller based on model reference adaptive control (MRAC) concept for control of the DC electromotor drive. They presented an autotuning algorithm that combines PID control scheme and MRAC based on MIT rule to tune the controller parameters. Modified PI and PID controllers are introduced to regulate output voltage of DC-DC converters using MRAC manipulating technique [16, 17]. The parameters of the controllers are adapted effectively using MIT rule. Based on the adapted controllers parameters an improvement in the regulation behavior of the converters has been investigated.
\nFurther improvement in the performance of the standard PID controller is also achieved by involving an integrator of order \n
In the last decades, a new hybrid controller scheme using PID technology is proposed in [18, 19, 20] for different applications. The structure of the presented hybrid controller system is constructed by combination between conventional PID controller and state feedback LQR optimal controller. The gain parameters of the PID controller used to achieve desired output response are determined based on optimal LQR theory.
\nIn this chapter, a hybrid PID controller based on LQR optimal technique is designed to stabilize 3DOF helicopter system. The proposed hybrid LQR-PID controller is optimized using GA optimization method, which is used to tune its gain parameters.
\nThe conceptual platform of 3DOF helicopter scheme is presented in Figure 4. It consists of an arm mounted on a base. The main body of the helicopter constructed of propellers driven by two motors mounted are the either ends of a short balance bar. The whole helicopter body is fixed on one end of the arm and a balance block installed at the other end.
\nPrototype model of 3DOF helicopter system.
The balance arm can rotate about the travel axis as well as slope on an elevation axis. The body of the helicopter is free to roll about the pitch axis. The system is provided by encoders mounted on these axes used to measure the travel motion of the arm and its elevation and pitch angle. The propellers with motors can generate an elevation mechanical force proportional to the voltage power supplied to the motors. This force can cause the helicopter body to lift off the ground. It is worth considering that the purpose of using a balance block is to reduce the voltage power supplied to the propellers motors. In this study, the nonlinear dynamics of 3DOF helicopter system is modelled mathematically based on developing the model of the system behavior for each of the axes.
\nThe free body diagram of 3DOF helicopter system based on elevation axis is shown in Figure 5. The movement of the elevation axis is governed by the following differential equations:
\nSchematic diagram of elevation axis model for 3DOF helicopter system.
Where \n
Consider the pitch schematic diagram of the system in Figure 6. It can be seen from the figure that the main torque acting on the system pitch axis is produced from the thrust force generated by the propeller motors. When \n
Schematic diagram of the pitch axis model for 3DOF helicopter scheme.
Where \n
Based on the assumption that the pitch angle \n
The free body diagram of the helicopter system dynamics based on the travel axis is presented in Figure 7. In this model, when \n
Schematic diagram of the travel rate axis model for 3DOF helicopter scheme.
The thrust forces of the two propeller motors \n
Where \n
Based on the assumption that the coupling dynamics, gravitational torque (\n
In order to design a state feedback controller based on LQR technique for 3DOF helicopter system, the dynamics model of the system should be formulated in state space form. In this study, the proposed hybrid control algorithm is investigated for the purpose of control of pitch angle, elevation angle and travel rate of 3DOF helicopter scheme by regulating the voltage supplies to the front and back motors. Let \n
Based on Eqs. (31)-(33), choosing these state variables yields the following system state space model:
\nThe general state and output matrix equations describing the dynamic behavior of the linear-time-invariant helicopter system in state space form are as follows:
\nWhere \n
In this study, for the purpose of control system design, the model of the system is formulated in state space form using the physical parameters values listed in Table 1 [21]. Based on Eq. (37) and using the parameters values in Table 1, the state equation of the system is given by Eq. (39):
\nSymbol | \nPhysical unit | \nNumerical values | \n
---|---|---|
\n\n | \nkg m2\n | \n1.8145 | \n
\n\n | \nkg m2\n | \n1.8145 | \n
\n\n | \nkg m2\n | \n0.0319 | \n
\nW\n | \nN | \n4.2591 | \n
\n\n | \nm | \n0.88 | \n
\n\n | \nm | \n0.35 | \n
\n\n | \nm | \n0.17 | \n
\n\n | \nN/V | \n12 | \n
Values of physical parameters of 3DOF helicopter system.
Based on step input, a hybrid controller is designed for the following desired performance parameters: rise time (\n
Under the assumption that the desired system states are zero the block diagram of the proposed helicopter control system based on the LQR controller is shown in Figure 8. The control system is analysed mathematically and then simulated using Matlab software tool to validate the proposed hybrid controller. Based on the desired performance parameters, which include rise and settling time, overshoot and error steady state, the fitness function of the control problem is formulated as follows:
\nLQR controller based on GA for 3DOF helicopter system.
where, \n
In this subsection, the gain parameters \n
GA tuning method. For this application, analyzing Eq. (15) yields the following control effort [22]:
\nwhere \n
If \n
In this study, for elevation angle, the control equation is based on the following PID control equation:
\nWhile the pitch angle is controlled by the following PD control equation:
\nThe travel rate is gonverned by the following PI control equation:
\nWhere \n
Summing the rows of (41) results the following [21]:
\nThe above equation can be written as
\nIt is obvious that Eqs. (43) and (49) have the same structure, this means that the gain parameters of the pitch PID controller can be obtained from the gain elements of the LQR controller. Thus, comparing Eq. (43) with Eq. (49), yields the following gain relationships:
\nThe block diagram of closed-loop control system for 3DOF helicopter system based on hybrid LQR-PID controller is shown in Figure 9. Taking Laplace transform for elevation axis model Eq. (31) yields the following equation:
\nControl system block diagram for helicopter elevation, pitch and travel axis using PID controller.
The transfer function of the elevation axis plant is given by:
\nThe transfer function of the PID controller is as follows:
\nwhere \n
Based on Eqs. (52) and (53), the open loop elevation transfer function becomes:
\nThe closed loop transfer function for elevation angle control is as follows:
\nSimilarly, the difference of the rows of Eq. (41) results in
\nSubstitution Eq. (47) in Eq. (45) results,
\nIt is clear that Eqs. (58) and (59) have exactly the same structure. Then, by comparing these equations, it can obtain the feedback gains for the PID controller from the LQR gains parameters as follows:
\nTaking Laplace transform for pitch axis model Eq. (32) yields:
\nThe transfer function for pitch axis model is given by:
\nThe transfer function of the PD controller is as follows:
\nwhere \n
The closed loop transfer function of pitch angle is given by:
\nTaking Laplace transform for travel axis model Eq. (33) results:
\nThe transfer function for travel axis model is given by:
\nThe transfer function of the PI controller is as follows:
\nwhere \n
The closed loop transfer function for travel angle is as follows:
\nIn order to validate the proposed helicopter stabilizing system, the LQR controller is analysed mathematically using Matlab tool. Based on objective function (J) and using the Matlab command “lqr” the elements of the LQR weighting matrices Q, R are tuned using GA optimization method. For this application, each chromosome in GA tuning approach is represented by nine cells which correspond to the weight matrices elements of the LQR controller as shown in Figure 10. By this representation it can adjust the LQR elements in order to achieve the required performance. The parameters of the GA optimization approach chosen for the tuning process of the helicopter control system are listed in Table 2. Converging elements of the LQR weight matrices \n
Definition of GA chromosome.
GA property | \nValue/Method | \n
---|---|
Population Size | \n20 | \n
Max No. of Gen. | \n100 | \n
Selection Method | \nNormalized Geo. Selection | \n
Crossover Method | \nScattering | \n
Mutation Method | \nUniform Mutation | \n
Parameters of GA tuning method.
PID parameters | \nRelationship | \nAbsolute Value | \n
---|---|---|
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n10.6463 | \n
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n2.3438 | \n
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n0.3302 | \n
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n5.3634 | \n
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n1.4799 | \n
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n0.7678 | \n
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n0.3230 | \n
Values of gain parameters for PID, PD and PI controllers.
Number of generation of GA-LQR parameters Q and R.
Based on the proposed fitness function stated in Eq. (40), the LQR weighting matrices \n
The feedback gain matrix of the LQR controller can be mathematically calculated using Eq. (13), where P matrix is the stabilizing solution of the Riccati equation stated in Eq. (14).
\nIn this application, by using the state matrix\n
Based on the feedback gain matrix and using Eq. (11), the LQR control effort vector for the 3DOF helicopter system is dertermined as follows:
\nBased on Eqs. (50), (60) and (71), the absolute values of PID, PD and PI gain parameters for elevation, pitch and travel axis model respectively for helicopter
\nsystem are listed in Table 3 [21]. Using the values in Table 1 and 3, the closed-loop transfer function of elevation, pitch and travel axis Eqs. (56), (65) and (70) become as in Eqs. (72), (73) and (74) respectively:
\nBased on bounded input signal, the elevation, pitch and travel axis model of 3DOF helicopter system are unstable as they give unbounded outputs. The output responses for elevation, pitch and travel angle are illustrated in the Figure 12. It can be say that the open loop helicopter system without control action is unable to provide a stable output response.
\nOpen loop response of Helicopter system.
In this study, in order to achieve a stable output, a hybrid control system using LQR based PID controller for 3DOF helicopter system is proposed to control the dynamic behaviour of the system. To validate the proposed helicopter stabilization system, the controller is simulated using Matlab programming tool. Three axis, elevation, pitch, travel rate, are considered in the simulation process of the control system. The performance of the helicopter balancing system is evaluated under unit step reference input using rise, settling time overshoot and steady state error parameters for the elevation, pitch and travel angles to simulate the desired command given by the pilot.
\nThis section deals with the simulation of LQR based PID controller used to control the position of helicopter elevation model. The parameters of the hybrid controller are tuned using GA optimization method. Figure 13 presents a tracking control curve of the demand input based on the PID controller using optimized gain parameters listed in Table 3 for helicopter elevation angle.
\nClosed-loop response of the elevation model system.
The simulation results show that the controller successed to guide the system output through the desired input trajectory effectively with negligible overshoot, short rise and settling time of 0.1 ms and 0.3 ms respectively.
\nIn this section, an optimized LQR-PD controller based on GA tuning approach is designed to control the dynamic model of helicopter pitch angle. Based on the optimized PD parameters stated in Table 3, the output response of the proposed helicopter tracking system is illustrated in Figure 14. It is obvious from the minifigure of the system response that the LQR-PD controller succeeded to force the pitch angle state of the helicopter system to follow the desired trajectory effectively without overshoot, shorter rise and settling time and zero steady state tracking error.
\nClosed-loop response of the pitch model system.
The control of the travel rate for the 3DOF helicopter system is governed by a GA-LQR based PI controller. The time response of the optimized PI tracking system using optimum gain parameters which are listed in Table 3. is shown in Figure 15. It can be noted from the miniplot of the system response that the optimised hybrid LQR-PI controller enabled the system output state to track the desired input trajectory without overshoot, and shorter rise and settling time with minimal steady state tracking error.
\nClosed-loop response of the travel model system.
The control inputs supplied to the propellers motors of the proposed 3DOF helicopter system are shown in Figure 16. Consequently, it can say that the control performance of optimised GA-LQR based PID, PD and PI controllers for helicopter elevation, pitch and travel axis model respectively was acceptable through tracking the system output states for the reference input efficiently. Based on the minifigures of Figures 13 and 14 and Figure 15, the performance parameters of PID, PD and PI controller for helicopter elevation, pitch and travel axis are listed in Table 4. From the response data of the controlled helicopter system in Table 4 it can be said that the hybrid controllers were able to provide robust and good tracking performance in both the transient and steady state responses.
\nConrol input of 3DOF helicopter control system.
Controller | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
---|---|---|---|
Elevation PID | \n0.343 | \n0.535 | \n1.1 | \n
Pitch PD | \n0.582 | \n1.05 | \n0 | \n
Travel PI | \n1.17 | \n12.4 | \n5.29 | \n
Values of performance elements s of controllers.
In this study, a new hybrid control methodology has been developed for complex dynamical systems through combinig the LQR optimal technique with traditional PID controller. An efficient hybrid control system has been designed to stabilize 3DOF helicopter systems. The dynamics of elevation, pitch and travel axis for a helicopter system is modeled mathematically and then formulated in state space form to enable utilizing state feedback controller technique. In the proposed helicopter stabilizing scheme, a combination of a conventional PID control with LQR state feedback controller is adopted to stabilize the elevation, pitch and travel axis of the helicopter scheme. The gain parameters of the traditional PID controller are determined from the gain matrix of state feedback LQR controller. In this research, the LQR controller is optimized by using GA tuning technique. The GA optimization method has been adopted to find optimum values for LQR gain matrix elements which are utilized to find best PID gain parameters. The output response of the optimized helicopter control system has been evaluated based on rise time, setting time, overshoot and steady state error parameters. The simulation results have shown the effectiveness of the proposed GA-LQR based PID controller to stabilize the helicopter system at desired values of the elevation and pitch angle and travel parameters.
\nIntechOpen implements a robust policy to minimize and deal with instances of fraud or misconduct. As part of our general commitment to transparency and openness, and in order to maintain high scientific standards, we have a well-defined editorial policy regarding Retractions and Corrections.
",metaTitle:"Retraction and Correction Policy",metaDescription:"Retraction and Correction Policy",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/retraction-and-correction-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"IntechOpen’s Retraction and Correction Policy has been developed in accordance with the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) publication guidelines relating to scientific misconduct and research ethics:
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\\n\\n1.2. REMOVALS AND CANCELLATIONS
\\n\\n2. STATEMENTS OF CONCERN
\\n\\nA Statement of Concern detailing alleged misconduct will be issued by the Academic Editor or publisher following a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct when:
\\n\\nIntechOpen believes that the number of occasions on which a Statement of Concern is issued will be very few in number. In all cases when such a decision has been taken by the Academic Editor the decision will be reviewed by another editor to whom the author can make representations.
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\\n\\nA Correction will be issued by the Academic Editor when:
\\n\\n3.1. ERRATUM
\\n\\nAn Erratum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter originates from the production process handled by the publisher.
\\n\\nA published Erratum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\\n\\n3.2. CORRIGENDUM
\\n\\nA Corrigendum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter is a result of an Author’s miscalculation or oversight. A published Corrigendum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\\n\\n4. FINAL REMARKS
\\n\\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\\n\\nIn the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
\\n\\nThe general principles set out above apply to Retractions and Corrections issued in all IntechOpen publications.
\\n\\nAny suggestions or comments on this Policy are welcome and may be sent to permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2017-09-11
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen’s Retraction and Correction Policy has been developed in accordance with the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) publication guidelines relating to scientific misconduct and research ethics:
\n\n1. RETRACTIONS
\n\nA Retraction of a Chapter will be issued by the Academic Editor, either following an Author’s request to do so or when there is a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct. Upon receipt of a report by a 3rd party, the Academic Editor will investigate any allegations of scientific misconduct, working in cooperation with the Author(s) and their institution(s).
\n\nA formal Retraction will be issued when there is clear and conclusive evidence of any of the following:
\n\nPublishing of a Retraction Notice will adhere to the following guidelines:
\n\n1.2. REMOVALS AND CANCELLATIONS
\n\n2. STATEMENTS OF CONCERN
\n\nA Statement of Concern detailing alleged misconduct will be issued by the Academic Editor or publisher following a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct when:
\n\nIntechOpen believes that the number of occasions on which a Statement of Concern is issued will be very few in number. In all cases when such a decision has been taken by the Academic Editor the decision will be reviewed by another editor to whom the author can make representations.
\n\n3. CORRECTIONS
\n\nA Correction will be issued by the Academic Editor when:
\n\n3.1. ERRATUM
\n\nAn Erratum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter originates from the production process handled by the publisher.
\n\nA published Erratum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n3.2. CORRIGENDUM
\n\nA Corrigendum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter is a result of an Author’s miscalculation or oversight. A published Corrigendum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n4. FINAL REMARKS
\n\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\n\nIn the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
\n\nThe general principles set out above apply to Retractions and Corrections issued in all IntechOpen publications.
\n\nAny suggestions or comments on this Policy are welcome and may be sent to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2017-09-11
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