The chemical analysis and pollutant removal methods.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9744",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"DNA - Damages and Repair Mechanisms",title:"DNA",subtitle:"Damages and Repair Mechanisms",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"DNA is the most important biomolecule ever discovered. Indeed, this molecule bears genetic information from one generation to another. In this regard, DNA bases have a key role in transferring genetic information and data safely. However, there are cellular, genetic, and environmental factors that may damage the different parts of DNA molecules. These damages may result in mutations and cell death. As such, several DNA repair mechanisms have evolved. Over three sections, this book examines many of these mechanisms.",isbn:"978-1-83881-094-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-093-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-095-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87549",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"dna-damages-and-repair-mechanisms",numberOfPages:234,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"470a5da792f88551c8380519604524a5",bookSignature:"Payam Behzadi",publishedDate:"May 19th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9744.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4051,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:9,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:9,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:20,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 27th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 15th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 14th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 2nd 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 3rd 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"45803",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Payam",middleName:null,surname:"Behzadi",slug:"payam-behzadi",fullName:"Payam Behzadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/45803/images/system/45803.jpg",biography:"Dr. Payam Behzadi was born in Tehran, Iran, in 1973. He began his collaboration with the Department of Microbiology, College of Basic Sciences, Shahr-e-Qods Branch, Islamic Azad University as a faculty member in 2004. He has a BSc and MSc in Microbiology and a Ph.D. in Molecular Biology and now continues his scientific activities in the position of assistant professor at Islamic Azad University. He has authored and edited more than twenty chapters and academic books and more than seventy original and review articles. His scientific research interests include urinary tract infections, antibiotics, bioinformatics, genetics, gene profiling, molecular biology, and cellular and molecular immunology. Dr. Behzadi trains as an ice skater in his free time.",institutionString:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"396",title:"Molecular Genetics",slug:"genomics-molecular-genetics"}],chapters:[{id:"74145",title:"Where Quantum Biochemistry Meets Structural Bioinformatics: Excited Conformationally-Tautomeric States of the Classical A·T DNA Base Pair",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94565",slug:"where-quantum-biochemistry-meets-structural-bioinformatics-excited-conformationally-tautomeric-state",totalDownloads:284,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This Chapter summarizes recent quantum-chemical (QM) investigations of the novel conformational and tautomeric states on the potential energy hypersurface of the classical A·T/A·U nucleobase pairs. For the first time, it was observed 28 local minima for each base pair excluding enantiomers - planar, non-planar base pairs and structures with wobble geometry. Considered excited conformationally-tautomeric states of the classical A·T DNA base pair have been revealed in the Nucleic Acid Database by structural bioinformatics. These data shed light on the biological significance of the unusual A·T/A·U nucleobase pairs for the functioning of the nucleic acids at the quantum level.",signatures:"Ol’ha O. Brovarets’, Kostiantyn S. Tsiupa and Dmytro M. Hovorun",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74145",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74145",authors:[{id:"212824",title:"Prof.",name:"Dmytro M.",surname:"Hovorun",slug:"dmytro-m.-hovorun",fullName:"Dmytro M. Hovorun"},{id:"329397",title:"Prof.",name:"Ol’ha O.",surname:"Brovarets’",slug:"ol'ha-o.-brovarets'",fullName:"Ol’ha O. Brovarets’"}],corrections:null},{id:"73555",title:"Origin of DNA Repair in the RNA World",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93822",slug:"origin-of-dna-repair-in-the-rna-world",totalDownloads:424,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The early history of life on Earth likely included a stage in which life existed as self-replicating protocells with single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) genomes. In this RNA world, genome damage from a variety of sources (spontaneous hydrolysis, UV, etc.) would have been a problem for survival. Selection pressure for dealing with genome damage would have led to adaptive strategies for mitigating the damage. In today’s world, RNA viruses with ssRNA genomes are common, and these viruses similarly need to cope with genome damage. Thus ssRNA viruses can serve as models for understanding the early evolution of genome repair. As the ssRNA protocells in the early RNA world evolved, the RNA genome likely gave rise, through a series of evolutionary stages, to the double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) genome. In ssRNA to dsDNA evolution, genome repair processes also likely evolved to accommodate this transition. Some of the basic features of ssRNA genome repair appear to have been retained in descendants with dsDNA genomes. In particular, a type of strand-switching recombination occurs when ssRNA replication is blocked by a damage in the template strand. Elements of this process appear to have a central role in recombinational repair processes during meiosis and mitosis of descendant dsDNA organisms.",signatures:"Harris Bernstein and Carol Bernstein",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73555",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73555",authors:[{id:"61946",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",surname:"Bernstein",slug:"carol-bernstein",fullName:"Carol Bernstein"},{id:"172285",title:"Dr.",name:"Harris",surname:"Bernstein",slug:"harris-bernstein",fullName:"Harris Bernstein"}],corrections:null},{id:"74873",title:"Super-Resolution Radiation Biology: From Bio-Dosimetry towards Nano-Studies of DNA Repair Mechanisms",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95597",slug:"super-resolution-radiation-biology-from-bio-dosimetry-towards-nano-studies-of-dna-repair-mechanisms",totalDownloads:394,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Past efforts in radiobiology, radio-biophysics, epidemiology and clinical research strongly contributed to the current understanding of ionizing radiation effects on biological materials like cells and tissues. It is well accepted that the most dangerous, radiation induced damages of DNA in the cell nucleus are double strand breaks, as their false rearrangements cause dysfunction and tumor cell proliferation. Therefore, cells have developed highly efficient and adapted ways to repair lesions of the DNA double strand. To better understand the mechanisms behind DNA strand repair, a variety of fluorescence microscopy based approaches are routinely used to study radiation responses at the organ, tissue and cellular level. Meanwhile, novel super-resolution fluorescence microscopy techniques have rapidly evolved and become powerful tools to study biological structures and bio-molecular (re-)arrangements at the nano-scale. In fact, recent investigations have increasingly demonstrated how super-resolution microscopy can be applied to the analysis of radiation damage induced chromatin arrangements and DNA repair protein recruitment in order to elucidate how spatial organization of damage sites and repair proteins contribute to the control of repair processes. In this chapter, we would like to start with some fundamental aspects of ionizing radiation, their impact on biological materials, and some standard radiobiology assays. We conclude by introducing the concept behind super-resolution radiobiology using single molecule localization microscopy (SMLM) and present promising results from recent studies that show an organized architecture of damage sites and their environment. Persistent homologies of repair clusters indicate a correlation between repair cluster topology and repair pathway at a given damage locus. This overview over recent investigations may motivate radiobiologists to consider chromatin architecture and spatial repair protein organization for the understanding of DNA repair processes.",signatures:"Jin-Ho Lee and Michael Hausmann",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74873",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74873",authors:[{id:"117296",title:"Prof.",name:"Michael",surname:"Hausmann",slug:"michael-hausmann",fullName:"Michael Hausmann"},{id:"343438",title:"MSc.",name:"Jin-Ho",surname:"Lee",slug:"jin-ho-lee",fullName:"Jin-Ho Lee"}],corrections:null},{id:"74778",title:"DNA Damage and Repair Mechanisms Triggered by Exposure to Bioflavonoids and Natural Compounds",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95453",slug:"dna-damage-and-repair-mechanisms-triggered-by-exposure-to-bioflavonoids-and-natural-compounds",totalDownloads:462,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Eukaryotic cells use homologous recombination (HR), classical end-joining (C-NHEJ), and alternative end-joining (Alt-EJ) to repair DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs). Repair pathway choice is controlled by the activation and activity of pathways specific proteins in eukaryotes. Activity may be regulated by cell cycle stage, tissue type, and differentiation status. Bioflavonoids and other environmental agents such as pesticides have been shown to biochemically act as inhibitors of topoisomerase II (Top2). In cells, bioflavonoids directly lead to DNA double-strand breaks through both Top2-dependent and independent mechanisms, as well as induce DNA damage response (DDR) signaling, and promote alternative end-joining and chromosome alterations. This chapter will present differences in expression and activity of proteins in major DNA repair pathways, findings of Top2 inhibition by bioflavonoids and cellular response, discuss how these compounds trigger alternative end-joining, and conclude with implications for genome instability and human disease.",signatures:"Donna Goodenow, Kiran Lalwani and Christine Richardson",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74778",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74778",authors:[{id:"322325",title:"Prof.",name:"Christine",surname:"Richardson",slug:"christine-richardson",fullName:"Christine Richardson"},{id:"322328",title:"Dr.",name:"Donna",surname:"Goodenow",slug:"donna-goodenow",fullName:"Donna Goodenow"},{id:"324559",title:"Ms.",name:"Kiran",surname:"Lalwani",slug:"kiran-lalwani",fullName:"Kiran Lalwani"}],corrections:null},{id:"76472",title:"Recent Perspectives in Radiation-Mediated DNA Damage and Repair: Role of NHEJ and Alternative Pathways",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96374",slug:"recent-perspectives-in-radiation-mediated-dna-damage-and-repair-role-of-nhej-and-alternative-pathway",totalDownloads:364,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Radiation is one of the causative agents for the induction of DNA damage in biological systems. There is various possibility of radiation exposure that might be natural, man-made, intentional, or non-intentional. Published literature indicates that radiation mediated cell death is primarily due to DNA damage that could be a single-strand break, double-strand breaks, base modification, DNA protein cross-links. The double-strand breaks are lethal damage due to the breakage of both strands of DNA. Mammalian cells are equipped with strong DNA repair pathways that cover all types of DNA damage. One of the predominant pathways that operate DNA repair is a non-homologous end-joining pathway (NHEJ) that has various integrated molecules that sense, detect, mediate, and repair the double-strand breaks. Even after a well-coordinated mechanism, there is a strong possibility of mutation due to the flexible nature in joining the DNA strands. There are alternatives to NHEJ pathways that can repair DNA damage. These pathways are alternative NHEJ pathways and single-strand annealing pathways that also displayed a role in DNA repair. These pathways are not studied extensively, and many reports are showing the relevance of these pathways in human diseases. The chapter will very briefly cover the radiation, DNA repair, and Alternative repair pathways in the mammalian system. The chapter will help the readers to understand the basic and applied knowledge of radiation mediated DNA damage and its repair in the context of extensively studied NHEJ pathways and unexplored alternative NHEJ pathways.",signatures:"Ajay Kumar Sharma, Priyanka Shaw, Aman Kalonia, M.H. Yashavarddhan, Pankaj Chaudhary, Arpana Vibhuti and Sandeep Kumar Shukla",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76472",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76472",authors:[{id:"262210",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sandeep",surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep Shukla"},{id:"340535",title:"Dr.",name:"Ajay",surname:"Sharma",slug:"ajay-sharma",fullName:"Ajay Sharma"},{id:"340537",title:"MSc.",name:"Priyanka",surname:"Shaw",slug:"priyanka-shaw",fullName:"Priyanka Shaw"},{id:"340539",title:"MSc.",name:"Aman",surname:"Kalonia",slug:"aman-kalonia",fullName:"Aman Kalonia"},{id:"340541",title:"Dr.",name:"M. H.",surname:"Yashavarddhan",slug:"m.-h.-yashavarddhan",fullName:"M. H. Yashavarddhan"},{id:"340543",title:"Dr.",name:"Pankaj",surname:"Chaudhary",slug:"pankaj-chaudhary",fullName:"Pankaj Chaudhary"},{id:"340544",title:"Prof.",name:"Arpana",surname:"Vibhuti",slug:"arpana-vibhuti",fullName:"Arpana Vibhuti"}],corrections:null},{id:"76434",title:"Interstrand Crosslink Repair: New Horizons of DNA Damage Repair",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97551",slug:"interstrand-crosslink-repair-new-horizons-of-dna-damage-repair",totalDownloads:338,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Since the dawn of civilization, living organisms are unceasingly exposed to myriads of DNA damaging agents that can temper the ailments and negatively influence the well-being. DNA interstrand crosslinks (ICLs) are spawned by various endogenous and chemotherapeutic agents, thus posing a somber menace to genome solidity and cell endurance. However, the robust techniques of damage repair including Fanconi anemia pathway, translesion synthesis, nucleotide excision and homologous recombination repair faithfully protect the DNA by removing or tolerating damage to ensure the overall survival. Aberrations in such repair mechanisms adverse the pathophysiological states of several hereditary disorders i.e. Fanconi Anemia, xeroderma pigmentosum, cerebro-oculo-facio-skeletal syndrome and cockayne syndrome etc. Although, the recognition of ICL lesions during interphase have opened the new horizons of research in the field of genetics but still the detailed analysis of conditions in which repair should occur is largely elusive.",signatures:"Amna Aqeel, Javaria Zafar, Naureen Ehsan, Qurat-Ul-Ain, Mahnoor Tariq and Abdul Hannan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76434",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76434",authors:[{id:"339017",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Amna",surname:"Aqeel",slug:"amna-aqeel",fullName:"Amna Aqeel"},{id:"346638",title:"MSc.",name:"Javaria",surname:"Zafar",slug:"javaria-zafar",fullName:"Javaria Zafar"},{id:"346641",title:"Ms.",name:"Qurat Ul Ain",surname:"Aqeel",slug:"qurat-ul-ain-aqeel",fullName:"Qurat Ul Ain Aqeel"},{id:"346642",title:"Ms.",name:"Noreen",surname:"Ehsan",slug:"noreen-ehsan",fullName:"Noreen Ehsan"},{id:"346644",title:"BSc.",name:"Abdul",surname:"Hannan",slug:"abdul-hannan",fullName:"Abdul Hannan"},{id:"346645",title:"Ms.",name:"Mahnoor",surname:"Tariq",slug:"mahnoor-tariq",fullName:"Mahnoor Tariq"}],corrections:null},{id:"74418",title:"DNA Repair Defects in Sarcomas",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94881",slug:"dna-repair-defects-in-sarcomas",totalDownloads:338,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"DNA repair pathway is considered to be one of the most important mechanisms that protect cells from intrinsic and extrinsic stresses. It has been established that DNA repair activity has a crucial role in the way that cancer cells respond to treatment. Sarcomas are a group of tumors with mesenchymal origin in which their association with DNA repair aberrations has been reported in numerous studies. Special attention has been focused on exploiting these alterations to improve the patient’s overall survival and overcome drug resistance in cancer. While there is a large degree of heterogeneity among different types of sarcomas, DNA repair alteration is found to be a common defect in the majority of patients. In this chapter, we will introduce and review some of the most important dysregulated components involved in the DNA repair system, and discuss their association with tumorigenesis, cancer aggressiveness, drug resistance, and overall prognosis in the patients with sarcomas.",signatures:"Niknam Riyahi, M. Reza Saadatzadeh, Khadijeh Bijangi-Vishehsaraei, Farinaz Barghi, Pankita H. Pandya and Karen E. Pollok",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74418",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74418",authors:[{id:"194099",title:"Dr.",name:"Karen",surname:"Pollok",slug:"karen-pollok",fullName:"Karen Pollok"},{id:"326911",title:"Dr.",name:"Niknam",surname:"Riyahi",slug:"niknam-riyahi",fullName:"Niknam Riyahi"},{id:"334990",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Reza",surname:"Saadatzadeh",slug:"m.-reza-saadatzadeh",fullName:"M. Reza Saadatzadeh"},{id:"334991",title:"Dr.",name:"Khadijeh",surname:"Bijangi-Vishehsaraei",slug:"khadijeh-bijangi-vishehsaraei",fullName:"Khadijeh Bijangi-Vishehsaraei"},{id:"334993",title:"MSc.",name:"Farinaz",surname:"Barghi",slug:"farinaz-barghi",fullName:"Farinaz Barghi"},{id:"334994",title:"Dr.",name:"Pankita",surname:"Pandya",slug:"pankita-pandya",fullName:"Pankita Pandya"}],corrections:null},{id:"73467",title:"Epigenetics and DNA Repair in Cancer",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94030",slug:"epigenetics-and-dna-repair-in-cancer",totalDownloads:429,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cells can use chemical modifications in chromatin to regulate accessibility to DNA to the repair complexes and to prevent transcription in case of damage. We analyzed the relationship between repair systems and epigenetic mechanisms in DNA and RNA. We searched the PubMed database for genes involved in DNA damage response (DDR) and methylation in mRNA and DNA repair, in cancer. Epigenetic modifications, particularly histone modifications and nucleosome remodeling, trigger a signaling cascade of kinases in DNA damage response (DDR) toward efficient repair. SWI/SNF remodelers promote the recruitment of repair factors in DNA, such as DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) that activate kinases in DDR. RNA methylation via m6A has recently attracted attention as a possible alternative pathway for repairing DNA damage. m6A is a dynamic methylation mark on mRNA that accumulates after UV irradiation and regulates transcription to facilitate DNA repair. Currently, studies seek to understand how signaling pathways activate proteins in the early response to damage. The repair maintains DNA integrity, which is a challenge in cancer because this process also represents a potential barrier to anticancer agents. The impact that epigenetic regulation can have on DNA repair is beginning to be understood.",signatures:"María José López-Ibarra and Marta Elena Hernández-Caballero",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73467",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73467",authors:[{id:"100782",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",surname:"Hernández-Caballero",slug:"elena-hernandez-caballero",fullName:"Elena Hernández-Caballero"},{id:"329688",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Jose",surname:"Lopez-Ibarra",slug:"maria-jose-lopez-ibarra",fullName:"Maria Jose Lopez-Ibarra"}],corrections:null},{id:"74923",title:"Genomic Instability and DNA Repair in Cancer",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95736",slug:"genomic-instability-and-dna-repair-in-cancer",totalDownloads:412,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Mutations in genome are essential for evolution but if the frequency of mutation increases it can evince to be detrimental, for a steady maintenance there exist a detailed complex system of surveillance and repair of DNA defects. Therefore, fault in DNA repair processes raises the probability of genomic instability and cancer in organisms. Genome instability encompasses various aspects of mutations from indels to various somatic variants. The chapter tries to present an overview of how cancer puts up several ways to ensure suppression of the fidelity in our DNA repair system. Cancer cells assure failure of efficient DNA repair mechanisms by innumerous ways, by mutation and epigenetic modifications in repair genes themselves or genes controlling their expression and functions, other by some catastrophic events like kataegis, chromothripsis and chromoplexy. These are clustered mutations taking place at a particular genomic locus which deluge the repair process. Cancer generation and evolution is dependent largely on genome instability, so it applies many strategies to overcome one of its basic obstacles that is DNA repair, targeting these DNA repair genes has also demonstrated to be helpful in cancer therapy; but an intricate understanding of recalcitrant process and mechanisms of drug resistant in cancer will further enhance the potential in them.",signatures:"Bhaswatee Das, Bipasha Choudhury, Aditya Kumar and Vishwa Jyoti Baruah",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74923",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74923",authors:[{id:"247053",title:"Dr.",name:"Aditya",surname:"Kumar",slug:"aditya-kumar",fullName:"Aditya Kumar"},{id:"330958",title:null,name:"Vishwa Jyoti",surname:"Baruah",slug:"vishwa-jyoti-baruah",fullName:"Vishwa Jyoti Baruah"},{id:"343519",title:"Ms.",name:"Bhaswatee",surname:"Das",slug:"bhaswatee-das",fullName:"Bhaswatee Das"},{id:"343520",title:"Ms.",name:"Bipasha",surname:"Choudhury",slug:"bipasha-choudhury",fullName:"Bipasha Choudhury"}],corrections:null},{id:"73335",title:"The Striatal DNA Damage and Neurodegenerations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93706",slug:"the-striatal-dna-damage-and-neurodegenerations",totalDownloads:606,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are produced during normal metabolic reactions in living cells. ROS causes oxidative damage to many types of biomolecules. An age-related increase in oxidative damage to DNA and RNA has been described in the human neurons, which play a vital role in the progression of age-associated neurodegeneration. As dopamine metabolism is believed to be the primary source of ROS, oxidative insults correlate with dopamine levels in the striatum during the progression of neurodegenerative diseases. Parallel changes in dopamine concentrations and vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2) binding densities in the striatum were observed. Besides Fenton oxidation taking place, the packing of cytosolic dopamine into synaptic vesicles by VMAT2 inhibits its autoxidation and subsequent decay of dopaminergic neurons. The female bias in the DNA damage in the late-stage Parkinson disease (PD) patients suggests that the sex-determining region of the Y chromosome (SRY) genes are critically involved. ROS are involved in regulating the rate of the aging procession in healthy cohorts and an increased life span of patients with neurodegenerative diseases via stimulation of protective stress responses. Moreover, the DNA repair pathway’s mechanism, as genetic modifiers determine the age at onset through a ROS-inducing mutation.",signatures:"Huifangjie Li and Jinbin Xu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73335",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73335",authors:[{id:"322747",title:"Prof.",name:"Jinbin",surname:"Xu",slug:"jinbin-xu",fullName:"Jinbin Xu"},{id:"322748",title:"Dr.",name:"Huifangjie",surname:"Li",slug:"huifangjie-li",fullName:"Huifangjie Li"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7452",title:"Microbiology of Urinary Tract Infections",subtitle:"Microbial Agents and Predisposing Factors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e99363f3cb1fe89c406f4934a23033d0",slug:"microbiology-of-urinary-tract-infections-microbial-agents-and-predisposing-factors",bookSignature:"Payam 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The interaction between the etiological agent Trypanosoma cruzi and its invertebrate and vertebrate hosts involves the regulation of the parasite virulence and host immune responses. T. cruzi presents mechanisms to evade host defenses, including resistance to oxidative species and vesicles secretion, among many others. In this context, a better understanding of the biochemical and molecular features of the parasite’s success inside its hosts could contribute to the development of novel anti-T. cruzi strategies such as prototypes of drugs and vaccines. This book discusses Chagas disease and its etiological agent, including information on relevant clinical aspects such as diagnosis, treatment, biomarkers, and so on. It also presents information about cellular, molecular, and biochemical characteristics of the parasite-host interactions.",isbn:"978-1-80355-691-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-690-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-692-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98175",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"chagas-disease-from-cellular-and-molecular-aspects-of-trypanosoma-cruzi-host-interactions-to-the-clinical-intervention",numberOfPages:182,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"b9bf20f391782bc73924ff9bfb3ccbeb",bookSignature:"Rubem Menna-Barreto",publishedDate:"July 13th 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11377.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:240,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 6th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 3rd 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 2nd 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 23rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 22nd 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"9 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Menna-Barreto received his PhD in cellular and molecular biology from Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Brazil. Full researcher in cell biology and protozoology, author of 118 articles in indexed international journals.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"174902",title:"Dr.",name:"Rubem",middleName:null,surname:"Menna-Barreto",slug:"rubem-menna-barreto",fullName:"Rubem Menna-Barreto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/174902/images/system/174902.jpg",biography:"Rubem Menna-Barreto graduated in Biological Sciences from Universidade Santa Úrsula, Brazil, in 2003. He obtained a master\\'s degree (2006) and a doctorate (2008) in Cellular and Molecular Biology, from Instituto Oswaldo Cruz (IOC), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, in 2006 and 2008, respectively. He obtained a post-doctorate from the Institute of Medical Biochemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 2010. He is currently a senior researcher at Fundação Oswaldo Cruz and a permanent advisor to the Post-Graduation Program in Cellular and Molecular Biology and Parasitic Biology, IOC. He is also a member of the Society for Redox Biology and Medicine and the Brazilian Society of Protozoology. His experience involves protozoology, chemotherapy, electron microscopy, and mitochondrial metabolism. 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The principles of Green Chemistry consist of 12 aspects, including [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]:
Pollution Prevention/Waste minimization,
Atom Economy,
Less Hazardous Chemical Synthesis.
Designing Safer Chemicals,
Safer Solvents and Auxiliaries,
Design for Energy Efficiency,
Use of Renewable Feedstocks,
Reduce Derivatives,
Catalysis,
Design for Degradation,
Real-time analysis for Pollution Prevention, and.
Inherently Safer Chemistry for Accident Prevention.
Principle no.1 refers that chemical pollution in the environment has to be prevented by minimizing waste from industrial production, chemical analysis laboratories, hospital activities, and many others. Some believe that it is better to prevent waste generation than to treat or clean up waste after it has been generated.
In principle no.2, it is presented that synthetic methods should be designed to maximize the incorporation of all materials used in the process into the final product. Hence no waste or minimum waste has resulted.
Principle no.3 suggests that whenever practicable, synthetic methodologies should be designed to use and generate substances that possess little or no toxicity to human health and the environment.
Based on principle no.4, it is illustrated that chemical products should be designed to preserve efficacy of the function while reducing toxicity. Green Chemists make sure that the things that we synthesize not only do what they are supposed to do, but they do it safely.
In Principle no.5, it is described that the use of auxiliary substances (solvents, separation agents, etc.) should be made unnecessary whenever possible and, when used, innocuous.
It is suggested by Principle no.6, that energy requirements should be recognized for their environmental and economic impacts and should be minimized. Synthetic methods should be conducted at ambient temperature and pressure.
Principle no.7 refers that raw material or feedstock should be renewable rather than depleting whenever technically and economically practical. Green chemists look for alternative sources for making materials. Renewable feedstocks (corn, potatoes, biomass) can be used to make many products: fuels (ethanol and bio-diesel), plastics, and more.
It is implied by principle no. 8, that unnecessary derivatization (blocking group, protection/deprotection, temporary modification of physical/chemical processes) should be avoided whenever possible.
Principle no.9 refers that in chemistry and biology, catalysis is the acceleration (increase in rate) of a chemical reaction by means of a substance, called a catalyst, which is itself not consumed by the overall reaction. Using catalysts can reduce energy, increases efficiency, and reduces by-product formation, which further generates energy efficiency and waste minimization.
Principle no.10 expresses that chemical products should be designed so that at the end of their function they do not persist in the environment and instead break down into innocuous degradation product. Design for degradation means that when green chemists design a new chemical (i.e., a pharmaceutical drug or medicine) or material (i.e., a new plastic) – they design it so that it breaks down at the end of its useful lifetime.
In principle no.11, it is messaged that real-time analysis for a chemist is the process of checking the progress of chemical reactions as it happens. Analytical methodologies need to be further developed to allow for real-time in-process monitoring and control prior to the formation of hazardous substances. Knowing when your product is “done” can save a lot of waste, time, and energy.
Principle no.12 infers that substance and the form of a substance used in a chemical process should be chosen so as to minimize the potential for chemical accidents, including releases, explosions, and fires.
The 12 principles of the Green Chemistry enable people to protect the planet from chemical threats and energy crisis, as well as to find creative ways to reduce chemical waste, conserve energy, and replace hazardous substances [2]. Hence, all human activities should be based on or considered to the all or some of the 12 principles of the Green Chemistry. Some of the activities involving chemicals are material production/synthesis, chemical analysis, and chemical pollutant removal/treatment. In this Chapter, only chemical analysis and chemical pollutant removal or treatment methods are presented.
Many chemical analysis methods are recognized that are frequently used in a variety of fields including environment, health, food, mining, even archeology [6]. The analysis of chemical methods is usually conducted for identification of a certain chemical or some chemicals as well as for determination of the chemical concentration in the sample(s) [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]. The chemical analysis methods widely used involve simple as well as advanced technologies [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]. The conventional methods usually use more chemicals and auxiliaries [11], hence further resulting in the toxic chemical waste and wastewater, which create pollution [8, 9]. In contrast, the instrumental chemical analysis methods need less chemicals but may consume more energy [9, 10, 12]. The chemical waste and wastewater and inefficient energy are opposite to the principles of the Green Chemistry, which are waste minimization or pollution prevention, safer solvents and auxiliaries, and efficient energy [8, 9].
In order to reduce chemical waste, conserve energy, and replace hazardous substances, evaluation of some chemical analysis methods is required. It is important, therefore, to recognize the chemical analysis methods that are less suitable and suitable to the principles of the Green Chemistry. The ways to make the chemical analysis methods to be green are also essential to be explored and further to be used.
In addition, a lot of human activities involving chemical processes such as industry, mining, medical, and transportation, always result in chemical waste, that can be formed as gas/particulate, liquid and solid. The chemical waste or wastewater disposed of into the environment without any proper treatment lead to serious pollution [13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18].
The high air pollution can generate a variety of adverse health outcomes. It increases the risk of respiratory infections, heart disease, and lung cancer [13, 14]. The sources of air pollution vary from small units of cigarettes and natural sources such as volcanic activities to large volume of emissions from motor engines of automobiles and industrial activities. Both short and long-term exposure to air pollutants have been associated with health impacts. The most health-harmful pollutants – closely associated with excessive premature mortality – are fine PM2.5 particles that penetrate deep into lung passageways [14].
The serious water pollution due to the inadequately treated or treated industrial wastewater effluents may cause eutrophication in the receiving water bodies and also form a favorable condition for toxin-producing waterborne pathogens [15, 16, 17, 18]. The chemicals in wastewater usually comprise of heavy metals and organic compounds [14, 17].
The release of heavy metals into wastewater through human and industrial activities has become a major problem both for humans and aquatic lives. Some negative impacts of heavy metals on aquatic ecosystems include the death of aquatic life, algal blooms, habitat destruction from sedimentation, debris, increased water flow, and other short- and long-term toxicity from chemical contaminants [17, 18]. Severe effects on human health may include reduced growth and development, cancer, organ damage, and nervous system damage [17, 18]. Among the heavy metals, hexavalent chromium is ranked among the top sixteen toxic pollutants that have harmful effects on human health. High chromium dosage has been reported to cause damage to human kidney and the liver, and at low concentration, it causes skin irritation and ulceration. Exposure to high chromium concentration also causes cancer in the digestive tract and lungs [18].
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds of anthropogenic origin that resist degradation and accumulate in the food chain, and in extreme cases, death [13, 14]. Owing to their toxicity, they can pose a threat to humans and the environment. Some of the POPs polluting water are pentachlorophenol, DDT, hexachlorocyclohexanes, hexachlorobenzene, heptachlor, polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, polychlorinated terphenyls, polybrominated diphenylethers, polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxins, dibenzofurans, and short-chain chlorinated paraffins [14].
Therefore, removal of chemicals from wastewater before reaching ecosystem is urgent. Many methods for waste treatment are frequently reported, including conventional and advanced methods [19, 20, 21]. The conventional methods usually need more chemicals and so that dispose of chemical waste than the advanced methods [21]. The advanced methods use more energy such as light and high temperature than the conventional methods [21].
Using many chemicals and high energy is unexpected because these against the principles of the Green Chemistry [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. It is still necessary to expose the chemical pollutant treatment methods that do not fully follow and follow the principles of the Green Chemistry. By knowing the greener pollutant removal methods, people can choose to use them, and further can prevent the environmental pollution and energy crisis.
Under the circumstances, in the following sections, some chemical analysis and pollutant removal methods that have unsuitableness or suitableness procedures toward some of the Green Chemistry principles are described, and the ways to substitute the less green with the greener methods are also presented. The chemical analysis and pollutant removal methods discussed are presented in the table below (Table 1).
No | The methods | Function | Greenness |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Volumetric | Quantitative chemical analysis | Less |
2 | Atomic absorption spectrophotometric | Quantitative chemical analysis | Less |
3 | X-Ray Fluorescence | Quantitative chemical analysis | Green |
4 | X-Ray diffraction | Identification | Green |
5 | Fourier Transform Infrared | Identification | Green |
The chemical analysis and pollutant removal methods.
Green chemical analysis is an analysis procedure that avoids or reduces the undesirable environmental side effects of chemical analysis while preserving the classic analytical parameters of accuracy, sensitivity, selectivity, and precision [9, 10]. The goal of green analytical chemistry is to use analytical procedures that generate less hazardous waste and that are safer to use and more benign to the environment. The main analytical result is related to an increase in analysis reliability, higher precision, and time-saving, which very positively combines with a substantial reduction of waste [9, 10]. The Green chemical analysis should apply at least four Green Chemistry principles, from the 12 principles [10], which are:
waste minimization or pollution prevention or prevention of waste generation (no. 1).
safer solvents and auxiliaries (no. 5),
design for energy efficiency (no. 6), and
safer chemistry to minimize the potential of chemical accidents (no. 12).
The chemical analysis methods can be categorized into conventional and instrumental methods, which are used whether for identification and concentration determination purposes [6, 7, 11, 12]. In this section, the conventional analysis method that is evaluated regarding greenless or greenness is volumetric, since it is widely used in environmental and food fields. Meanwhile, the instrumental methods discussed are limited to atomic absorption spectrophotometric the (AAS), X-ray fluorescence (XRF) Infrared spectrometry (IR), and X-ray diffraction (XRD), due to their intensively use in various fields.
Volumetric is a chemical analysis method based on the reaction between analytes with the respective standard solution placed in a burette. This method is usually performed with large volume, and sometimes uses hazardous auxiliary. The solutions both standard and analyte, at the end of the process, become harmful wastewater. Although categorized into old or conventional method, volumetric is still frequently used as a standard method in environmental, food, and mineral analysis [8, 11].
In the environmental field, volumetric is placed as a standard method for chemical oxygen demand (COD) assay. COD level represents the quantity of organic and oxidizable inorganic chemicals polluting sample water. A commonly used oxidant in the COD assay is potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) in combination with boiling sulfuric acid (H2SO4) [11]. It is clear that this procedure uses the toxic and carcinogenic K2Cr2O7 and corrosive sulfuric acid as the auxiliaries, which is against the Green Chemistry Principle number 5 [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. Further, a large volume of K2Cr2O7 and H2S2O4 solutions are usually used, which results in a large volume of the corresponded chemical wastewater. This resultant of the wastewater will advance to create environmental pollution, which clearly is not suitable to the Green Chemistry Principle number 1 (Figure 1) [1, 2, 3, 4, 5].
Titration technique [
Volumetric method is also used in food analysis, that is to determine saponification number. The saponification number represents an indication of the nature of the fatty acid’s constituent of fat in coconut oil, olive oil, and sesame oil. In this procedure, KOH or NaOH, HCl, ethanol, and ether have to be used in large volumes. The use of the corrosive NaOH/KOH will leave the poison waste, which is unsuitable with principle no 1. In addition, since the procedure also uses the hazardous solvents, the procedure is contradiction with principle no 5.
The COD measurement is essential in monitoring the environmental quality and the determination of saponification number has an important role in food quality, so greenings the procedures are required. Greening analysis methods generally can be conducted in several ways [9, 10], such as:
modifying an old method to incorporate procedures that either use less hazardous chemicals or use lesser amounts of hazardous chemicals.
developing new analytical methodologies; instrumental methods in analysis is a decrease in sample volume needed for analysis.
use of direct techniques of analysis,
i.e., different laser-spectroscopic methods
or solventless processes of analysis
In the case of COD determination, the greening procedure can be conducted by reducing the quantity or volume of the reagent or substituting the toxic reagent with the saver or less toxic one. The strong oxidant but toxic K2Cr2O7 can be substituted with KMnO4 [4]. The other way is by applying a smaller volume of the reagents, which hence results in low volume of the wastewater or minimize the wastewater. Using instrumental method to determine saponification number, such as gas chromatography [6], which is greener, is also possible.
Atomic absorption spectrophotometric (AAS) method provides concentration data of metals dissolved in the solution. Accordingly, solid samples such as soils, food, minerals, etc. have to be destructed to form a clear solution containing dissolved metal ions [12, 13].
In the AAS method, the dissolved metals have to exist in atomic form. The atomization of the metal ions requires high temperature, which can be from flame or from electric thermal, and flameless conditions [13]. In AAS method, chemicals are not required [12, 13] that can prevent waste generation, following principle no.1 [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. It is clearly suggested that the method falls into a green chemical analysis method.
The atomization of most metal ions usually takes place at high temperature, about 2000–2500°C which can be provided by flame [13], as illustrated by Figure 2, and also can be from electric from graphite furnace. The high-temperature flame, in addition to consumes high energy also generates potential accidents, which are contrary to the principle number 6 and 12, respectively. The high electricity consumption is not in accordance to the principle no 6. It is concluded that based on the energy aspect, AAS is included as a less green method. Additionally, among the metal ions, mercury is the liquid metal at room temperature allowing it to evaporate at high temperature. Accordingly, the atomization of mercury cannot be conducted at high temperature, but to be performed by reducing it to form an atomic phase at room temperature, then called flameless atomization [13]. Accordingly, flameless AAS seems to be greener than the flame one in terms of energy efficiency.
Flame for atomization in AAS analysis.
XRF method is used for the determination of the elemental concentration, whether metals, metalloids, and non-metals. This method can be used for measuring solid, liquid, and aqueous solutions. The solid samples can be directly measured, and no needs to be prepared into the aqueous solutions, and hence no chemicals are used. Additionally, all metals, metalloids, and non-metals in the samples can be directly measured without any atomization to form elements [13]. It is clear hence that XRF is greener method than AAS to get the same information.
XRD can only be used for crystalline solid samples and that can be directly measured. In this method, chemicals are not required, avoiding it to result in waste. The samples have to be powdered with 100–250 mesh in size. The information given by this instrument is the type of crystal samples [13]. This method does not result in any chemical waste preventing environmental pollution.
However, some believe that the X-ray is a hazardous ray, but in the XRF and XRD instruments, the ray is strictly prevented to irradiate objects including people surrounding. Hence, these methods are in accordance with the principle of Green Chemistry no 12.
FTIR is a spectrophotometric method required to detect the characteristic bonds in molecules, which can further be used for the identification of the molecules. The samples analyzed can be liquid or solid. In the analysis proses, the liquid samples are placed in cuvettes, while the solid powdered is pelleted with KBr matrix [13]. This method does not need any chemicals and is operated with the low energy infrared. It is obvious that this spectrophotometric method meets the principles no. 1 and no. 6 of the green chemistry.
Human activities in hospitals, mining, variety of industries, and other fields almost always result in chemical waste and wastewater. The chemical waste can be toxic heavy metals, hazardous dyes, and persistent organic compounds. These unexpected chemicals adhere human health and ecosystem, which are essential to be treated or removed before entering the environment [14, 15, 16, 17, 18].
Several pollutant treatment/removal methods are recognized that are related to conventional and advanced technologies [20, 21, 22, 23]. The conventional methods are represented by coagulation and adsorption, and the advanced methods discussed in this chapter consist of photocatalytic -degradation and photo-oxidation, categorized into advance oxidation processes (AOPs).
Coagulation is essentially a chemical process. It is the destabilization of colloids by the addition of chemicals to neutralize the negative charges of the colloids and to consolidate suspended contaminants for easy removal from water [23, 24, 25, 26]. The chemicals are known as coagulants that fall into two categories that are inorganic and organic materials. Frequently used inorganic coagulants include aluminum sulfate, aluminum sulfate, aluminum chloride, and ferric sulfate [24]. Examples of common organic coagulants are polyamines, melamine-formaldehyde, and tannins [25]. Generally speaking, anionic coagulants are suitable to catch mineral particles, while cationic coagulants can capture organic colloids. Inorganic coagulants are usually cost-effective and can be used in a wider variety of applications [24, 25, 26]. However, the inorganic coagulants are usually health hazardous and transferred into hazardous sludge in large volume. This is used for removing particles, colloids, or oily materials in suspension. The process of coagulation is illustrated in Figure 2. From figure, it can be seen that at the end of the process, large amount of toxic sludge is produced, from the colloidal pollutant and the chemical coagulant. This sludge can be categorized as solid toxic waste. Hence coagulation is opposite to the principle of Green Chemistry no 1.
To make the method greener, the toxic solid waste has to be treated properly, such as by solidification method. In the solidification, the solid waste is mixed with limestone and cement to form a compact and stable solid. The compact and stable solid waste can be avoided from releasing into the environment (Figure 3).
Coagulation process [
Adsorption is a process that leads to transfer of a molecule or an ion from a fluid bulk to solid surface. This can occur because of physical forces or chemical bonds. In the simple term, adsorption is the attraction of ions or molecules onto the surface of a solid [27, 28]. Adsorption takes place when ions or molecules in a liquid bind themselves to the surface of a solid substance. The solids are called adsorbents, which have a very high internal surface area that permits adsorption. The adsorbent materials known are natural or synthetic zeolites, natural clay minerals, silica gel, activated aluminum, and silicic acid [28].
Adsorption is believed as a simple and effective method to remove chemical or toxic pollutants. This method is most commonly implemented for the removal of low concentration of non-degradable organic compounds from groundwater, drinking water preparation, process water or tertiary cleansing after, for example, biological water purification [28, 29].
Furthermore, green adsorbents have also been developed, including bio sorbents prepared from Andean Sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.) shell biomass [30] and agricultural waste [31]. The adsorbents were prepared from the waste that are hazardous material free and low cost. It is obvious that such adsorbents well agree with the Green Chemistry principle no. 1, no. 3, and no. 5.
The adsorbents are usually non-toxic and low-cost materials. However, after a period of time (from minutes to hours) of the adsorption process, the adsorbent has been saturated with toxic pollutants, generating hazardous sludge or solid waste (Figure 4). It is clear as well that adsorption is less green method. The greening method can be conducted by converting the hazardous solid waste into a compact and stable solid material, preventing it to release into the environment.
Simple illustration of adsorption process.
Advanced oxidation processes are based on the generation of OH radicals that are very reactive, non-specific, and strong oxidant. The strength of the OH radical is indicated by the high standard reduction potential (E), as 2.80 V, which is higher than the standard reduction potential (E) of ozone (2.07 V), known as strong oxidizing agent [32]. AOPs are considered powerful methods for degradation of various organic pollutants due to their ability for removing almost any organic contaminant. A great number of methods are classified under the broad definition of AOPs based on the oxidizing agents applied [32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50].
Most of them use a combination of strong oxidizing agents (e.g., H2O2, O3) with catalysts (e.g., transition metal ions) and irradiation (e.g., ultraviolet, visible) [32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47]. A combination of H2O2 and Fe(II) ion transition metal known as Fenton agent is used Fenton process. When the Fenton process is accompanied by ultraviolet or visible light, the process is named as photo-Fenton. The process involving TiO2 photocatalyst and ultraviolet light irradiation is drawn as a photocatalysis process. Using O3 as oxidant in the degradation process is called ozonation. Oxidizing agents from metals, metal oxides, and graphene can also be included in the AOPs.
Fenton oxidation process is a catalytic reaction of H2O2 with ferrous ions, that predominantly produces OH radicals as the central oxidizing species, and ferric ions as shown in Eq. (1). Then the ferric ions are reduced back by H2O2 into ferrous ions, as presented by Eq. (2) [32, 33, 34, 35, 36].
The above reaction results in the continuous support of Fe2+ iron for the direct Fenton reaction, thus minimizing the required Fe2+ concentration, enhancing the catalytic oxidation cycle, and providing additional •OH [33].
Photo-Fenton process involves a combination of Fenton reagents (Fe2+ + H2O2) and UV–visible radiation (ƛ < 600 nm) that gives rise to extra OH radicals by two additional reactions. The reaction of OH radicals’ formation due to the photodecomposition of H2O2 by UV light, as presented in Eq. (3) [33].
Fenton, as well as Photo-Fenton type processes, are favored by acidic pH conditions, in the range of pH 2.8–3.0. However, the Fenton process produces a large amount of ferric hydroxide sludge at higher pH, which requires additional separation and disposal of solid waste (9). Accordingly, for the wastewater with higher pH in many cases, the acidification of the reaction medium is a necessity.
The application of UV-C and even UV-A (near UV) radiation during the Fenton (= photo-Fenton) process causes a dramatic increase in the •OH formation efficiency [33, 34, 35, 36]. A large number of the •OH enables the use of lower ferrous catalyst concentrations, preventing the solid waste of the ferric hydroxide sludge. It seems that the photo-Fenton process is greener, in terms of waste minimization (principle no.1), and the effect of using UV light on the prevention of precipitation is found to be significant.
The low efficiency affecting photo-Fenton processes at neutral pH is mainly due to iron precipitation, and can be therefore prevented by properly adding iron complexing agents. As pointed out in reaction Eq. (5), such compounds (L) should be able to form stable complexes with Fe(III), which (i) significantly absorb UV–vis light and (ii) undergo photochemical reductions leading to Fe(II) ions [34, 35, 36]:
Iron complexing agents used for preventing precipitation of ferric hydroxide are Polycarboxylates and amino polycarboxylates that can form stable complexes with Fe(III), absorb light in the near-UV and the visible regions more efficiently than aquo-complexes [35, 36], and undergo photoreduction through a ligand-to-metal charge transfer (LMCT) generating Fe(II) ions [36]. The iron complexing compounds should be photo-degraded during photo-Fenton process, to avoid chemical waste formation. It is clearly seen that the addition of complexing compound can make Fenton and photo-Fenton greener.
The photocatalytic process using TiO2 photocatalyst is very promising for application in water purification and wastewater treatment because many organic compounds can be decomposed and mineralized by the proceeding oxidation and reduction processes on TiO2 surface [37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47]. The most commonly tested compounds for decomposition through photocatalysis are phenols, chlorophenols, pesticides, herbicides, benzenes, alcohols, dyes, pharmaceutics, humic acids, organic acids, and others [37]. Additionally, photocatalysis process over TiO2 for reducing the toxic Cr(VI) into the harmless Cr(III) as well for oxidizing the hazardous Pb(II) into the safer PbO2 are also assessed [37].
TiO2 is the most commonly used photocatalyst, because it is non-toxic, chemically stable, cheap, and very efficient. In photocatalysis, light of energy greater than the bandgap of the semiconductor excites an electron from the valence band to the conduction band. In the case of anatase TiO2, the bandgap is 3.2 eV, therefore UV light (λ ≤ 387 nm) is required [37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47]. The absorption of a photon excites an electron to the conduction band (e CB) generating a positive hole in the valence band (h+VB) and an electron in the valence band (e−CB), as presented as Eq. (6). The hole can interact with a water molecule, as seen in Eq. (7).
However, it has some disadvantages: one of these is a relatively high value of the bandgap, around 3.2 eV, which limits its use under UV light. The other weaknesses are : high dispersion in the water which causes difficulties in sedimentation, and sensitive to the recombination of photoinduced electrons and holes, which decreases its photocatalytic activity [39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47]. The weakness of using UV light allows it to consume high energy (ignores principle no. 6) and the hazardous UV light is potential to cause an accident if exposes to a person for long time (less suitable to the principle no 12). Clearly, the method has not followed fully the principles of the Green Chemistry.
Therefore, an effort has been focused to overcome this deficiency of using UV light, by doping TiO2 crystal structure with either metal elements [38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44], or non-metal elements [45, 46, 47]. Doping process is hoped to narrow the bandgap that falls into visible region. Metal elements that have been doped into TiO2 include Ag [38, 39, 40], Au [41] Cu [42], and Fe [43, 44], while non-elemental dopants are N [45], S [46], and C [47]. The doping TiO2 has been frequently reported to be able to decrease their bandgap from 3.2 to smaller than 3.0 eV. The narrowing gap is illustrated in Figure 5.
The simple illustration of a) un-doped TiO2, and b) doped TiO2.
The gap decrease is able to enhance its photoactivity significantly under visible light irradiation. The use of visible light for replacing the UV light, enables photocatalysis process to be greener method. The photocatalysis process for complete degradation of organic pollutants will form smaller and saver molecules, which is in line with waste minimization. It is clear that this method obeys principle no. 2, and is in line with the green method.
Several metal [48] and metal oxide nanomaterials including iron oxide [49], graphene oxide [48], as well as graphene bounded with metals [50] have shown strong oxidizing power. Iron oxide nanoparticles have been prepared by using citrus extract for confinement of the particle growth. This method has produced in the nanoparticles providing a larger surface, an advance to result in effective degradation of some dyes [49]. The nanocomposite of graphene oxide bound with metal by using biomass as a template has also been reported [48]. This oxidizing agent has been proven to show effective degradation of the organic pollutants. Furthermore, the use of part of plants as reducing agents as well as a template for oxidizing agent nanomaterial has also been developed. One of the examples is graphene-supported silver nanocomposite [50]. The reducing agent from the biomass, replacing the toxic chemical can be categorized as the green reducing agent. The use of citrus and biomass waste as a template and reducing agent replacing the hazardous chemicals, allow the method as a greener one, due to the agreement with the principle no. 1, no. 5 and no. 12.
Several chemical analysis and pollutant removal methods are believed as very important and required by many fields. Some of the methods are recognized not obey some of the principles of the Green Chemistry. The greening methods of chemical analysis and chemical pollutant removal are essential, which can be conducted by reducing the quantity (mass and volume), substituting the toxic chemicals with the harmless or less toxic chemicals, modifying, and replacing them with the greener methods.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. 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He is on the editorial board of several international peer-reviewed journals and has published many papers. Additionally, he has participated in many international and national congresses, seminars, and workshops with oral and poster presentations. He is an active member of many local and international organizations.",institutionString:"İskenderun Technical University",institution:{name:"İskenderun Technical University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61139/images/system/61139.png",biography:"Dr. Sergey Tkachev is a senior research scientist at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, Russia, and at the Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine SB RAS, Novosibirsk, Russia. 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Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. 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She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain.Dr. Satué is accredited as a Private University Doctor Professor, Doctor Assistant, and Contracted Doctor by AVAP (Agència Valenciana d'Avaluació i Prospectiva) and currently, as a full professor by ANECA (since January 2022). To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. Dr. Satué is a scientific reviewer for various prestigious international journals such as Animals, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology, among others. Since 2014 she has been responsible for the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University Veterinary Clinical Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"439435",title:"Dr.",name:"Feda S.",middleName:null,surname:"Aljaser",slug:"feda-s.-aljaser",fullName:"Feda S. Aljaser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"428600",title:"MSc.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"García-Alarcón",slug:"adriana-garcia-alarcon",fullName:"Adriana García-Alarcón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428599",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabino",middleName:null,surname:"De La Rosa-Cruz",slug:"gabino-de-la-rosa-cruz",fullName:"Gabino De La Rosa-Cruz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428601",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Campuzano-Caballero",slug:"juan-carlos-campuzano-caballero",fullName:"Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"18",type:"subseries",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11414,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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