Characteristics of patients
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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\r\n\tElectromagnetic Pulse (EMP) events are a source of failure in electronic devices, components, and systems. Electromagnetic (EMP) events can lead to both soft failures and hard failures. Soft failures can include system interrupts or disturbs. Hard failures can include electronic device failures of both passive and active components. Hard failures can also include damage to components, printed circuit boards, to packaging. In this text, electromagnetic pulse (EMP) events will be discussed from event characteristics, Electromagnetic pulse (EMP) circuit simulations, EMP test simulations, EMP test equipment, electromagnetic pulse failure mechanisms, to electromagnetic pulse component and system solutions. Electromagnetic pulse standards will also be highlighted.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book aims to be a comprehensive text discussing electromagnetic pulse (EMP) historically to modern times; both articles from the past and present day are accepted to provide both history as well as present-day issues in both electronics from the past, to present day advanced technology issues.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2490571de83f738e057b994f9e745394",bookSignature:"Dr. Steven Voldman",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9282.jpg",keywords:"Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP), Source Event, Pulse Characteristics, EMP Energy Source, Commercial Testers, Electrical Simulation, Device Simulation, EMP Standards, Device Level Failures, System Failure, EMP Device Solutions, EMP Component Protection",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 9th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 16th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 15th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 3rd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 2nd 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a year",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!0,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"207997",title:"Dr.",name:"Steven",middleName:null,surname:"Voldman",slug:"steven-voldman",fullName:"Steven Voldman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/207997/images/system/207997.jfif",biography:"Dr. Steven H. Voldman is the first IEEE Fellow in the field of electrostatic discharge (ESD) for 'Contributions in ESD protection in CMOS, Silicon On Insulator and Silicon Germanium Technology.” He received his B.S. in Engineering Science from University of Buffalo (1979); a first M.S. EE (1981) from Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT); a second degree EE Degree (Engineer Degree) from MIT; a MS Engineering Physics (1986) and a Ph.D in electrical engineering (EE) (1991) from University of Vermont under IBM's Resident Study Fellow program. \r\n\r\nVoldman was a member of the semiconductor development of IBM, and consultant for Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Corporation (TSMC), and Samsung Electronics Corporation. \r\nIn 2018, he was a International Visiting Scholar in Khon Kaen University (KKU) in Thailand. \r\n\r\nHe is a recipient of 262 issued US patents and has written over 150+ technical papers in the area of ESD, EOS, and CMOS latchup in journals and conference proceedings. Dr. Voldman is an author of ten book series on ESD, EOS and latchup, and a new text titled From Invention and Patent as well as a co-authored text on Radiation effects on semiconductors.\r\n He is an author of many book chapters on semiconductor technology.",institutionString:"Dr. Steven H Voldman Limited Liability Company",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"177731",firstName:"Dajana",lastName:"Pemac",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/177731/images/4726_n.jpg",email:"dajana@intechopen.com",biography:"As a Commissioning Editor at IntechOpen, I work closely with our collaborators in the selection of book topics for the yearly publishing plan and in preparing new book catalogues for each season. This requires extensive analysis of developing trends in scientific research in order to offer our readers relevant content. Creating the book catalogue is also based on keeping track of the most read, downloaded and highly cited chapters and books and relaunching similar topics. I am also responsible for consulting with our Scientific Advisors on which book topics to add to our catalogue and sending possible book proposal topics to them for evaluation. Once the catalogue is complete, I contact leading researchers in their respective fields and ask them to become possible Academic Editors for each book project. Once an editor is appointed, I prepare all necessary information required for them to begin their work, as well as guide them through the editorship process. I also assist editors in inviting suitable authors to contribute to a specific book project and each year, I identify and invite exceptional editors to join IntechOpen as Scientific Advisors. I am responsible for developing and maintaining strong relationships with all collaborators to ensure an effective and efficient publishing process and support other departments in developing and maintaining such relationships."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8856",title:"Electrostatic Discharge",subtitle:"From Electrical breakdown in Micro-gaps to Nano-generators",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc66d347ac7bb73c1ae552a0dcbc976c",slug:"electrostatic-discharge-from-electrical-breakdown-in-micro-gaps-to-nano-generators",bookSignature:"Steven H. 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However it may not be suitable for the patients with diffuse coronary artery lesions, for which endarterectomy is a way but it’s not feasible to thin coronary artery without inner lumen or to the immature plaque. In this case, it may be a proper therapeutic option to achieve coronary revascularization by retrograde perfusion via cardiac venous system, namely retrograde coronary venous bypass grafting (CVBG). [1] Saphenous veins could be used to realize arterialization for great or middle cardiac vein by separate or sequential bypass grafting. But it would cause myocardial hemorrhage, edema and even heart failure due to excessive perfusion by high pressure [2]. However, internal mammary artery (IMA), as one kind of muscular artery materials, can enlarge or contract its lumen to adjust the blood flow with strong adaptability [3]. Off-pump coronary artery bypass surgery (OPCAB) has been widely applied as a less invasive method of myocardial revascularization in recent years. It could avoid the systemic inflammatory effects caused by cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB). OPCAB has more merits such as low mortality, low morbidity, and reduced costs, especially in high risk patients [4]. Therefore, sequential bypass of bilateral IMA combined with arterialization for middle cardiac vein were carried out during OPCAB for patients with diffuse lesions existing in right coronary artery.
\nDiffuse CAD was defined as: length of significant stenoses ≥20 mm; multiple significant stenoses (≥70% narrowing) in the same artery separated by segments of apparently normal (but probably diseased) vessel; and significant narrowing involving the whole length of the coronary artery [5] (Figure 1). Provided a mature plaque is successfully endarterected through the true arterial lumen (Figure 2)., patients with a long diffuse lesion can be treated very efficiently. But sometimes long, severe diffuse coronary artery stenosis isn’t recommended for surgical treatment because of its low patency and more postoperative complications [6]. (Figure 3)\n
\nDiffuse CAD of the right coronary artery
Mature plaque in the blocked coronary artery (Notice: the figure is removed at the request of the copyright holder [2016-06-21])
Diffuse coronary artery with immature plaque
The idea that the mammalian myocardium could be nourished by means of a flow of blood from the coronary venous system, acting as an alternative myocardial perfusion way because it would not be affected by atherosclerosis, was proposed by Pratt in 1898 [7]. However, few clinical trials and long-term outcome data have been presented and clinical use of venous arterialization has rarely been reported. Further experiments were made in 1943, in which the coronary sinus in a canine model was arterialized by using an autologous carotid artery as a conduit between the dogs descending aorta and the coronary sinus. In 1948, Beck and colleagues first carried out blobally retroperfusion by CVBG through coronary sinus[8]. These findings led them to state that there are communications between the venous and arterial sides of the circulation which, in the dead specimen, allowed blood flow in a retrograde direction. The Beck II procedure afterwards consisted of a free vein graft from the aorta to the coronary sinus, with a second operation 2 to 3 weeks later to ligate the coronary sinus, which reported remarkable success in attempts to revascularize the heart. The effectiveness of reversing flow in the coronary venous system had been debated and this operation was gradually abandoned because of related mortality of 26.1% and development of CABG. However, CABG was soon discovered to have its own limitations, particularly in patients with diffuse atherosclerotic lesion and tiny coronary arteries. Arterialization of coronary veins therefore regained its appeal. Arealis and colleagues brought forth selective CVBG in 1973 which was made only for part of ischemic myocardium, while normal reflux was kept for the rest myocardial veins. Great cardiac vein parallel to LAD and middle cardiac vein parallel to PDA were selected as goal vessels. Eventually an ample report of CVBG animal trial was published by Dr. Hochberg in 1979which indicated CVBG’s advantages, such as perfusion all layers of the myocardium, especially the subendocardium – the crucial layer of myocardial muscle[2]. However, this mechanism had been studied at the experimental level because its relatively high clinical mortality and was only theoretic until CVBG technique developed in the recent years.
\nHistorically, most studies of revascularization have been based on and reported according to angiographic criteria. Some patients with significant arteriosclerosis of the heart are not amenable to revascularization of a coronary artery because they have a combination of microangiopathy and significant macroangiopathy. Therefore cardiac surgeons developed the technical approach of venous revascularization. Several systematic reviews have been conducted in an attempt to define the exact role of animal models as platforms for future human therapy [9-12].We investigated the benefit of arterialization of a cardiac vein under these circumstances in some animal models [13] which indicate retrograde venous revascularization is possible and improves cardiac function in a state of acute ischemia so we could find its way into practical use in coronary heart surgery. In experimental studies in a variety of animals and in human clinical studies, retroperfusion of the coronary sinus has been used to improve myocardial perfusion and postischemic systolic and diastolic function in many surgical procedures. In addition, animal trials, mostly involving sheep, dogs and pigs showed that arterialization of cardiac veins decreases infarct size as well[11,14]. These animal models are likely to be useful for pre-clinical evaluation of the functional effects of surgical therapy.
\nThere is no doubt that for patients with surgical triple-vessel coronary disease and a severely diseased left main artery, CABG appears to be preferable [15]. Despite constant advances in surgical and interventional therapy of coronary artery disease, there remains a group of patients who are not amenable to these traditional treatment strategies. Many patients being referred for CABG nowadays have far advanced CAD, which is often diffuse and exhibits poor vessel runoff. The idea of myocardial revascularization by means of grafting the coronary venous system is more than a century old; in cases of diffuse coronary artery disease, this may represent a valid therapeutic option [16].
\nThe lack of suitable targets vessels remains a challenge for aortocoronary bypass grafting in diffuse coronary heart disease. Although this figure approximates 20% to 50% frequency reported in many series [17], our study represents a highly selective group with diffuse coronary disease in which CABG was not feasible with or without an endarterectomy.
\nFrom March 2004 to August 2010, patients with diffuse right coronary lesions were studied retrospectively and divided into two groups (Table1). Informed consent and ethical review committee approval were obtained. Group 1 included seventeen patients who underwent selective CVBG during OPCAB while group 2 included twenty-one patients without right coronary artery surgical therapy. Group 1 included eleven male cases (64.7%), the mean age was (46.1±6.2) years, seven hypertension cases (41.2%) and ten diabetes mellitus (58.8%) cases were involved. The case number of cardiac function from II–IV grade was eight, eight, and one respectively. Left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) was 0.52±0.09 and left ventricular end diastolic diameter (LVEDD) was (52.7±5.1) mm. Group 2 included fourteen male cases (66.7%), the mean age was (45.9±5.7) years, nine hypertension cases (42.9%) and eleven diabetes mellitus (52.4%) cases were involved. The case number of cardiac function from II–IV level was twelve, seven, two respectively. LVEF was 0.52±0.11 and LVEDD was (51.9±5.2) mm. There was no significant difference between the two groups (
\n | Group 1 N=17 | \n Group 2 N=21 | \n
Gender (M/F) | \n11/6 | \n14/7 | \n
Age (years) | \n46.1±6.2 | \n45.9±5.7 | \n
Hypertension (yes/no) | \n7/10 | \n9/12 | \n
Diabetes mellitus (yes/no) | \n10/7 | \n11/10 | \n
LVEF | \n0.52±0.09 | \n0.52±0.11 | \n
LVEDD (mm) | \n52.7±5.1 | \n51.9±5.2 | \n
Coronary angiography | \n\n | \n |
Double-vessel lesions | \n7 | \n9 | \n
Triple-vessel lesions | \n10 | \n12 | \n
Characteristics of patients
\n
OPCAB was performed with an average of 3.6 grafts per patient, group 1 being (3.3±1.1) grafts and group 2 being (2.2±1.6) grafts respectively. These patients discharged eight to fourteen days after the operation. Determination of blood flow was made for eleven cases in group 1 and thirteen cases in group 2 which were (81.47±32.65) ml/min and (76.82±28.36) ml/min in trunk of IMA, (32.52±18.82) ml/min and (28.12±16.71) ml/min in trunk of left IMA, (39.63 ±19.02) ml/min and (35.92±18.34) ml/min in trunk of right IMA. The both groups had no death. Tracheal cannula was pulled out on the date of operation or one day after operation. Low-dose positive inotropic drugs were used as assistance for four cases postoperatively. All the patients had no brain complication and no infection of sternum and mediastinum.
\nIn group 1, standard median sternotomy incision was applied for the exposure of the heart under general anesthesia. Bilateral IMAs were harvested as longer as possible and usually cut proximally at the starting position from subclavian artery and distally on the level of Xiphoid. Surrounding tissues of IMA were desected and removed so as to ensure enough length of IMA (generally 18–25 cm). The free right IMA was anastomosed with left IMA to form a bifurcation as “Y” type. The anastomotic position on the LIMA should be determined according to its length and the distance from the bypass grafting anastomosis between LIMA and LAD or diagonal. The position was usually selected at the location of 3–4 cm proximal to the first anastomotic site of left IMA, and 8-0 prolene suture was utilized in end-to-side anastomosis between two mammary arteries. Subsequently, CABG was carried out on beating heart. Left IMA was anastomosed to left anterior descending artery (LAD) and then right IMA was sequentially anastomosed with diagonal branch and circumflex artery (obtuse marginal and posterior branch of the left ventricle). Then the end of middle cardiac vein proximal to heart was blocked with 6-0 prolene suture so that blood can not reflow to coronary sinus in normal way. Finally, end-to-side anastomosis between middle cardiac vein parallel to right coronary post descending artery (PDA) and right IMA was performed with 8-0 prolene suture. When all the vessels were anastomosed and blood circulation was stable, blood flow of grafting vessels was determined by Transonic H1311 flowmeter (Transonic Systems, Inc., Ithaca, NY, USA). Incision was carefully washed before closing chest. In group 2, no branch of the right coronary artery was bypass grafted.
\nVenous arterialization occurs when a vein segment is transposed as a bypass graft into the arterial circulation, and atherosclerosis is a common feature of autogenous vein bypass grafts resulting in their long-term failure [18-20]. Arterial pressure-induced distension is thought to play a major role in the wall thickening of vein grafts, which may in turn favor atherosclerotic complications [21,22]. Reduction of the wall distension by perfusion pressure reduction using blood flow limitation protected the vein grafts from atherosclerosis, possibly as a result of the decrease in wall thickening that occurred in response to arterialization [23,24].
\nSaphenous vein was commonly used to complete CVBG. After harvesting, meticulous care should be taken to avoid distention of the vein graft. An infusion pressure of no more than 100 mmHg is recommended for minimal endothelial damage [25]. In our previous study and emerged that ischemia and infarction of myocardium would happen if the blood flow in grafting vessel was less than 50 ml/min. The blood was delivered into the cardiac veins by the native arterial pressure, However when intravascular pressure reached 60 mm Hg (1 mmHg = 0.133 kPa) or higher, the risk of complications would increase such as myocardial edema and even intramural hemorrhage and so on [26]. In this case, we used to ligate the vein graft to 1.5 to 2 mm in diameter with two interrupted silk lines to control blood flow (Figure 4). It has been reported that infarct size can be reduced by which arterial blood is delivered retrogradely to the ischemic myocardium through the cardiac veins [27].
\nFlow-limited CVBG
Three months after discharge, all the patients in group 1 had no preoperative symptom. Myocardial ischemia was not found by electrocardiogram in group 1. Postoperative angina was found in eight cases of group 2 and electrocardiogram showed inferior wall myocardial ischemia. There was significant difference between the two groups (P <0.05). Cardiac function was improved to class I (P <0.001), LVEF was increased to 0.60±0.08 (P <0.001) in group 1 and 0.56±0.10 (P <0.001) in group 2 which showed no preoperative differences and the postoperative LVEF of group 1 was superior to group 2 while there was no significant difference between these two groups. LVEDD decreased to (48.1±3.4) mm (P <0.001) in group 1 and (47.2±3.5) mm (P <0.001) in group 2. Patients underwent physical examination and echocardiography in our outpatient clinic periodically after discharge. These data were compared with the patients’ preoperative variables. Several examination of myocardial nuclide imaging, coronary angiography (41 months postop.) and CT scanning (5 years postop.) were carried out (Figure 5).
\nfollow-up CT scanning data of CVBG.
In the past few decades, there was an increase in the number of patients with coronary heart disease who were not eligible for standard procedures including CABG and percutaneous coronary angioplasty, and diffuse coronary atherosclerosis occupies 12%–30% of patients requiring further intervention [28]. Clinical trials investigating treatment with angiogenesis factors and gene therapy have been initiated, and new devices for creating cardiac arteriovenous fistulas percutaneously have also been introduced [29-32]. Whereas injection of growth factors require an adequate arterial inflow, which is not often existent in the hearts of these “no option patients”. New catheter devices to create a fistula between a coronary artery and the accompanying vein or, as performed in animal experiments, a coronary vein and the left ventricle, are difficult to handle, and hold all the risks of catheterization of a severely altered vessel [33]. Before that, small numbers of reports of the clinical application had published, so no remarkable conclusions can be yet drawn [34-37]. As the efficiency of these new methods awaits the evaluation of long-term trials, we think that some patients might benefit from the revival of an “old” procedure that is retrograde venous revascularization. In both short and long-term experiments, effective selected area perfusion had been achieved.
\nDespite the successful and widespread application of these revascularization procedures, a large number of patients are not good candidates for either angioplasty or surgery. These “no-option” patients frequently have diffuse coronary disease without a discrete target for angioplasty, stenting, or surgical bypass [33].In clinical application, we draw some experiences as follows. Blood flow of IMA is important to ensure perfusion of myocardium after bypass grafting which can be determined by preoperative vascular ultrasound examination and intraoperative testing. It is also important to make sure the diameter of each anastomotic incision 1.5 times as that of IMA in order to keep adequate blood flow. For the patients with coronary vessel less than 1.5 mm in diameter, it is necessary to use 8-0 prolene suture in case of anastomotic stricture. Attention should be focused on not damaging the posterior wall of middle cardiac vein while opening it, because the vascular wall of coronary vein is obviously thinner than that of coronary artery. The graft should be fixed to myocardium on both sides because IMA and middle cardiac vein are prone to twist due to different thickness of vascular wall. It is valuable to observe the difference of color on both segments of middle cardiac vein in the ligation. If red and dark are distinctive, it is indicated the ligation is definite. Otherwise it is possible that there is some residue blood flow [38]. It is useful to measure blood flow of each graft with flowmeter after anastomosis in order to keep vessel grafting patent.
\nCVBG surgery is indicated for both the relief of symptoms and the improvement of life expectancy in patients suffering from diffuse coronary heart disease [39-41]. We believe the selective CVBG should be considered in cases of coronary artery disease not amenable to traditional revascularization strategies [42-45]. Indications of selective CVBG include the patients with tenuous right coronary artery or diffuse lesions. It is possibly fit for the patients who need reoperation of CABG as well [46-48]. A substantial improvement in the long-term prognosis may be expected with more precise anastomosis.
\nThe basis and essence of life on earth depends on soil health, and its main indicator is soil organic carbon (SOC) content [1, 2]. Soil health has been defined as the capacity of a soil to support ecosystem functions and sustain environmental quality and biological productivity, while promoting plant and animal health [3]. Through plant growth, soil health is connected with the health of humans, animals, and ecosystems within its domain [4]. The SOC is an indicator of soil health and is an important component of the soil ecosystem [5, 6]. Deb et al. [7] indicate that the presence of organic carbon (OC) in soil is a key determinant for soil quality and productivity. In addition, organic matter is a key influencer on physical, chemical, and biological soil attributes [8]. The SOC stock exhibit the long-term balance between additions of OC from different sources and its losses through different pathways [9].
The term SOC is defined as C in soil derived from organic origins and soil organic matter (SOM) is generally considered to contain approximately 58% SOC. Soil organic matter is a mixture of materials including particulate organics, humus, fine plant roots, living microbial biomass as well as charcoal [10]. Two words have commonly been used in reference to SOC; C sequestration and C storage. Carbon sequestration is the process of transferring carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere into the soil which can be achieved through plants, plant residues and other organic amendments which are retained in the soil as part of SOM [10, 11]. Carbon sequestration in soil can range from short-term to long-term [12]. However, carbon storage in soil is defined as increase in SOC stocks over time, but it is not necessarily associated with a net removal of CO2 from the atmosphere [12]. Soil storage of OC for longer time periods is preferable in terms of greenhouse gases mitigation, however, mineralization of SOC is important in terms of soil fertility [12, 13]. Soil health reflects the capacity of a soil to support both the agricultural production and provision of other ecosystem services [14]. Therefore, evaluation of soil health is essential because soil is a critically important component of the earth’s biosphere whose, functionality is critical in the production of food and fiber as well as maintenance of environmental quality [15, 16].
In the soil profile, approximately 615 Gt of OC is stored in the top 20 cm, 1500 Gt of OC stored in the first meter, and 2344 Gt of OC is stored in the top three meters of soil [17, 18]. However, approximately 9 Gt C is anthropogenically released to the atmosphere annually from fossil fuel sources and ecosystem degradation [10]. Previous studies have illustrated that conversion of forest or natural vegetation to agriculture leads to an overall loss of SOC [5, 6, 19]. Through soil supply of plant macro and micronutrients, soil health, mediated by SOC dynamics is a major determinant of global food and nutritional security [4]. The projected increase of human population by 2050 will double food demand and put immense pressure on natural resources [20]. Therefore, one of the greatest challenges will be to increase food production by maintaining ecosystem services [21].
Soil organic C provides ecosystem services that are essential to human well-being for example climate regulation, water supplies and regulation, nutrient cycling, erosion protection and enhancement of biodiversity [2, 22, 23, 24]. In addition, SOC exerts an influence on many soil properties, for example water holding capacity, aggregate stability, total nitrogen, pH and cation exchange capacity [5, 6]. Increasing SOC can mitigate GHG emissions, benefit agricultural productivity through improvements in soil health, and improve environmental quality [25].
Under long-term management practices SOC pools influence soil quality, C sequestration pathways, and crop productivity [9]. It has been demonstrated that high SOC levels can enhance soil fertility and health, improve water infiltration, improve soil structure, enhance moisture retention and increased crop yield [26, 27]. A positive relationship has been reported between SOC content and soil nutrient status and crop yield [28, 29]. Since SOC content influences almost all soil functions and it is easily measurable, it can be a suitable indicator of the soil capacity to supply ecosystem services [22, 23].
Generally, SOC stocks increase with decreasing mean annual temperature [30], whereby, cold, humid climatic regions exhibit C rich soils [31]. Decomposition releases to the atmosphere most of the C added to the soil through litter deposition, only a limited fraction becomes humus [10]. Both moisture and temperature influence the rate of litter decomposition through their effects on microbial activity [32]. In addition, both moisture and temperature also exhibit strong control of humus decomposition [10].
Globally, there has been increased land use change from natural vegetation to agricultural land and urban areas as well as intensification of agricultural practices [33, 34]. These changes results in large increases in energy, water, and fertilizer consumption, as well as considerable losses of biodiversity [33]. The growing human population has driven both the land use change and land use intensification in order to meet global demand for food, water and energy [35]. However, conversion of forest or natural vegetation to agriculture leads to an overall loss of SOC [2, 5, 6, 19] (Figure 1), resulting in efforts to restore SOC in agricultural soils [36, 37]. Once soil is cultivated for agricultural production, SOM is rapidly decomposed as a result of modifications in conditions such as aeration, water content and temperature [38]. Land use change could affect soil functions that directly or indirectly relate to SOM, as a result of its capacity to retain water and nutrients as well as provide other ecosystem services [39, 40]. For example, changes in the SOC stock could result in significant impacts on the atmospheric C concentration [10]. Carbon dioxide is the main greenhouse gas responsible for global warming [41]. Soil organic C balances are associated with CO2 sequestration [36]. As a result, SOC stock is considered an intermediate ecosystem service that contributes to climate regulation [10].
Averages concentrations of soil organic carbon in semiarid Chaco and Pampa’s sub-regions. Full line indicates critical thresholds proposed for temperate regions, and dashed line is for topical regions. Modified from [
Agricultural production can be increased by increasing cropland area or increasing productivity per unit area. When agricultural production increases as a result of land use change from natural cover areas to crop production agriculture, overall SOC mediated ecosystem services supply decreases [2] (Figure 2A). It was indicated that land use change from native forest to pasture (+8%), crop to pasture (+19%), crop to plantation (+18%), and crop to secondary forest (+53%) increased total C stocks, as well as SOC mediated ecosystem services (Figure 2B and C) whereas changes from pasture to plantation (−10%), native forest to plantation (−13%), native forest to crop (−42%), and pasture to crop (−59%) reduced total C stocks [17]. Generally, land use change from all other uses to cropping or monocultures result in losses of SOC [10]. In addition, Montgomery [42] indicated that accelerated soil erosion associated with conventional agriculture could occur at rates up to 100 times greater than the rate at which natural soil formation takes place. Additionally, peatlands have been drained for agricultural purposes [43]. Peatland store much more organic C in form of different C functional groups compared to upland. For example; in Apalachicola National Forest, the wetlands dominated by cypress (Figure 3A) and spikerush and water lily (Figure 3B) contain more alkyl, methoxyl, O-alkyl, aromatic, phenolic and carboxyl C compared to upland (Figure 3C). However, globally, peatland drainage causes carbon-rich peat to disappear at a rate 20 times greater than the rate at which the peat accumulated [44]. As a result, SOC affect both climate change and crop production in agricultural soils [9].
Relations between ecosystem services mediated by SOC versus (A), agricultural production (B), natural cover (C), SOC and (D), relationship between agricultural production and natural cover. Modified from [
Quantification of carbon functional groups in Apalachicola National Forest; which includes (A) cypress wetlands, (B) spikerush+water lily wetlands and (C) upland.
Soil management practices that sustain and enhance carbon stocks are crucial if we are to overcome near-term challenges and conserve this valuable resource for future generations. As a result of soil C loss during the past 25 years, one-quarter of the global land area has suffered a decline in productivity and the ability to provide ecosystem services [39]. However, it has been observed that land use change from cropland to pasture or cropland to permanent forest results in the greatest gains of SOC [10] (Table 1). For example, Conant et al. [45] indicated that land use conversion from cropland to grassland improve soil carbon stocks. However, over time grassland area has been shrinking and arable land area expanding, indicating continued conversion of grassland to croplands [46]. In some cases where natural land cover has increased in expense of agricultural land cover, agricultural production has been reported to decrease (Figure 2D). With increasing human population, this trend highlights the importance of increasing agricultural production by increasing crop yields per unit land area rather than expanding cropland and/or pasture over natural areas [2].
Soil carbon change (%) | |||
---|---|---|---|
Treatment | Initial | Final | Change (%) |
Conversion: Cultivation to grass | 0.97 | 1.35 | 39.2 |
Conversion: native to grass | 2.97 | 2.55 | −14 |
Fertilization | 3.44 | 3.85 | 11.8 |
Grazing | 2.62 | 2.89 | 9.99 |
Reclamation | 8 | 15.9 | 98.8 |
Changes in soil carbon concentration presented by type of management change implemented. Modified from [45].
Agricultural systems are dependent on maintenance of four major functions; nutrients cycling, carbon transformations, soil structure maintenance, and regulation of pests and diseases [14]. Increasing SOM in agricultural soils contribute to food security and adaptation to climate change as well as mitigation of climate change [12]. SOM has a major role in soil fertility and water retention [47]. Therefore, SOM indirectly contributes to agricultural productivity and consequently to food security [12]. Management practices can influence SOC stocks by either decreasing SOC losses or increasing C inputs to soils. When OC input to a soil is larger than the OC outputs by mineralization or erosion, the SOC increases [12]. Below are technological options to manage SOC in agricultural ecosystem.
Soil organic matter is considered an important indicator of soil quality and health, which can be impacted by crop production practices such as tillage [48]. Tillage has the potential to increase the rate of C mineralization through breaking larger macro aggregates, mixing crop residues and exposing protected SOC in the aggregates to soil microorganisms [5, 6, 49, 50]. In general, tillage is considered to increase SOC mineralization as a result of mechanical and rain induced disruption of soil aggregates and the consequent release of CO2. Hence, conservation tillage/no-tillage has been considered as a suitable practice to maintain or increase SOC stocks compared to conventional tillage [12, 51, 52]. Conservation tillage practices such as no till can enhance assimilation of SOC by decreasing soil disturbance and increasing crop residue accumulation in comparison to conventional tillage [12, 25, 48, 53]. For example; Blanco-Canqui and Lal [54] indicated an increase in SOC with increasing crop residue retention, whereby 16.0 t C ha−1 of SOC was reported without straw additions, 25.3 t SOC ha−1 with 8 t ha−1 of straw added and 104.9 t C ha−1 with 16 t ha−1 of straw added.
Global meta-analyses and reviews have recently confirmed that SOC stock increases in the upper soil layers (0–15 or 0–20 cm) under no tillage, but generally has low to non-significant effects on SOC stocks over 30 cm depth or deeper [51, 55, 56, 57, 58] (Figure 4). In addition to carbon sequestration, conservation tillage can reduce CO2 emissions [60]. Accumulation of SOC exhibit a positive correlation with the sequestration of atmospheric CO2, while oxidation of SOC, as a result of practices such as tillage, can contribute to CO2 emission from agricultural fields [48]. For example, CO2 emission in conventional tillage was 29% greater than in no till in a loamy soil as reported by Bista et al. [61].
Soil carbon content with depth. Shaded areas represent standard error of the mean. Data from long-term field experiment in Ultuna. Modified from [
Irrigation may have similar effects on SOC decomposition in varying scenarios, but, its effects on primary production are likely to be much higher in arid and semi-arid areas compared to humid regions with dry summers [62]. It is reported that irrigation exhibited strong positive effects on SOC stocks in desert soils, positive effects in semi-arid areas, but no consistent trend was observed in humid areas [12, 62]. Further, it is emphasized that SOC stocks are dependent on climate and initial SOC content [62].
Below ground OC inputs, which includes roots and associated inputs, contribute more to SOC compared with above ground inputs [59, 63, 64] (Figure 5). For example, Kätterer et al., [63] reported long-term experimental results which indicated that root derived C was 2.3 times higher than that derived from above ground plant residue. Rasse et al. [64] estimated that mean residence time in soils of root derived C is 2.4 times compared with that of shoot derived C, indicating that root C has a longer residence time in soil compared to the shoot C.
Mean annual carbon inputs through above-ground crop residues, roots including rhizodeposition to equivalent topsoil depth (1957–2008), and organic amendments (1956–2008). Modified from [
Organic amendment inputs can promote a buildup of SOM and hence SOC [65] (Figure 6). Menichetti et al. [59] reported that application of organic amendments affected SOC in the topsoil resulting in fourfold increases in C stock. Organic residues and wastes can be applied to soil, as fresh organic matter, after composting, methanisation, or pyrolysis [12]. However, the effects of residue quality on long term SOC is still a matter of debate [12]. Previous studies have indicated that the most labile and easily degradable compounds contribute more to SOM in the long term than recalcitrant materials such as lignin, this is especially common in clayey soil [66]. There are three explanations to this finding, which include: 1) long lasting SOM are mainly derived from microbial materials [67, 68]; 2) substrates that are easily degradable are processed with a high microbial C use efficiency [69], and 3) soluble compounds could be protected between mineral surfaces [12].
Topsoil carbon concentrations over time in the Ultuna long-term soil organic matter experiment. Modified from [
Compared with monoculture, introduction of crop diversity increases SOC which improves soil health [70]. Whereby, a combination of diversification within a cropping system and no-till soil management can help to improve SOC [71]. Increased plant diversity can enhance positive soil feedbacks on residue decomposition and soil SOM stabilization and may contribute to C accumulation in soils with rotated crops [72]. Further, Maiga et al. [71] demonstrated that use of diverse 4-year crop rotations for longer duration (>24 years) enhanced SOC, overall C and nitrogen fractions, and soil aggregation in comparison with those under 2-year corn–soybean rotations.
Soil organic C is an important indicator of soil health. Soil health is a major component of one health, which encompasses human, animal, and environmental health [73]. Soil organic C promotes land productivity and provides ecosystem services. Since SOC content influences almost all soil functions and is easily measurable, it can be a suitable indicator of the soil capacity to supply ecosystem services. This hypothesis reinforces the suitability of SOC as an appropriate indicator for soil management decisions, land use planning, and regulation. However, the rapidly increasing global human population is exerting enormous pressure on natural resources, as a result of the need to provide food and fiber to supply demands from this growing population. Consequently, there has been conversion of natural land areas to agricultural land globally in pursuit of meeting the human demand for food and fiber. This land use change has resulted in losses of SOC, which negatively affects productivity and diminish ecosystem services. Previous work has demonstrated that conversion of agricultural land to its natural cover provides positive feedback in terms of increasing soil C stocks. This finding highlights the importance of increasing agricultural production by increasing crop yields per unit area rather than expanding cropland and/or pasture to natural areas for long-term sustainability. In addition, there is need to invest in technological options that enhance SOC stocks in agricultural land. These options include no-tillage/conservation agriculture, irrigation, increasing below-ground inputs, organic amendments and integrated, diverse cropping/farming systems.
This work was supported by USDA-Forest Service grant number 17-CA-11330140-027 and USDA-ARS grant number 58-3070-7-009. All NMR measurements were performed at the National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, which is supported by National Science Foundation Cooperative Agreement No. DMR-1644779 and the State of Florida.
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