More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\n
Our breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
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“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\n
Additionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\n
We are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\n
Simba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\n
IntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\n
Since the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\n
Our breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n
“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\n
Additionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\n
We are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n
\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7835",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Autism Spectrum Disorders - Advances at the End of the Second Decade of the 21st Century",title:"Autism Spectrum Disorders",subtitle:"Advances at the End of the Second Decade of the 21st Century",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The changing face of psychiatry and clinical psychology is mostly illustrated by the hugely increasing prevalence of autism spectrum syndrome. There has been a rapid advance in research, and books like this are therefore necessary. The book focuses on controversies in the diagnosis of autism with an examination of stercobilin, autism, and gastrointestinal disease. It also focuses on an exploration of scalp acupuncture as a possible treatment. There is also critical examination of autism in the classroom and an investigation into an unusual phenomenon seen in Africa called ?nodding syndrome.?",isbn:"978-1-78984-022-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-021-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-273-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77652",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"autism-spectrum-disorders-advances-at-the-end-of-the-second-decade-of-the-21st-century",numberOfPages:76,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"2cfcf44e79e12e620251aaa9d08a4a3e",bookSignature:"Michael Fitzgerald",publishedDate:"October 9th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7835.jpg",numberOfDownloads:5028,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:2,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:4,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 10th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 8th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 7th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 28th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 27th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"205005",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Fitzgerald",slug:"michael-fitzgerald",fullName:"Michael Fitzgerald",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/205005/images/system/205005.jpg",biography:"Professor Michael Fitzgerald was the first Professor of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry in Ireland, specialising in autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). He has diagnosed more than 5000 persons with ASDs. He has written many peer-reviewed publications and authored, co-authored and co-edited thirty-four books, some of which have been translated into Japanese, Dutch, and Polish. Professor Simon Baron-Cohen described one of Professor Fitzgerald’s books on autism as, ̔The best book on autism̕, and described him as an ̔exceptional scholar̕. He has lectured extensively throughout the world, including at The Royal Society/British Academy and the British Library in London. He was the overall winner of the ̔Excellence in Psychiatry̕ Award in 2017 and was nominated as one of the top four psychiatrists by Hospital Professional News Ireland. Professor Fitzgerald recently retired to spend more time in Brussels and continues to write on autism.",institutionString:"Independant Researcher",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"Trinity College Dublin",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ireland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1061",title:"Psychiatry",slug:"mental-and-behavioural-disorders-and-diseases-of-the-nervous-system-psychiatry"}],chapters:[{id:"68359",title:"Introductory Chapter: Autism Spectrum Disorder - Advances at the End of the Second Decade of the Twenty-First Century",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88282",slug:"introductory-chapter-autism-spectrum-disorder-advances-at-the-end-of-the-second-decade-of-the-twenty",totalDownloads:564,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Michael Francis Fitzgerald",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68359",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68359",authors:[{id:"205005",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",surname:"Fitzgerald",slug:"michael-fitzgerald",fullName:"Michael Fitzgerald"}],corrections:null},{id:"65105",title:"Nodding Syndrome and Autism Spectrum Disorder",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83530",slug:"nodding-syndrome-and-autism-spectrum-disorder",totalDownloads:909,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Nodding syndrome (NS) is a devastating childhood neurological disorder seen in clusters in Eastern Africa but of uncertain nosology. It is characterized by repetitive head nodding, atonic seizures, cognitive decline, and school dropout, wasting and stunted growth and it occurs in children subject to internal displacement, food insecurity, and exposure to infectious diseases, contaminated environment and with a number of repetitive behavioral abnormalities. On the other hand autism spectrum disorders (ASD) is a group of behaviorally defined neurodevelopmental disorders with lifelong consequences. They are defined by impairments in communication and social interaction along with restrictive and repetitive behaviors. It is a complex disorder associated with a wide range of disparate and seemingly unrelated factors such as; maternal exposure to various chemical substances, maternal exposure to child abuse, maternal evidence of Diabetes, autoimmune diseases, age of either parents at conception, exposure of infants to various chemical substances, low vitamin D levels of the infant at birth, gender of the infant and a large number of genetic factors. There are a number of similarities in the clinical, biochemical and behavioral findings in children with NS and ASD.",signatures:"David Lagoro Kitara, Denis Anywar Arony and Suzanne Gazda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65105",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65105",authors:[{id:"277395",title:"Prof.",name:"David",surname:"Kitara Lagoro",slug:"david-kitara-lagoro",fullName:"David Kitara Lagoro"},{id:"310269",title:"Dr.",name:"Denis",surname:"Anywar Arony",slug:"denis-anywar-arony",fullName:"Denis Anywar Arony"},{id:"310270",title:"Dr.",name:"Suzanne",surname:"Gazda",slug:"suzanne-gazda",fullName:"Suzanne Gazda"}],corrections:null},{id:"65947",title:"Autism in the Classroom: Educational Issues across the Lifespan",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84790",slug:"autism-in-the-classroom-educational-issues-across-the-lifespan",totalDownloads:1909,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter reviews educational strategies and legal policies impacting effective schooling for children, youth, and young adults. Emphasis is on the classroom manifestation of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and how general education teachers can effectively facilitate learning. Within early school years, the importance of positive student-teacher relationships (STRs) in the face of challenging behaviors is discussed, including ways to build positive STRs. In middle and high school, social relationships serve as protective factors against mental health problems (e.g., depression, anxiety). Literature on this topic, including issues related to bullying, is presented. In postsecondary settings, young adults with ASD continue to have poor outcomes (e.g. loneliness, unemployment); strategies for helping adolescents transition to adulthood is discussed. While there are many other aspects to educational program appropriate for individuals with ASD (e.g., curriculum content), this chapter highlights recent issues that may be informative to a wide audience—school teachers and staff, researchers, and parents.",signatures:"Yasamin Bolourian, Katherine K.M. Stavropoulos and Jan Blacher",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65947",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65947",authors:[{id:"280760",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Jan",surname:"Blacher",slug:"jan-blacher",fullName:"Jan Blacher"},{id:"280761",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasamine",surname:"Bolourian",slug:"yasamine-bolourian",fullName:"Yasamine Bolourian"},{id:"280770",title:"Dr.",name:"Katherine K.M.",surname:"Stavropoulos",slug:"katherine-k.m.-stavropoulos",fullName:"Katherine K.M. Stavropoulos"}],corrections:null},{id:"67583",title:"The Effect of Scalp Acupuncture on Autism: Could This Be a Possible Treatment of Autism?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84547",slug:"the-effect-of-scalp-acupuncture-on-autism-could-this-be-a-possible-treatment-of-autism-",totalDownloads:769,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"No current conventional treatment methods have been proven effective in improving core symptoms of autism spectrum disorders (ASD). In pursuit of a potent remedy for ASD, scalp acupuncture, one of the complementary and alternative medicines (CAM), may have potential in treating children with ASD according to recent clinical studies. In our first study, the effect of scalp acupuncture on prominent symptoms of ASD was investigated. Factors contributing to the effectiveness of ASD such as age and onset pattern had also been evaluated. Results showed that verbal communication and social and behavioral aspects of the patient could benefit from scalp acupuncture. Moreover, early intervention before 3 years old will bring about better therapeutic outcomes. The effect of scalp acupuncture on emotional and behavioral problems in children with ASD was further elaborated in the second study. Our observation on patients noted drastic improvements in emotional and emotion-related behavioral problems after the introduction of scalp acupuncture. Feedbacks from parents also reflected a positive progress in performance on cognitive, social, and behavioral aspects after treatment. The influence of scalp acupuncture on the sleeping quality and habit in children with ASD was investigated in the third study. Children had shown less resistance and anxiety toward sleep after scalp acupuncture.",signatures:"Chuen Heung Yau, Cheuk Long Ip, Yuk Yin Chau and Ho Cheung Lai",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67583",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67583",authors:[{id:"277860",title:"M.D.",name:"Chuen Heung",surname:"Yau",slug:"chuen-heung-yau",fullName:"Chuen Heung Yau"},{id:"282653",title:"Mr.",name:"Cheuk Long",surname:"Ip",slug:"cheuk-long-ip",fullName:"Cheuk Long Ip"},{id:"282655",title:"Ms.",name:"Yuk Yin",surname:"Chau",slug:"yuk-yin-chau",fullName:"Yuk Yin Chau"},{id:"305405",title:"Dr.",name:"Ho Cheung",surname:"Lai",slug:"ho-cheung-lai",fullName:"Ho Cheung Lai"}],corrections:null},{id:"65950",title:"Stercobilin: A Putative Link between Autism and Gastrointestinal Distress?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84791",slug:"stercobilin-a-putative-link-between-autism-and-gastrointestinal-distress-",totalDownloads:877,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Despite the increasing prevalence for its diagnosis in children, there are no clinical biomarkers of autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Herein a research journey is described that began by seeking evidence for the opioid excess theory of autism using mass spectrometry methods to screen human urine specimens and has evolved into the discovery of promising murine fecal biomarkers for ASD. Our results are consistent with an emerging body of evidence that shows that intestinal microflora from ASD subjects can be distinguished from controls, suggesting that metabolite differences due to the action of intestinal microbes may provide a means to identify ASD biomarkers.",signatures:"Troy D. Wood, Amber Flynn Charlebois, Emily R. Sekera, Christopher L. Pennington, Heather L. Rudolph, Yong Seok Choi and Giuseppe Fanciulli",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65950",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65950",authors:[{id:"284239",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Troy D.",surname:"Wood",slug:"troy-d.-wood",fullName:"Troy D. 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1. Introduction
Hydatid disease is a worldwide parasitic infection created by larval phase of Echinococcus [1]. Human infection is frequently seen in Europe, Middle East, some places of Canada, Russia, Japan, China, Australia and New Zealand [2].
In the life period, E. granulosus stands in the small bowel of its definitive host; carnivores, which are generally dogs and wolves [3]. Then, eggs passed into the feces are ingested with the intermediate host, which is generally sheep [4]. Larval stage occurs in the intermediate host; i.e., ingested eggs outgrows in the small intestine and lets out oncosphere, which invades the intestinal mucosa and come in the lungs, liver or other organs (metacestode larvae). Eggs can survive up to 1 year in the environment. On the next step, definitive host digests the infected organs of the intermediate host. Protoscolices invades the intestinal mucosa and grow up to adult worms [3]. Human being can be more commonly infected by indirect ingestion of contaminated water and food or directly from contact with dogs [4].
Fluid filled cyst is covered with three layers; pericyst, ectocyst and endocyst [5]. Pericyst is created by the protective reaction of the host tissue; the middle laminated layer called ectocyst lets for the transition of nutrients and the germinal layer inside called endocyst generates cyst fluid, blood capsules, scolices and also provides the constitution of ectocyst [5, 6]. Many daughter vesicles remain in the hydatid cysts [6].
Liver is the most commonly affected organ, second one is the lung. Other organs are less commonly affected. Heart is rarely affected, but it’s fatal if it’s affected. Left ventricule is more commonly affected than the right ventricle possibly due to its richer blood supply. Additionally, huger myocardial mass in left ventricle supplies better circumstances for parasite’s growth. Hydatid cysts of left ventricle are generally located in the subepicardium. Rupture into the pericardial space is seldom. However, habitation in the right ventricle is subendocardial, rupture is more common which results with anaphylaxis, pulmonary embolisation and death [7].
Most common way for myocardial invasion is coronary circulation. Second most common route is pulmonary venous drainage with the rupture of pulmonary cysts. Heart may also be involved with direct contact [7].
Hydatid disease has an evolutionary period; first, cysts grow slowly; then, a differentiation period starts which the parasite dies and forms calcified, solidified cyst behind [7].
The lungs are the most common organ in pediatric patients and the second most common organ for adults. Due to the negative pressure inside the lungs, cysts grow three times faster compared to the growth in the liver [6].
E. granulosus has a broad genetic diversity. Molecular gene analysis has defined 10 genotypes, which are aggregated into four different types: E. granulosus sensu strict [G1-G3 complex], Echinococcus equinus [G4], Echinococcus ortleppi [G5] and Echinococcus canadensis [G6-G10 complex]. G1 genotype of E. granulosus is reported to infect humans more frequently compared to other subtypes. Genotyping of human CE can help to plan the controlling methods for human hydatidosis. Genetic subtyping also clarifies the diversity in development, antigenicity and response to chemotherapeutic agents [3].
The disease is asymptomatic in the inception and can remain asymptomatic for long years even though the cysts become very huge [1]. For symptomatic patients, symptoms appertain to localization of the cyst. Cough, dyspnea or chest pain can be seen if the cysts are in the lung. Abdominal pain, hepatomegaly, sensibility, fever and icterus are the symptoms for liver cysts. With the rupture of the cyst due to the surgical intervention to the cyst or mechanical trauma, patients are prone to go into anaphylactic shock [1]. Cyst rupture can realise throughout the bronchus and patients can present with cough and sputum with hydatid sand and membrane fragments. If the cyst rupture realises throughout the pleural cavity, patients can present with pneumothorax, effusion and emphysema [6]. If the cyst rupture through vena cava, patient can present with recurrent pulmonary embolism [6].
Cysts and cyst like hypodense lesions carry diagnostic debate on computed tomography (CT) in some cases. Tumors with cystic degeneration, inauspicious lesions like necrotic lung cancer, metastases and infections like tuberculosis can imitate hydatid cyst [8].
Diagnosis is quite elementary for hydatid cyst (HC) if typical findings like crescent sign, onion peel, combo sign or folded membranes are present. However, atypical findings like solid or more hypodense semblance of ruptured, collapsed or infected cysts are more complicated as they resemble infections like tuberculosis or neoplastic lesions. MRI may help for diagnosis in these conditions [8]. Ultrasound can help to diagnose peripheral lesions and to achieve pleura [6].
2. Imaging in echinococcosis
Imaging tools for hydatid disease are computed tomography (CT), ultrasonography (USG), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), radiography and urography.
2.1 Radiography
Radiograph is the primary method for imaging in bone and lung disease. An uncomplicated hydatid cyst looks like a well-limited homogenous radio-opacity on chest X-ray (Figure 1A). Cysts quietly resemble carom balls in posteroanterior X-ray and to rugger balls in lateral X-ray [6]. Cysts may look like a strange shaped mass due to pressure of mediastinum, bronchovascular components. Multiple large cysts are also pathognomonic for echinococcosis (Figure 1B) [1]. Cysts can present with bilobed appearance due to nicking inside the cysts [6]. The loss of a round shape with a small depressed view points out bronchial rupture, so called “slit sign”.
Figure 1.
(A) Posteroanterior view of chest X-ray presenting uncomplicated hydatid cyst of left lower lung and (B) posteroanterior view of chest X-ray presenting multiple, large, circular and well limited masses in both hemithoraces.
Atelectatic and reactive reactions can result with the loss of well limited borders, thus imitating carcinoma or pneumonia [6].
A radiolucent frame may be seen with the entry of air between pericyst and endocyst due to disruption of bronchus, so called “crescent sign” (Figure 2). This sign is not pathognomonic for hydatid cysts and may also be seen in carcinoma, blood clots, mycetoma, and Rasmussen aneurysm. If the entry of air increases, endocyst minimizes and ruptures; an air fluid level is observed in the endocyst, so-called “double curve sign”. The natant membranes in the cyst fluid compose “water-lily sign” if there is furthermore collapse of the endocyst. Daughter cysts may look like circular radio-opacities at deep part of the cysts, so-called “rising sun” image. Pericyst can become empty if the membranes are extracted with cough, air-filled cysts can be seen on X-ray, so-called “dry cyst sign”. In cases of infection added to the disorder, lung abscess can be imitated (Figure 3).
Figure 2.
(A) Chest X-ray showing pulmonary meniscus sign (arrow) indicating crescent shaped containment of air and (B) chest X-ray presenting a well limited lesion (arrow) in the right lower lobe of the lung with air fluid level, indicating a superimposed infection.
Figure 3.
(A) Abdominal X-ray showing round calcified mass in the right hypochondrium and (B) chest radiograph showing hydatid cyst in the liver.
X-rays for abdomen may present with hepatomegaly, elevation of right hemidiaphragm and cyst wall calcification. During healing period of the cyst, all the structures in the cyst calcify and plain radiograph presents a dense calcified mass [5].
2.2 CT and ultrasonography in hydatid cysts
Cysts don’t always present classical signs above. Obstacles about diagnosis can be overlapped with the help of CT in required cases [6]. CT is a significant diagnostic tool in detecting cyst wall or septal calcification, osseous lesions, cystic component localized posterior to calcification, evaluating complications and in cases which USG is not enough (abdominal wall deformities, excessive bowel gases, obesity and previous surgery) [4].
US is easily accessible and lacks radiation. It’s sensitivity is about 100% acquiring it the priority as a screening method for abdominal hydatidosis. USG and MRI are both successful to show hydatid sand, daughter cysts, natant membranes and vesicles inside the cyst (Figure 4) [1, 4].
Figure 4.
Transverse ultrasound of the retroperitoneum showing unilocular anechoic cyst (type CL according to WHO classification).
Mobile hydatid sand which points out to the splitted capsules and scolices that moves in the cyst cavity may be presented in a “snowstorm” appearance (Figure 5). Most commonly used classifications related to sonographic appearance are classifications of Gharbi et al. (Table 2) and the World Health Organisation Informal Working Group classification on echinococcosis (WHO-IWGE) (Table 3) [5].
Figure 5.
Longitudinal ultrasound of a liver hydatid cyst in a 8 years old girl presenting the “snowstorm appearance”.
Gharbi type 1 is the most common subtype and it’s presented as a pure cystic lesion with or without the entity of hydatid sand (Figures 4 and 5). Gharbi type II cysts grows out after trauma, cyst degeneration, host response or drug therapy. Decrease in the intracystic pressure results with splitting of the endocyst and pericyst; natant membranes may be seen in the cyst cavity. Complete splitting of the membranes is called as “water-lily” sign due to its morphological appearance (Figure 6). Gharbi type III cysts are multivesicular cysts which septae presenting the neighbour borders of daughter cysts composes a “honeycomb” image (Figure 7). “Spoke wheel” appearance may be seen when daughter cysts are splitted with hydatid matrix. Gharbi type IV cysts are composed of an internal echogenic matrix giving them a solid appearance (Figure 8). For differential diagnosis, daughter cysts or membranes should be searched to externalize a solid mass. Gharbi type V cysts involve wall calcification and dense distal acoustic shadowing (Figure 9). A densely calcified cyst can be supposed to be dead. However, a partially calcified cyst should still be regarded as an alive cyst [5].
Figure 6.
Ultrasonographic view of Gharbi type II hydatid cysts: (A) “Split wall” sign from splitting of pericyst and endocyst and (B) “water-lily” sign resulting from complete splitting of the membranes.
Figure 7.
Transverse ultrasound of Gharbi type III hydatid cyst of liver multiple daughter cysts in an echogenic matrix results in a “honeycomb” image.
Figure 8.
Ultrasonographic appearance of Gharbi type IV hydatid cyst of the liver.
Figure 9.
Ultrasonographic appearance of Gharbi type V hydatid cyst.
Imaging findings for hydatid cyst differentiate from cystic lesions to solid appearing lesions. The cyst may look like a well identified fluid accumulation. There may be the appearance of natant membranes due to cleavage of endocyst from pericyst. Ring like calcification of the cyst can lead to complete calcification during differentiation of the cyst [2].
Specific findings of imaging are visualization of daughter cysts, calcification of the cyst wall and membrane detachment. Diagnosis in early stage is hard [1].
Appearance of hydatid disease may be classified into four subtypes.
Type I is simple cyst with no internal tectonic. On ultrasound, type 1 hydatid cysts seem as well identified unilocular anechoic lesions (Figure 10). On CT, they seem as fluid accumulated lesions. MRI demonstrates a fluid accumulated cystic lesion with a T1 isointense and T2 hypointense peripheral border (rim sign) enclosing the homogenous high signal cyst ingredients [2].
Figure 10.
Type 1 hydatid cyst: (A) axial contrast CT image of a 15 years old female presents a well identified fluid accumulated simple cystic lesion in the liver and (B) oblique sonogram in a 45 years old male demonstrates type 1 hydatid cyst in the liver.
Type II hydatid cysts are cysts with daughter cysts and matrix. They include cleaved natant membranes or daughter cysts (Figure 11). Attenuation of the daughter cyst is hypodense/hypointense to maternal matrix on CT and MRI, respectively. If there are multiple cysts, they are covered with a single capsule presenting with a “truckle spoke” appearance [2].
Figure 11.
Type 2 hydatid cyst: (A) contrast enhanced computed tomography demonstrates multiple daughter cysts with irregular borders covering almost all of the volume of the mother cyst-so called “rosette appearance” and (B) oblique ultrasonogram in a 39 years old male demonstrates type 2 hydatid cyst.
Type II HC are classified to three subtypes according to the age, quantity and setting of the daughter cysts.
Type IIa contain involve daughter cysts organized at the periphery.
Type IIb involve bigger daughter cysts with irregular borders that covers almost all of the capacity of the mother cyst.
Type IIc contains high attenuation round or oval masses with sprinkled calcifications and daughter cysts, demonstrating attrition of the old cyst.
Type III cysts are dead calcified cysts (Figure 12).
Figure 12.
Type 3 hydatid cyst: (A) contrast enhanced computed tomography presents type 3 hydatid cyst in the right lobe of the liver and (B) oblique ultrasonogram shows anechoic lesion with membranes floating on the cyst fluid.
Type IV hydatid cysts are complicated cysts (Figure 13). Most common complications of echinococcosis are rupture and superinfection. Degeneration of parasitic membranes causes the rupture of the cyst (Figures 14–18).
Figure 13.
Type 4 hydatid cyst: (A) sagittal contrast enhanced CT images of thorax show ruptured type 4 hydatid cyst in the lower lobe of the right lung with wrinkled floating endocyst-so called “lily sign” and (B) oblique ultrasonogram shows type 4 hydatid cyst.
Various secondary complications possibly happen according to site of rupture in the body. Secondary complications of echinococcosis according to different locations are listed in Table 1.
Table 1.
Gharbi et al. classification of hydatid cysts related to ultrasonographic features [5].
Gharbi et al. preferred classification for differentiation of subtypes of hydatid cysts on ultrasonogram of the liver (Table 1) [5].
Another global classification used for sonographic imaging of hydatid cysts wad presented by World Health Organization Informal Working Group (Table 2) [5].
Table 2.
Types of hydatid cysts observed on ultrasound examination of liver [5].
2.3 Magnetic resonance imaging in hydatid cysts
MRI is better to show cyst wall defect, biliary and neurological involvement. Cysts are hyperintense on T2W images and are covered by a low signal frame possibly because of the collagen rich pericyst [1]. If available, daughter cysts are hypointense compared to the intracystic fluid on T1 weighted imaging and hyperintense on T2-weighted images [5]. DW MRI makes the differentiation of CE1 hydatid cysts from other simple cysts with their hyperintense image. Apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) of the hydatid cyst is lower compared to ADC of simple cyst because of internal viscous contents [1]. Also, ADC values of simple cysts and type I to III hydatid cysts are higher than ADC values of abscesses because diffusion of protons throughout thin fluid is limited. ADC values of type IV hydatid cysts and abscesses present no considerable statistical difference [5].
MRI demonstrates the degree of cyst degeneration with secession of the wall, collapsed membranes are observed as bent linear compositions inside the cyst. Wall calcification is demonstrated better on MRI compared to CT, besides MRI is more successful than CT to represent irregularities of borders that points out inchoative segregation of membranes [5].
MRI is also better to differentiate liver hydatid cysts from other simple cysts [4] (Figures 14–18).
Figure 14.
MRI showing hydatid cyst in the liver of a 45 years old male: (A) coronal T1 weighted image, (B) coronal T2 weighted scan and (C) axial T2 weighted scan.
Figure 15.
(A) Axial T2 weighted MRI showing splenic hydatid cyst and (B) coronal T2 weighted scan of hydatid disease in L4-5 vertebra.
Figure 16.
MRI showing hydatid cyst in the lower pole of the kidney: (A) coronal T1 weighted scan and (B) axial T2 weighted scan.
Figure 17.
MRI showing hydatid cyst in the cyst hydatid in the mesosalpinx adjacent to the left ovary: (A) axial T2 weighted image and (B) coronal T2 weighted image.
In cardiac cystic echinococcosis, trans-thoracic echocardiography, CT and MRI can demonstrate the cystic structure of the lesion and it’s correlation with the cardiac chamber [8] (Figure 18).
Figure 18.
Case of cardiac cyst hydatid: (A) computed tomographic image, (B) magnetic resonance imaging of transverse section, and (C) magnetic resonance imaging of longitudinal section showing daughter cysts.
ERCP and MRCP show cystobiliary relationship, daughter vesicles & germinative membranes of cysts in bile ducts, dilated bile ducts. However, because of high intracystic pressure, communication of cyst with bile ducts can’t be shown via ERCP& MRCP effectively [1].
2.4 Imaging of complications
Complications like rupture into the peritoneal cavity, biliary cavity and the pleura are presented in Figure 19. Incidence and location specific complications of hydatid disease is presented in Table 3 [2].
Figure 19.
(A) CT image of rupture of hydatid cyst in the lung, (B) CT scan of intrabiliary rupture of hydatid cyst. (C) CT scan showing intraperitoneal cyst rupture with diffuse peritoneal effusion.
Table 3.
Frequency and location specific complications of hydatid disease [2].
3. Conclusion
Echinococcosis is a disorder of larval incursion by echinococcus tapeworm, prevalent in various continents in the world. Lungs and liver are the most commonly affected organs. Imaging has a significant role to implement the right treatment techniques. US is easily accessible and lacks radiation. MRI, CT and ERCP are also used for complicated cases.
Acknowledgments
No contribution by any other author or no funding declared.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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1. Introduction
1.1 General information about cork taint and TCA in wine
The problem of cork tainted wines has been known to winemakers for a long time, but in the second half of the twentieth century, it began to attract more and more attention [1, 2, 3]. The origin of this problem was not well understood until the 1970–80s, before works on 2,4,6-trichloroanisole (TCA) and its contribution to the cork taint were published [4, 5, 6]. Now it is well known that TCA can migrate from cork stoppers and contaminate wine during bottle storage. Moreover, it was discovered that TCA is a widespread pollutant, which has also been found in various food products (coffee, poultry, etc.) as well as in water for public consumption. TCA causes sensory defects, which are usually described as musty, moldy, and wet cardboard off-odors. The situation with TCA contamination is particularly challenging because even trace amounts of this compound can lead to sensory problems in foods. Peculiarly, the human olfactory system is extremely sensitive to TCA molecules. In the case of wine, TCA sensory threshold levels are often about 1.4–1.5 ng/L (Table 1) or lower (especially for white or sparkling wines) and typically vary up to 3–4 ng/L. Generally, the variations in sensory threshold values occur due to the following factors:
Wine matrix. First, the ethanol content in wine increases TCA threshold levels (in comparison, TCA sensory thresholds in water are much lower, starting from about 0.03 ng/L [16]). Second, the overall wine aroma intensity has a masking effect on the TCA perception. Therefore, TCA sensory thresholds are higher for wines made from aromatic grape varieties. In addition, TCA is usually better masked in red wines, as their aroma composition is often more intense compared with white wines. Woody notes in wine can also mask TCA defects, especially in the case of white wines [7].
Personal characteristics of tasters. The sensitivity of people to TCA can vary significantly depending on their olfactory system particularities, the current physiological state of sense organs [17], as well as their experience and training. Thus, the knowledge of “cork taint” has been found to be negatively correlated with individual TCA detection thresholds, i.e., awareness about cork taint increases the sensitivity of tasters to TCA [10].
Mode of sensory evaluation. Comparison of orthonasal (smell) and retronasal (volatiles traveling from the mouth into the nasal cavity) approaches shows that the latter usually provides a higher sensitivity to TCA. This effect is explained by the increased volatility of aroma substances at higher temperatures in the mouth. Another aspect of sensory evaluation is related to the tasters’ attitude toward the perceived TCA smell. For example, it was shown that wine consumers could detect TCA at a concentration of 2.1 ng/L in the wine (detection threshold) and tolerate it, while for the consumer rejection threshold, the TCA content had to reach the level of 3.1 ng/L [10].
Fatigue and suppression of olfactory receptors. Already after a short exposure of tasters to cork tainted wines, their sensitivity to TCA drops rapidly and significantly (fatigue/adaptation effects). The mechanism of TCA interaction with olfactory system is not thoroughly studied. Nevertheless, TCA has been shown to attenuate olfactory transduction, which can lead to the suppression of wine aromas in general [18]. Moreover, such suppression was observed even at extremely low TCA concentrations, which are below the defined sensory thresholds. The masking of certain wine notes by infra-threshold TCA concentrations (0.1–1 ng/L) was demonstrated for various wines [19, 20, 21].
Sensory threshold levels for TCA in wine (adopted from [7] and modified).
Mode of evaluation: aorthonasal; bretronosal; cunknown.
2. Origin and precursors of TCA in cork material and wine
In order to work on preventive measures against TCA defects, it is important to identify its origin in cork and wine. The presence of hyperhalogenated molecules such as TCA in nature is associated with anthropogenic activities. Precursors of haloanisoles (including TCA) are halophenols (PCP—pentachlorophenol, TCP—2,4,6-trichlorophenol, etc), which for many decades in the twentieth century were widely used as components of chlorophenol-based biocides: herbicides, insecticides, fungicides. These products were extensively utilized in agriculture, for the treatment of wooden materials, cardboard, textiles, etc. [22, 23]. Since that time, the problem of cork tainted wines began to attract more and more attention, as mentioned at the beginning of the review. PCP, TCP, and other chlorophenols are relatively stable molecules, but hyperchlorinated phenols can slowly degrade, losing chlorine atoms in the structure (e.g., PCP → TCP). As a result, these compounds can spread and persist in ecosystems for decades and accumulate in cork trees or soil, serving as one of the possible precursors of TCA in cork (Figure 1) [22, 23]. Once TCP is in the bark or wood, the formation of TCA occurs microbiologically, which involves O-methylation of TCP (Figure 2). Penicillium, Fusarium, and Trichoderma strains are considered as microorganisms, which are able to carry out this bioconversion at high and moderate levels [15, 24]. The physiological reason for biomethylation by these filamentous fungi is a defensive response to TCP, which acts as a strong toxin (fungicide). Filamentous fungi are widely spread in nature and do not produce TCA without its precursor TCP. Therefore, the objective reason for the formation of TCA in cork and wood is not the presence of filamentous fungi, but the contamination of these materials with cholorphenols, in particular TCP.
Figure 1.
Possible pathways of environmental contamination of cork trees with TCP and TCA (based on [22]).
Figure 2.
Microbiological formation of TCA by O-methylation of TCP.
Besides the fact that TCP and other chlorophenols are banned as biocides in many countries, these compounds can still be found in many places in nature. The latter also include remote areas that have not been directly treated with these biocides, but contaminated by waterways and atmospheric precipitations (Figure 2) [25]. In general, a limited number of organisms are capable of transforming halophenols, which results in a low degradation rate of these compounds in nature. In addition, there are also other pathways of TCP accumulation in cork and wooden materials, which are described in the following subsections.
2.1 Origins of TCA in cork stoppers
Exogenous contamination of trees by biocides represents the important origin of TCP in bark and wood. As discussed above, TCP is microbiologically transformed into TCA, the latter accumulates in bark, from which cork stoppers are then produced. However, there are also other sources of TCP and TCA in the cork material, some of which were quite relevant in the past. One of these pathways of TCA formation starts from the chlorination of phenol present in cork. Phenol is formed in cork and wooden materials by degradation of lignin and by the action of Penicillium spp. These fungi are able to synthesize phenol starting from glucose following the pentosephosphate and shikimic acid pathways [26]. Then the treatment of cork with chlorine-containing agents can lead to the chlorination of phenol yielding various chlorophenols, including TCP and dichlorophenols (Figure 3). Such cork treatment was widespread before 1990 during the production process of corks:
bleaching of cork cylinders with calcium hypochlorite solution Ca(ClO)2;
boiling of bark slabs with tap water containing chlorine Cl2.
Figure 3.
TCA formation via chlorination of phenol in cork and wooden materials (based on [26, 27]).
Chlorination of phenol is a chemical process, however, some authors suggested that biochemical transformation by Basidiomycetes can also take place under certain conditions [23]. As was already discussed, the formation of TCA involves the O-methylation step, which can occur before or after chlorination of phenol (Figure 3). One of the signs of the use of chlorine-containing substances in the manufacture of corks is the presence of other compounds, such as chlorocresols and chloromethylanisoles, which have a moldy off-odor similar to TCA.
Nowadays, in order to protect the quality of cork stoppers, the application of chlorine-based treatments is strongly discouraged by the “International Code of Cork Stopper Manufacturing Practices” promoted by the European Confederation of Cork (C.E. Liège) [7]. The practice of hypochlorite usage as bleaching agent was banned around 1990 and completely abandoned by all cork stopper producers. Hypochlorite was substituted by hydrogen peroxide H2O2 that does not cause haloanisole problems. The application of chlorine-containing tap water for the bark slabs boiling process is also forbidden. As a result of these measures, along with the improved analytical control, the average cork contamination was significantly reduced, but the TCA problem was not completely resolved.
The other potential source of TCP in cork material is degradation of PCP. Among chloroanisole-based biocides, PCP was probably the most utilized. Thus, in the 1970s in the United States alone, its production reached about 23 k tons per year [28]. Unsurprisingly, PCP is still abundant in nature and in wooden materials. In the presence of some bacteria, the reductive dechlorination of PCP occurs as a part of the chlorophenol degradation process (Figure 4), which implies replacement of chlorine atoms by hydrogen and formation of less chlorinated phenols. Among others, TCP and 2,3,4,6-tetrachlorophenol (TeCP) can be observed as products of dehalogenation [25, 29, 30]. All these chlorophenols can be microbiologically converted to corresponding chloroanisoles: TCA, TeCA, and PCA. The concentration of the latter in wine can be even higher than TCA, however, PCA does not play a prominent role in cork taint, since its sensory threshold is higher by 3–4 orders of magnitude and is measured in μg/L (Table 2).
Figure 4.
Dechlorination reactions of PCP and formation of chloroanisoles.
Sensory thresholds of haloanisoles in alcoholic solutions (wine).
Given the different origins of TCA in cork stoppers, it is sometimes unclear which pathway contributes to the formation of TCA in each specific case. The cork stoppers production process (Figure 5) includes steps, which are aimed at reducing the TCA content originating from contaminated trees. Among these processes are the aeration of bark slabs, extraction of contaminants by boiling of bark slabs in water, etc. However, all these efforts to reduce TCA may be futile if the succeeding production steps are poorly controlled. For example, TCA can be subsequently regenerated in the treated cork material if the bark slabs are stored and transported wet. Under these conditions, fungi develop rapidly and biomethylation of TCP leads to reappearance of TCA. Therefore, it is necessary to strictly monitor all critical stages in the cork stopper production. Over the past decades, many efforts and technological improvements have been implemented by cork producers to reduce and control the fungi growth, prevent the TCA formation in cork material and its removal during the production process.
Figure 5.
Typical steps in the production of natural cork stoppers (*more details in section 4).
Finally, if contaminated corks are detected, the origin of TCA can be deduced from the simultaneous analysis of haloanisoles, halophenols, and their ratio. For example, the presence of dichlorophenols in cork or tainted wine indicates the probable involvement of chlorine at some stages of cork stopper production (Figure 3) rather than TCP precursor from the forest [23].
2.2 Other sources of TCA in wine
Musty/moldy defects in wine caused by TCA cannot be attributed only to cork stoppers. There are cases when wines are bottled with plastic closures or screw caps and can still be contaminated with TCA. These incidents have happened in the past and continue to surprise wine producers and consumers today. Possible ways of such contamination are as follows:
Contaminated air and winery equipment. Formation of haloanisoles, including TCA, is possible directly in wine cellars. Corresponding precursors, TCP and other chlorophenols, can be present in various wooden elements: roof constructions, walls, floor, paints, pallets, barrels, etc. [32, 33]. These precursors often originate from chlorophenol-based biocides, which were used in the past as fungicides for wood protection or paint preservatives, or are formed from the reactions of chlorine-containing detergents with wood components in the cellar, as shown in Figure 3. Then, filamentous fungi produce TCA (Figure 2), which is volatile and contaminates the air. Subsequently, TCA can be easily absorbed by winery equipment, plastic hoses, filter sheets, bentonite, wooden barrels, various enological products, and transmitted to the wine once it gets in contact with the contaminated surfaces (Figure 6). The described scheme of wine contamination is more typical for old cellars, where wooden constructions, paints, plasters, walls can contain remarkable quantities of chloroanisole precursors. Nowadays, these compounds are forbidden as biocides, however, other risks of air contamination also exist in modern cellars. Bromophenol-based biocides (2,4,6-tribromophenol, TBP) are still allowed for the wood treatment and can be present in paints, resin laminates, etc. [34]. Similar to the reaction in Figure 2, filamentous fungi are able to convert TBP to 2,4,6-tribromoanisole (TBA), which has analogous sensory properties as TCA: musty/moldy off-odor and low sensory perception threshold (Table 2). Therefore, the current analysis of musty/moldy wines usually includes the determination of not only TCA and chloroanisoles, but also TBA. Once the source of TCA or TBA in the cellar is identified, it should be eliminated. If it is not possible and the air contamination is not very high, then intensive air ventilation may be the solution. Among the preventive measures is the replacement of wooden elements in the cellar, e.g., metallic or plastic pallets instead of wooden ones. The utilization of chlorine-containing detergents to clean the winery and equipment should be avoided. Finally, it is recommended to periodically check the air in the cellar for various contaminants. The standardized method of halophenols and haloanisoles analysis in air involves passive sampling by bentonite spread out over a strip of aluminum foil and exposed to the atmosphere for at least 5 days [35]. Then the contaminants are extracted by ether/hexane mixture (or other solvents) and analyzed by GC–MS. Active sampling methods were also suggested, e.g., pumping air through the tubes with Tenax TA™ sorbent followed by thermal desorption – GC – triple quadrupole MS [36].
Secondary contamination of wine closures. Besides contaminated winery equipment, wine closures can also accumulate and transmit airborne TCA. Cork and plastic materials of various wine closures have a great ability to absorb TCA. Thus, even a short-term exposure of cork stoppers to a contaminated atmosphere (24 hours) is sufficient to intake a large amount of TCA [37]. The main part of absorbed TCA is initially localized in the outer 2 mm of the cork cylinder. Then it migrates inside the closure, most likely along the lenticels. As for plastic closures, the absorption of TCA is also significant, and migration inside these closures is more efficient, since they do not have a cellular structure like natural corks. An example of such a way of contamination was reported already in 1990 [38]. After transporting champagne corks to Australia, the stoppers were found to have a TCA pollution. The corks were packed in polyethylene bags inside fiberboard cartons, which contained significant amount of TCA. Investigation of the materials that came to contact with the packaging suggested that the source of TCA was the floor of the shipping container, which was treated with fungicides containing TCP. In addition, Schaefer presented a number of examples of TCA contamination [39], e.g., pollution of screw caps (liners) that were stored in cardboard boxes on contaminated wooden pallets. In particularly, a higher TCA content was observed in the screw caps, which were on the bottom of the box.
Contamination through wine closures after bottling. In the early 2000s, research began on the possibility of TCA migration from the air through bottle closures into wine. Several studies demonstrated that different grades of natural and agglomerated corks are excellent barriers against airborne d5-TCA for at least 2–3 years of bottle storage in a contaminated atmosphere [40, 41, 42, 43]. The analysis of these stoppers revealed that d5-TCA was detected only on the top of the closures, which was in contact with the contaminated air. As for other types of closures, certain amounts of airborne d5-TCA were found in wines sealed with some types of synthetic stoppers, glass stoppers, and screw caps (excluding those with Tin Saran liner). One of the possibilities to protect wines with plastic stoppers from the airborne haloanisoles contamination is to use capsules without holes. This approach allowed to reduce the wine contamination with airborne d5-TCA by about 10 times or more [44]. A possible criticism of many of these studies about the migration of TCA through bottle closures is that the applied storage conditions involved relatively high levels of air pollution. At the same time, there are no comprehensive reviews summarizing the TCA levels in air in real polluted environments. As for real cases of wine contamination via this mechanism, one of them was described in the Annual Report of Australian Wine Research Institute [45]. A large batch of sparkling wine with crown seals (about 14 months after tirage) was analyzed because of the musty taint, and the presence of TeCA and traces of PCA was determined. As a result of the investigation, it was suggested that several months of exposure to the contaminated air allowed the migration of TeCA through the crown seals in quantities sufficient to taint the wine. Wood preservatives were identified as a potential source of haloanisoles.
Figure 6.
Possible ways of wine contamination with TCA in a cellar.
Given all of these potential pathways for TCA contamination, there is a need to more comprehensively investigate the problems associated with musty/moldy wines rather than simply linking them to cork stoppers.
3. Methods of TCA analysis in cork stoppers
Cork stoppers may eventually contain at least traces of haloanisoles, in particular TCA. However, wines bottled with cork stoppers only rarely have noticeable musty/moldy defects. The reason lies in the particularities of the extraction of TCA by wine from the cork material. Wine is an aqueous solution of alcohol with a moderate extraction power in relation to TCA, while the cork material retains this compound rather strongly [46]. In addition, TCA can be efficiently extracted only from the part of the cork that is in direct contact with wine. No noticeable migration of TCA from the middle or outer part of cork stoppers into bottled wine is usually observed [40]. Consequently, the amount of TCA extracted by wine is far from the entire TCA content inside corks. According to different authors, the part of TCA that can be released into wine from a cork stopper typically varies between 0.05% and 8% [3, 33, 47, 48]. Considering these peculiarities, two concepts of TCA contamination of cork stoppers were introduced:
Releasable TCA, which is defined as the equilibrium value of TCA that a given cork imparts to the soak solution (wine) and is measured in ng per liter [48];
Total TCA corresponds to the entire content of TCA in a cork stopper and is expressed in ng per gram of cork material.
In general, releasable TCA depends on total TCA content and its localization in the cork stopper. Determination of releasable TCA content has an extensive practical application. Namely, it corresponds to the amount of TCA, which can potentially migrate and contaminate bottled wine. Therefore, it became a routine technique to control releasable TCA content in cork stoppers at different stages of their production. On the contrary, total TCA analysis most often serves as an important tool for scientific purposes. It allows to study the nature and origin of cork contamination, the distribution of TCA inside corks [49], the dynamics of TCA absorption by cork material from wine [46] or from the air [37], etc. For example, it was found that TCA content in the lenticel and non-lenticel cork fractions did not differ considerably, as well as TCA concentration in the light and dark parts of the growth rings [49]. Analytical approaches to determining releasable TCA and total TCA contents are comprehensively discussed in our review [50], including the particularities of the described methods: sample preparation and treatment techniques, TCA recovery, detection of other analytes (haloanisoles and halophenols), etc. In the current book chapter, this information is summarized in the following subsections.
3.1 Analysis of releasable TCA content
Releasable TCA values may vary depending on the cork soaking conditions: alcoholic strength of extractant, time of maceration, etc. In order to overcome these uncertainties, standardized procedures were developed. Two analytical methods proposed by OIV organization (Method OIV-MA-AS315–16 [51]) and ISO (20752:2014(E) [52]) are currently in wide use. According to these protocols, cork stoppers are macerated in an aqueous-alcoholic solution (12% vol. alcoholic strength) or white wine (10–12% vol. [51]) during 24 ± 2 h of passive soak. This time is sufficient to ensure the equilibrium for TCA extraction when it reaches a steady state [53]. Additional studies have shown that maceration time can be reduced by using active soak, for example, up to 2 hours with microwave assisted extraction (MAE) [54]. The MAE technique provides results very similar to the standard soak procedure for corks with releasable TCA < 25 ng/L. Once obtained, extracts are usually analyzed by GC–MS or GC-ECD in combination with headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) [51, 52] or stir bar sorptive extraction (SBSE) [54].
The soaking of cork stoppers can be done individually or in groups. The latter approach is commonly used on an industrial scale for quality control of commercial batches of cork stoppers. Overall, comparable results have been found for group soak values and average values of individual cork soaks (R2 about 90%) [48, 53]. The size of glass containers and the volume of extractant for releasable TCA analysis usually depend on the number of corks. For example, group extractions of 20 and 50 corks are recommended to be done in 1 L and 2 L containers, respectively [51, 52]. There are no exact recommendations regarding the volume of extractant, but the cork stoppers should be completely immersed in the solution. It has been demonstrated that a reasonable deviation of the extractant volume does not significantly affect the TCA equilibrium and the resulting releasable TCA values [48]. Further studies of the adsorption/desorption process of TCA on the cork surface revealed certain limitations of the method. For example, a group soak can demonstrate an undetectable level of TCA even though some individual corks may release a certain amount of contaminant. This may occur because “clean” cork stoppers can reabsorb most of TCA from the group extract. Thus, in one study it was shown that cork stoppers are able to remove about 80% of TCA from contaminated wine after 24 h of soaking [46]. Therefore, individual soaking can be a more representative test compared with group soaking. At the same time, the results of individual soaking can also be distorted due to the reabsorption of TCA by “clean” parts of the same cork.
Despite the described adsorption/desorption effects, the values of releasable TCA analysis for individual stoppers correlated quite well with the TCA content in wines bottled with the same corks [48]. Thus, it was found that 14 months after bottling, on average, the concentration of TCA in wines was about half the corresponding releasable TCA values. The lower TCA content in real conditions can be due to the fact that the wine contacts only a limited surface of the cork in the bottle, while during the releasable TCA analysis, the entire cork is immersed in the extractant.
For the analysis of cork extracts, the same GC methods are used as for the analysis of wine [55, 56]. Therefore, in addition to TCA, other haloanisoles (TeCA, PCA, TBA, etc.) and halophenols can also be quantified. For a more accurate determination of the latter (TCP, TeCP and PCP), preliminary derivatization of extracts (acetylation) can be carried out [57]. Finally, in addition to GC methods, a bioanalytical technique for the analysis of wine and cork extracts (Bioelectric Recognition Assay (BERA)) was studied [58]. This technique is based on a biosensor containing membrane-engineered cells with inserted TCA-specific antibodies. Therefore, it is limited only to the TCA determination and operates in the range of about 1–12 ng/L. On the other hand, BERA is a relatively fast analysis, requiring only 3–5 min, and can be considered as a promising express method.
3.2 Analysis of total TCA content
The key concept of this method is the maximum extraction (recovery) of hydrophobic haloanisoles from the cork matrix. This can be achieved by selecting an effective solvent and grinding the cork to obtain a large surface in contact with the extractant. Corks can be ground in a granulating mill with a stainless steel bowl [59] or in a regular coffee grinder [46]. It is recommended to pre-freeze corks to facilitate the grinding process and prevent the loss of volatile organic compounds due to evaporation. Freezing can be done by immersing a cork stopper in liquid nitrogen [60, 61]. To increase the repeatability of the analysis, it is recommended to make the fraction of ground cork less than 3 mm [35] or even homogenize it by passing it through a sieve, e.g., 1 mm in diameter [61, 62]. At the same time, the analysis of pieces around 5 x 5 mm also demonstrated good recoveries and repeatability [63].
Among the tested solvents, hexane and pentane showed high extractive properties with respect to hydrophobic haloanisoles and are now widely used [2, 63, 64]. According to the OIV protocol, an ethyl ether/hexane mixture (50/50; v/v) is recommended [35]. Alcoholic solutions with an ethanol concentration of more than 50% (vol.) showed lower but still good results. In particular, a solution with 75% (vol.) of ethanol can be recommended in certain situations, for example, in the case of a subsequent SBSE analysis technique [59]. Methanol in combination with some extraction methods is also a good candidate for analysis [62]. Other solvent options have also been described, but they are not widely used or are specified for certain extraction methods: pentane/ethyl acetate [4], pentane/diethyl ether for pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) method [60], etc.
With regard to extraction techniques, there are several approaches that include conventional soak, Soxhlet extraction, and various advanced methods. Conventional soak of ground cork is usually performed in closed glass vessels, and variations are related to the selection of solvent, extraction time, application of mechanical agitation, etc. Generally, the method is effective, but time-consuming: typically maceration takes 24 hours without mechanical agitation [37, 46, 63, 65]. Maceration time can be significantly reduced by using agitation in a rotary mixer [64] or vortex [35], by sonication in an ultrasonic bath (15–30 min) [59, 64] or immersing an ultrasonic processor inside the cork/solvent mixture for 1–2 min [66, 67]. Conventional soak is an effective method with the possibility to achieve TCA recoveries of more than 90% [50].
Soxhlet apparatus provides continuous circulation of a boiling extractant through a ground cork. Extraction time usually varies between 7 and 24 hours [33, 62, 68], making this method not time-efficient. Nowadays, Soxhlet extraction is less often used as a routine technique, but remains a reliable reference method due to its high TCA recovery (up to 99%), repeatability, reproducibility, and small deviation between replicates [62, 64].
Both conventional soak and Soxhlet extraction result in a relatively large amount of extract, which must be concentrated prior to injection for GC analysis. Therefore, the improvement of extraction methods was aimed not only at optimizing the time, but also at reducing the volume of solvent used. It has been proposed to utilize the following special extraction techniques for haloanisoles: microwave-assisted extraction—MAE [62], supercritical fluid extraction—SFE [69], pressurized liquid extraction—PLE [60], pressurized fluid extraction—PFE [70], etc. All of these advanced extraction methods demonstrated excellent efficiency (high recoveries and good reproducibility), but they require specific equipment.
The next steps in the development of cork analysis are organic solvent-free methods, which involve heating ground cork with or without water. As a result, TCA and other haloanisoles are vaporized and then analyzed, for example, using HS-SPME [61, 71]. These methods of direct analysis do not require special sample preparations, but are carried out with a smaller amount of analyzed cork, e.g., 200 mg or less. A similar approach was also proposed for the analysis of entire natural corks and is discussed in Section 4.2.2.
Finally, the determination of total TCA and other haloanisoles and halophenols can be performed not only for cork stoppers, but also for various objects present in cellars: wooden pallets [33], oak barrel sawdust [72, 73], wooden chips [35], wooden staves [74], and other cellar materials [39]. All of these materials should be preliminary ground, as it is required for corks [35].
4. Strategies to avoid TCA presence in wine
It is more practical to prevent TCA contamination of wines during their production, bottling, and storage process than to remove the cork taint later. Strategies for avoiding haloanisoles pollution of the winery environment, equipment, enological products are well described by Jung and Schaefer [27] and are partially mentioned in Section 2.2 of this chapter. The current section will discuss how to reduce/eliminate TCA contamination in cork stoppers. Being among the most unpleasant and most frequent wine defects, the cork taint problem has triggered numerous research projects led by cork industry players over the last 30 years to remedy this situation.
One group of the early methods was aimed at sterilization of cork material (to eliminate microorganisms producing TCA) and decontamination. The corresponding technologies involved exposure of cork material to microwave radiation [75]; treatment of cork with alkaline solutions [76, 77], etc. Other methods were focused on the elimination of chlorophenols (TCA precursors) from the cork material, such as treatment of cork with a phenol oxidizing enzyme [78] or application of Chrysonilia sitophila fungi, which are able to degrade TCP without formation of TCA and inhibit growth of TCA-producing fungi [79].
The use of physical barriers on a cork stopper to prevent it from making contact with bottled wine is another strategy that has been tested. For example, a silicon joint on champagne stoppers was studied to prevent the migration of TCA into wine [80]. Another study investigated a nanostructured carbon-based film on the cork surface as a barrier against dust and impurities that may penetrate and pollute the cork mass [81].
Most of the approaches listed above demonstrated only limited effectiveness in diminishing TCA in cork stoppers and its appearance in bottled wine. Therefore, there are currently two main strategies for dealing with contaminated corks:
cleaning of cork material to remove TCA;
sorting of cork stoppers to select “TCA-free” ones.
More details on these strategies, their limitations, and associated difficulties are presented in the following subsections.
4.1 Technical methods to reduce/eliminate TCA presence in cork stoppers
Various products and techniques were proposed for cleaning and eliminating TCA from contaminated corks: for example, treatment with an aqueous suspension of activated charcoal [82] or a mixture of water and organic solvents (including ethanol) combined with a heating phase obtained with electromagnetic energy at hyper frequencies [83], etc. Not all tested cork cleaning methods have shown high efficiency, reasonable installation costs, processing and energy consumption, as well as safety requirements. In addition, some processes can have secondary effects that cause significant changes in the physical and chemical composition of corks, leading to the alteration of their mechanical or sensory properties. As a result, there are a limited number of cork cleaning technologies that have proven their practical applicability and suitable for use on an industrial scale. Among these approaches are treatment with steam, thermal desorption by vacuum, and treatment with supercritical CO2.
4.1.1 Treatment with steam
It is known that the concentration of TCA in cork can be diminished by simple aeration, which can be accelerated by higher temperature and humidity [37, 84]. Therefore, steam distillation technique was proposed to remove volatile substances, including TCA.
Steam extraction technologies are used nowadays by different cork manufacturers and demonstrate good results (Figure 7). For example, the first industrial steam cleaning process ROSA® of Amorim Cork provided the removal of about 80% of TCA from cork granules [86], which are then used to produce agglomerated cork stoppers. Subsequent optimization of the process led to a reduction in the TCA content to almost “zero” level (i.e., below the limit of quantification (LOQ)) for cork granules, which possessed the initial releasable TCA levels less than 6 ng/L. The next development step allows treating entire natural cork stoppers (ROSA Evolution®), reducing their releasable TCA levels by 80–85%.
Figure 7.
Steam extraction technology (ROSA®) for TCA extraction from cork granules [85].
Other companies that use steam to clean natural corks and granules also have their own particularities in the process (Innocork® and Vapex®, by Cork Supply; Neotech® and Sara Advanced®, by M.A.Silva; Revtech and others). For example, utilization of an ethanol-water vapor mixture to treat corks (Innocork®). The process can take place under 60°C allowing reduction of the TCA content up to 80% [87]. Higher temperatures above 70–80°C are not recommended, because they led to irreversible distortions of the stoppers after cooling [87]. Atmospheric pressure is suitable for these cleaning technologies as it provides good extraction results at a considerable cost reduction (no special low-pressure equipment is required). At the same time, a higher or lower pressure (0.2–0.8 bars) or a variation of pressure in the cleaning system can be applied to increase the efficiency of TCA removal. For example, Belighit with colleagues (2010) proposed cycles of pressurization with water vapor followed by periods of vacuum to enhance the cork cleaning [88].
4.1.2 Thermal desorption by vacuum
Removal of TCA and other compounds by thermal desorption involves increased temperature to enhance the volatilization of contaminants from the cork material, which is facilitated by vacuum [89]. The desorption process requires temperatures above the boiling points of the haloanisoles to convert the contaminants to a gaseous state. This temperature for TCA at atmospheric pressure (1 bar) is about 240°C, which can compromise the composition of cork material. At the same time, boiling points can be substantially decreased by applying a vacuum: for example, 0.1 mbar pressure lowers the boiling point of TCA to 19.5°C. The desorption process can be carried out at a deeper vacuum of 0.01 mbar or lower, which further facilitates the volatilization of TCA. As a result, desorption of TCA and other contaminants can be performed at moderate temperatures if the proper vacuum level is applied [90]. In addition, the preliminary “recrystallization” of TCA (boiling corks in water and subsequent drying) before the thermal desorption process allegedly enhances the removal of pollutant [91]. A recent example of industrial application of thermal desorption processes is Naturity® technology (Amorim Cork), which allows the extraction of TCA and similar compounds from natural cork stoppers with high efficiency.
4.1.3 Treatment with supercritical CO2
Supercritical fluid is a special state of matter, which exists at elevated temperature and pressure above its critical point and beyond the distinct liquid and gas phases. For carbon dioxide (CO2), this supercritical phase can be reached by subjecting it to pressures over 73 bar and temperatures over 31°C (Figure 8). Under these conditions, CO2 is neither liquid nor gaseous, but combines the properties of both states. Its “gaseous” properties give CO2 a very high diffusion capacity through a treated material (e.g., cork), while its “liquid” behavior provides a very high extraction power toward some volatile molecules (e.g., volatile and malodorous compounds of cork, including TCA). By adjusting the pressure/temperature conditions (e.g., 120 bars/60°C), it is possible to optimize the extraction of TCA from cork by CO2 while preserving the mechanical properties of the cork material [92]. This extraction process does not require the use of organic solvents, which makes it safe for human health and environmentally friendly.
Figure 8.
Pressure–temperature phase diagram for CO2.
Diamant® (Diam Bouchage) was the first industrial system for supercritical CO2 cleaning of cork material based on a technology patented over 20 years ago (Figure 9) [93]. It has been shown that this cleaning process is highly effective in achieving “zero” levels of residual TCA (i.e., below LOQ = 0.3 ng/L) in a single treatment cycle of cork granules, which had an initial contamination close to 20 ng/L of releasable TCA [92], and later close to 50 ng/L [94]. In addition, over 150 other molecules besides TCA are also removed (mainly nonpolar), including various terpenes, pyrazines, etc. [95, 96]. Further development of supercritical CO2 extraction technology for cork material involved optimization of the used energy and the CO2 volume. A recent example of other technologies based on the similar principle is Xpür® (Amorim Cork), which was also designed to clean cork granules.
Figure 9.
Supercritical CO2 cleaning technology (Diamant®) to remove TCA and other volatile compounds from cork granules.
Generally, the existing supercritical CO2 extraction technologies for cork material are limited to cork granules, which are subsequently used to produce agglomerated stoppers. Applying this process to natural cork stoppers encountered certain difficulties. The process efficacy was greatly reduced due to the low diffusion of supercritical CO2 in the cork structure: when growing on a tree, the cork acquires a nonisotropic internal structure, i.e., its physical and mechanical properties (elasticity) are not the same and depend on the orientation of the cork growth lines. During the supercritical CO2 cleaning process involving pressurization and decompression, the cork compresses and then decompresses unevenly, generating fractures in the material. This results in delamination of cork growth veins, a loss of its physical properties of about 30%, and a significantly increased heterogeneity of oxygen permeability levels among cleaned natural cork stoppers. In turn, micro-agglomerated cork stoppers made of cork granules provide far superior homogeneity and consistency.
Supercritical CO2 extraction was proposed also for the determination of total TCA in ground corks [69]. In addition, this technology is widely used nowadays in other industries, as it allows the treatment of raw materials at moderate temperatures avoiding side processes (e.g., Maillard reactions) and the formation of undesirable by-products. Thus, it is commonly used in perfumery to extract aromatic molecules from natural materials, in the food industry to extract caffeine from coffee (producing decaffeinated coffee), theine from tea, lupulin from hops, etc.
4.2 Quality control techniques: selection of “TCA-free” cork stoppers
As it was mentioned in Section 3, the analysis of releasable TCA is used for the quality control of cork batches. The corks are randomly selected, analyzed, and the results are extrapolated to the entire batch of stoppers. Therefore, a purchaser of these natural corks can count on the probability of contamination within the batch, but not on the specific TCA contamination of each individual cork. To guarantee the “TCA-free” status of each stopper, they need to be analyzed individually, one by one. The usual releasable TCA method is not suitable for this goal and is considered destructive: soaking and following drying procedures alter the cork surface due to tannin staining [97] and other effects. Therefore, the aim was to develop nondestructive methods, which could correlate with the releasable TCA analysis. As a result, “TCA-free” corks can be selected from the analyzed batch, commercialized, and used later for wine bottling. Nowadays, there are two main nondestructive approaches to the individual cork analysis, which will be discussed below: sensory methods and automated methods.
4.2.1 Sensory methods
The high interest in the sensory evaluation of corks in the late 1980s and 1990s led to the development of the first protocols for analysis of stoppers [98, 99]. In 1996, a typical sensory method of cork analysis was elaborated at the Hochschule Geisenheim University (former Forschungsanstalt Geisenheim), which according to the latest issue [100] offers the following procedure:
3 ml of water is added to a 100 ml glass flask and a cork stopper is placed inside;
the flask is closed and stored at room temperature for 24 hours (to achieve equilibrium of the volatile compounds of the cork in the vapor phase);
sensory evaluation of the air from the vials by sniffing by trained tasters.
Other routine sensory evaluation methods of cork stoppers can vary somewhat in terms of flask volume, amount of water added, etc. [97, 101]. For example, Macku and colleagues [97] used 125 mL flasks with six drops of water. At the same time, the principles described above remain the same and are often referred to as “dry soak” sensory screening methods. The advantage of the sensory method also lies in the possibility to identify various aroma deviations related not only to TCA and haloanisoles. Among other off-odor compounds are geosmin, 2-methoxy-3,5-dimethylpyrazine, and various malodorous molecules, including those formed due to improper treatment of cork material during the production process.
To prove the effectiveness of the “dry soak” method, Macku and colleagues [97] performed an extensive sensory evaluation of 2000 corks. As a result, about 6% of the stoppers were rejected and then analyzed by GC–MS. About one-third of the rejected corks possessed releasable TCA levels above 1 ng/L, while the rest had levels below 1 ng/L (their discard can be related to the presence of other taint substances in cork). In turn, 100 stoppers from the “clean” group were randomly selected and also analyzed by GC–MS. None of these stoppers demonstrated a releasable TCA level higher than 1 ng/l, which is usually under the human perception threshold.
The “dry soak” method can be used for sensory screening of corks on an industrial scale. For example, the company Cork Supply adopted this technique for their natural corks, and selected “cork taint-free” stoppers became available to customers. Despite the proven effectiveness of the method, it is a time-consuming technique based on human factors, which can only be applied to a limited number of corks over a given period of time. Therefore, the market was waiting for automated methods of cork stoppers selection.
4.2.2 Automated methods
The purpose of automated methods is to quickly analyze each individual cork stopper for TCA content and then separate the corks into different groups depending on the TCA contamination. The general technical principle for cork analysis is as follows: a cork stopper is placed into a small hermetic chamber and heated, which induces vaporization of TCA from the cork; then the air from the chamber is collected and analyzed by GC–MS method with various detection systems [electron capture detector (ECD), ion mobility spectrometry (IMS), etc.].
Several companies have recently been developing such automated nondestructive technologies for the analysis of individual corks. The first system based on this principle, which started to work on an industrial scale, was NDTech® (Amorim Cork). Optimization of the technology allowed reduction of the time of analysis of one cork to 15 seconds and provide the releasable TCA detection level of 0.5 ng/L. Thus, all analyzed cork stoppers with TCA levels below 0.5 ng/L are selected as “TCA-free” corks. Among other automated systems present on the market or in the commercial phase are the following: the system of CEVAQOE laboratory; Vocus Cork Analyzer (Tofwerk); the system of Cork Supply Portugal, S. A. (cork company); the system developed in collaboration between Bruker (scientific instruments manufacturer) and Egitron.
Automated systems for the analysis of TCA in corks are more efficient than sensory methods. However, considering the cork market, which requires billions of stoppers per year, even the automated methods available cannot analyze all the corks produced. Therefore, these technologies remain focused rather on higher-quality corks for wines in the medium- and high-price segments.
5. Removal of TCA from contaminated wines
Approaches to remove TCA from contaminated wines have been developed over several decades. Haloanisoles are nonpolar compounds; therefore, various hydrophobic materials (including different polymers) have been tested as candidates for diminishing TCA content in tainted wines (Table 3). Polyethylene, as a widespread and inexpensive plastic material, has shown high scalping properties in relation to TCA. It has been used in the form of a film [46] or granules (ultrahigh-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMW PE). In general, polyethylene is able to absorb more than 90% of TCA [46, 102] and other haloanisoles from wine [46]. The efficiency of immersed film treatment depended on the film thickness, contact surface, and contact time. In the case of granules, tainted wine can be passed through the polymer particles, and the optimal rate should be applied. Other plastic items such as wine cask bladders and polypropylene lids also have scalping effects on haloanisoles [46]. A limitation for the use of plastic materials to reduce the TCA content in wine is related to the simultaneous scalping of wine color and aroma compounds [102], which can lead, in particular, to the loss of floral/fruity aromas [46]. In a recent study, the application of alimentary film (confidential composition) reduced TCA content by 81–83% after 48 h of wine-film contact [103]. Checking other wine components after this treatment showed no noticeable impact either on the color of red wines or on the phenolic and tannin composition. As for wine aroma compounds, there was no effect on the woody aroma profile; however, long-chain ethyl esters (ethyl octanoate, ethyl decanoate, and ethyl dodecanoate) were significantly absorbed, by about 70–80% after 48 h. Similar effects were also observed for synthetic bottle stoppers, which demonstrated higher absorption of the mentioned ethyl esters compared with corks [112].
Methods/absorbents used
TCA removal efficiency
Remarks
References
Polyethylene (PE) film
> 90%
Absorption of other haloanisoles was also studied: 2,4-DCA, 2,6-DCA, TeCA, PCA
Not recommended, but can be used for wines with minor TCA taint
Risk of contamination of a larger volume of wine
—
Table 3.
Methods and materials proposed for the treatment of TCA-contaminated wines.
Cork material itself can serve as a good absorbent of TCA and other halonisoles. It was found that cork stoppers are able to reduce the TCA content in tainted bottled wine by about 50% after 3 months of storage [46]. These results were similar for corks of different qualities, including agglomerated stoppers. Obviously, in order to reduce the TCA content in wine, corks should not be initially contaminated with TCA. Immersion of cork stoppers in tainted wine (soaking) can remove even more TCA, about 80–90% [46]. This idea has already been discussed in the previous section about the analysis of releasable TCA.
Subsequent works on the development of suitable polymeric materials for the removal of TCA from wine involved the usage of polyaniline-based materials and cross-linked derivatives of polyamidoamine [104]. They demonstrated a relatively high TCA absorption (>75%) and almost no impact on phenolic compounds in wine. At the same time, more research is required on the scalping of aroma compounds by these polymers. In order to eliminate tainted compounds selectively, the application of molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) was proposed. Tests with absorbents of this type allowed the removal of TCA with a very high efficiency, >99% [105]. Simultaneously, it also revealed high retention properties toward other molecules such as 4-ethylphenol, 4-ethylguaiacol, oak lactones, 2-phenylethyl acetate, etc. Therefore, succeeding research on the absorption of other wine aroma compounds is also needed.
Among the inorganic materials, it was initially proposed to use activated charcoal. It demonstrated good results in TCA retention, but also low selectivity, i.e., high absorption of other wine components. Therefore, only slightly tainted wines are recommended to be treated with activated charcoal at doses, which are well below the maximum allowed levels (100 g/hL) in the EU for wine production [27, 113]. In this regard, zeolites, aluminosilicate minerals, seem to be more suitable absorbents. Zeolites possess a microporous structure, represented by a complex system of cavities (< 2 nm) and channels with a negatively charged surface. Due to these particularities, zeolites, as molecular sieves, have a good potential to interact and retain various molecules, including TCA. Zeolite powder can be directly mixed with contaminated wine [106] or integrated into filter plates that facilitates its industrial application. It was demonstrated that filtration of contaminated wines (5–20 ng/L of TCA) through such filters (“Fibrafix® TX-R”) diminishes the TCA content to 1.1–1.2 ng/L (Figure 10), which is usually below the sensory thresholds [108]. In turn, in the wines contaminated with TBA (5–20 ng/L), undetectable levels of the pollutant were found after the treatment. Filtration through “Fibrafix® TX-R” plates had no significant impact on the analyzed wine aroma compounds (mainly secondary, fermentation aromas). At the same time, sensory panelists were able to distinguish between the wines filtered through the zeolite filter and a conventional filter, but no preference was given to any of the wines. As for the migration of aluminum ions from the filter sheet into the wine, it was insignificant, maximum 0.4 mg/L [108]. The application of zeolite containing filters is also described in the International Oenological Codex of OIV [109], and the recent EU Regulation (2019/934) permits the wine treatment using filter sheets with Zeolites-Y (Faujasite) for the selective removal of haloanisoles [107].
Figure 10.
Removal of TCA by wine filtration through “Fibrafix® TX-R” [108].
One of the gentle methods of TCA absorption involves the wine treatment with yeast hulls [110]. Several doses of yeast hulls were tested: from 100 mg to 800 mg per 1 L of wine. The effect of such treatment was moderate for TCA: the average dose (400 mg/L) provided only a limited reduction of TCA by 27%. As for other haloanisoles, they were absorbed in larger amounts: 55% for TeCA and 73% for PCA. Wine color deviation was measured for the treated wines and was minor even at the maximal dose of yeast hulls: decrease of color intensity by 3.1% (sum of OD at 420, 520, and 620 nm). Further studies about the impact of yeast hulls on the wine aroma composition can be of interest.
Among biogenic products that have also been tested to diminish TCA in wine are grape seed oil and milk products [111]. The latter exhibited a limited reduction of TCA content in wine, while the treatment with grape seed oil provided even better TCA scalping properties than plastic film. This fact demonstrates the potential of various natural products as absorbents, but the sensory effect on the wine of the used products was noticeable during tastings. The practicality, costs, and compositional consistency of these biogenic absorbents should also be taken into consideration. Moreover, the use of certain natural products may raise questions about possible allergic reactions in individuals.
Finally, the simplest, but also the most risky, method to lower TCA content in contaminated wine is to blend it with defect-free wine. This approach is not recommended and can only be accepted if the problematic wine has just a very minor TCA taint. The dilution can then reduce the TCA concentration below the sensory threshold levels. In other cases, there is a high risk that the entire volume of wine after blending will become defected.
In general, most of the methods described above are aimed primarily at large volumes of wine, while it is not yet bottled. Therefore, it is necessary to adapt these treatments to industrial scale processes, which may be less effective than test treatments on a laboratory scale. In addition, the cost efficiency of the presented treatments should be taken into account, as some of the methods can be relatively expensive.
6. Conclusions
It has been discussed in this chapter that cork stoppers are probably responsible for most of the TCA taint problems in wine. However, besides corks, TCA can also be originated from the cellar atmosphere and contaminate wines bottled with non-cork closures (screw caps, synthetic stoppers, etc). Therefore, some authors have suggested that “moldy taint” or “musty taint” may be more appropriate terms for TCA contaminated wines than “cork taint” [22].
Two main approaches to the analysis of TCA in cork stoppers have been described: determination of total TCA and releasable TCA contents. The latter is especially important for assessing the contamination of corks before wine bottling.
Then, current methods of reduction/elimination of TCA in corks were considered, which are based on two tactics: cleaning of cork material to remove TCA and sorting of corks to select “TCA-free” ones. It has been shown that application of these methods significantly reduces the incidences of TCA defects in wine nowadays. Improved cork production technologies also play an important role. They provide better control and prevention of TCA formation on the stages of bark slabs treatment, storage, etc.
For wines contaminated with TCA, methods for removing/diminishing the TCA content have been discussed (mainly industrial-scale treatments). Many of the mentioned wine cleaning methods can reduce the TCA concentration in wine by 80–90% or more, but they are not universal and not always cost-efficient. In addition, they can cause some side effects such as removal of certain positive aroma compounds.
Finally, it can be concluded that the deep understanding of the TCA problem and the further development of modern technologies give a good chance that the number of defective wines will continue to decline also in the future.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank Tatyana Felyust for preparation of Figures 1, 6, and 8; Elsa Ericson and Niël van Wyk for proofreading.
\n',keywords:"2,4,6-trichloroanisole (TCA), cork taint, musty, moldy, cork stopper, wine",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81659.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81659.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81659",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81659",totalDownloads:49,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"January 14th 2022",dateReviewed:"February 14th 2022",datePrePublished:"May 5th 2022",datePublished:"June 15th 2022",dateFinished:"May 5th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Cork stoppers have been used for many centuries to seal wine in various vessels. Therefore, corks have become a traditional part of wine packaging in many countries and still play an important role for the entire wine industry. Nowadays, there is a wide option of bottle cork stoppers on the market, such as natural corks, agglomerated and technical stoppers (1 + 1), etc. These cork closures have a number of advantages, including positive sustainable and ecological aspects. Natural cork material can also be responsible for cork taint, which imparts musty/moldy or wet cardboard off-odors to the wine. However, corks are not the only source of cork taint in wine, as will be shown in the present chapter. Over the past decades, a number of compounds have been detected that can contribute to the cork taint. Among them, haloanisoles play a major role, in particular 2,4,6-trichloroanisole (TCA), which has been shown to be responsible for 50–80% or more of musty defect cases in wine. Currently, the cork and wine industries have developed a number of tools and technologies to effectively prevent cork tait in wine or to remove it if the wine is already contaminated. These practical as well as analytical questions about the TCA defects are the subject of the actual chapter.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81659",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81659",signatures:"Andrii Tarasov, Miguel Cabral, Christophe Loisel, Paulo Lopes, Christoph Schuessler and Rainer Jung",book:{id:"10901",type:"book",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Grapes and Wine",slug:"grapes-and-wine",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-642-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-641-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-643-5",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"452109",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrii",middleName:null,surname:"Tarasov",fullName:"Andrii Tarasov",slug:"andrii-tarasov",email:"andrii.tarasov@hs-gm.de",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"452236",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Cabral",fullName:"Miguel Cabral",slug:"miguel-cabral",email:"miguel.cabral@amorim.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"452237",title:"Dr.",name:"Christophe",middleName:null,surname:"Loisel",fullName:"Christophe Loisel",slug:"christophe-loisel",email:"loisel@diam-bouchage.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"452238",title:"Dr.",name:"Paulo",middleName:null,surname:"Lopes",fullName:"Paulo Lopes",slug:"paulo-lopes",email:"paulo.lopes@amorim.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"452239",title:"Dr.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Schüßler",fullName:"Christoph Schüßler",slug:"christoph-schussler",email:"Christoph.Schuessler@hs-gm.de",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"470332",title:"Dr.",name:"Rainer",middleName:null,surname:"Jung",fullName:"Rainer Jung",slug:"rainer-jung",email:"Rainer.Jung@hs-gm.de",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 General information about cork taint and TCA in wine",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3",title:"2. Origin and precursors of TCA in cork material and wine",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.1 Origins of TCA in cork stoppers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.2 Other sources of TCA in wine",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Methods of TCA analysis in cork stoppers",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1 Analysis of releasable TCA content",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2 Analysis of total TCA content",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Strategies to avoid TCA presence in wine",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.1 Technical methods to reduce/eliminate TCA presence in cork stoppers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"4.1.1 Treatment with steam",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"4.1.2 Thermal desorption by vacuum",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"4.1.3 Treatment with supercritical CO2",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"4.2 Quality control techniques: selection of “TCA-free” cork stoppers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"4.2.1 Sensory methods",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"4.2.2 Automated methods",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17",title:"5. Removal of TCA from contaminated wines",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_19",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Sefton MA, Simpson RF. Compounds causing cork taint and the factors affecting their transfer from natural Cork closures to wine—A review. Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research. 2005;11:226-240. 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Australian & New Zealand Wine Industry Journal. 2003;18:16-20'},{id:"B113",body:'The Commision of the European Comminities Commision Regulation (EC) No 643/2006 2006'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Andrii Tarasov",address:"andrii.tarasov@hs-gm.de",affiliation:'
Department of Enology, Hochschule Geisenheim University, Germany
Department of Enology, Hochschule Geisenheim University, Germany
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Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
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In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
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\\n\\n
Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at funders@intechopen.com
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Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
\n\n
In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\n\n
\n\t
Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
\n\t
Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
\n
\n\n
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\n\n
Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at funders@intechopen.com
\n\n
Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
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Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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Currently, he is a professor of Orthodontics. He holds a Certificate of Advanced Study type A in Technology of Biomaterials used in Dentistry (1995); Certificate of Advanced Study type B in Dento-Facial Orthopaedics (1997) from the Faculty of Dental Surgery, University Denis Diderot-Paris VII, France; Diploma of Advanced Study (DESA) in Biocompatibility of Biomaterials from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2002); Certificate of Clinical Occlusodontics from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2004); University Diploma of Biostatistics and Perceptual Health Measurement from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2011); and a University Diploma of Pedagogy of Odontological Sciences from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2013). 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. 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She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. 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\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
\r\n
\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
\r\n
\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/40.jpg",keywords:"Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Fauna, Taxonomy, Invasive species, Destruction of habitats, Overexploitation of natural resources, Pollution, Global warming, Conservation of natural spaces, Bioremediation"},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",scope:"
\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
\r\n\tWater is not only a crucial substance needed for biological life on Earth, but it is also a basic requirement for the existence and development of the human society. Owing to the importance of water to life on Earth, early researchers conducted numerous studies and analyses on the liquid form of water from the perspectives of chemistry, physics, earth science, and biology, and concluded that Earth is a "water polo". Water covers approximately 71% of Earth's surface. However, 97.2% of this water is seawater, 21.5% is icebergs and glaciers, and only 0.65% is freshwater that can be used directly by humans. As a result, the amount of water reserves available for human consumption is limited. The development, utilization, and protection of freshwater resources has become the focus of water science research for the continued improvement of human livelihoods and society.
\r\n
\r\n\tWater exists as solid, liquid, and gas within Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Liquid water is used for a variety of purposes besides drinking, including power generation, ecology, landscaping, and shipping. Because water is involved in various environmental hydrological processes as well as numerous aspects of the economy and human society, the study of various phenomena in the hydrosphere, the laws governing their occurrence and development, the relationship between the hydrosphere and other spheres of Earth, and the relationship between water and social development, are all part of water science. Knowledge systems for water science are improving continuously. Water science has become a specialized field concerned with the identification of its physical, chemical, and biological properties. In addition, it reveals the laws of water distribution, movement, and circulation, and proposes methods and tools for water development, utilization, planning, management, and protection. Currently, the field of water science covers research related to topics such as hydrology, water resources and water environment. It also includes research on water related issues such as safety, engineering, economy, law, culture, information, and education.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/41.jpg",keywords:"Water, Water resources, Freshwater, Hydrological processes, Utilization, Protection"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 24th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfPublishedBooks:31,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/206023",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"206023"},fullPath:"/profiles/206023",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()