Mean morphometric features of the studied reservoirs.
\r\n\tIt is a relatively simple process and a standard tool in any industry. Because of the versatility of the titration techniques, nearly all aspects of society depend on various forms of titration to analyze key chemical compounds.
\r\n\tThe aims of this book is to provide the reader with an up-to-date coverage of experimental and theoretical aspects related to titration techniques used in environmental, pharmaceutical, biomedical and food sciences.
The zooplankton community in freshwater bodies is composed principally of protozoa (flagellates and ciliates; from just a few to hundreds of micrometres), rotifers (from 30µm to 1mm) and crustaceans (copepods and cladocerans, some hundreds of µm up to 1cm), as well as insect larvae (such as Chaoborus), freshwater jellyfish (Craspedacusta), ostracods (Cypria), aquatic mites (Hydracarina), fish larvae and even trematode cercariae (Infante, 1988; Lampert & Sommer, 1997; Rocha et al., 1999; Conde-Porcuna et al., 2004). This community represents a vital component in the food web of aquatic ecosystems (López et al., 2001). Especially in dammed rivers, information on the zooplankton community is important for the analysis of the functioning of these ecosystems and for the establishment of management policies for water use.
\n\t\t\tThe density of zooplankton, expressed as the number of organisms per unit of area or volumen, does not necessarily provide exact information about the actual biomass of this community, since this consists of a huge variety of taxa with a wide size range (Matsumura-Tundisi et al., 1989). Zooplankton biomass is also an important and necessary parameter for calculating the secondary production of this community (Melão & Rocha, 2004). Thus, the estimation of the dry weight of zooplankton species is a more useful variable for the study of trophic structure in aquatic ecosystems than density, especially considering its relationship with the trophic states of the water bodies (Rocha et al., 1995).
\n\t\t\tIn Venezuela, there is little data on the dry weight of zooplankton or their biomass (\n\t\t\t\t\tGonzález et al., 2008\n\t\t\t\t). Although this country has over 100 operating reservoirs (MINAMB, 2007), information on the ecological aspects of zooplankton is only available for about 20% (López et al., 2001). In this study we aimed to establish the relationships between the abundance and biomass of the zooplankton with phytoplankton biomass (estimated as chlorophyll a) and the trophic states of reservoirs, using data collected from 13 of these water bodies.
\n\t\tWe collected plankton samples from the following reservoirs, distributed in the northeastern and north central regions of Venezuela: 1) Agua Fría, 2) Taguaza, 3) Lagartijo, 4) Clavellinos, 5) Tierra Blanca, 6) El Pueblito, 7) El Cigarrón, 8) El Cují, 9) El Andino, 10) La Mariposa, 11) La Pereza, 12) Quebrada Seca and 13) Suata (Figure 1).
\n\t\t\tMap of Venezuela, showing the relative locations of the reservoirs studied. For reservoir names, see numbers in text.
Some of the main morphometric features of the reservoirs surveyed are shown in Table 1.
\n\t\t\tReservoir \n\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tMean depth (m) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tArea (m2) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tVolume (m3) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tResidence time (d) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tLocation \n\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAgua Fría\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t13.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t440,000 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5,800,000 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t38 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t10º23’ N - 67º10’ W | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTaguaza\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t20.6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t6,490,000 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t134,000,000 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t40 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t10º10’ N - 66º26’ W | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLagartijo\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t17.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4,510,000 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t80,000,000 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t243 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t10º11’ N - 66º43’ W | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tClavellinos\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t12.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t10,500,000 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t131,000,000 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t106 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t10°21’ N - 63°36’ W | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTierra Blanca\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t12.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t400,000 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5,000,000 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t144 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t9º58\' N - 67º25\' W | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEl Pueblito\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t6.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t49,500,000 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t315,000,000 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t152 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t9º12’ N - 65º34’ W | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEl Cigarrón\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4.9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t50,500,000 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t246,000,000 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t158 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t9º12’ N - 65º40’ W | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEl Cují\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t3.9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t12,720,000 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t49,310,000 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t375 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t9º37’ N - 65º14’ W | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEl Andino\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t7.9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1,780,000 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t14,000,000 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t167 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t9º32’ N - 65º09’ W | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLa Mariposa\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t13.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t540,000 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t7,000,000 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t12 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t10º24’ N - 66º33’ W | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLa Pereza\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t14.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t562,500 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t8,000,000 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t12 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t10º27’ N - 66º46’ W | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tQuebrada Seca\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t7.9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t950,000 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t7,500,000 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t17 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t10º13’ N - 66º43’ W | \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSuata\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t8,498,00 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t43,540,000 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t84 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t10°12’ N - 67°23’ W | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Mean morphometric features of the studied reservoirs.
The data analyzed was taken from the results of 6-12 monthly sampling periods at each reservoir. Samples for estimating phytoplankton biomass (as chlorophyll a) were collected using an opaque van Dorn bottle (3 – 5 liters) from the euphotic layer of reservoirs and preserved in cold and dark conditions until their analysis in the laboratory. Chlorophyll a concentration was estimated by extraction of the photosynthetic pigments with ethanol after filtering with Whatman glass-fiber filters (Nusch & Palme, 1975). Zooplankton samples were obtained from the limnetic zone of the water bodies using vertical trawls in the oxygenated strata with a plankton tow net (77µm mesh). Samples were preserved in 4% formaldehyde (final concentration). Abundance was determined by counting animals in Sedgwick-Rafter chambers (1ml), according to Wetzel & Likens (2000) and biomass was estimated as dry weight (d.w.) after desiccation at 60°C for about 20-24 h, according to Edmondson & Winberg (1971). Parametric correlations were determined using the PAST program (Hammer et al., 2001).
\n\t\tAgua Fría (AFR): Located within a protected area (Macarao National Park, Miranda State). Used to supply drinking water to the city of Los Teques (population approximately 172,000). This reservoir shows low nutrient concentrations, but the water level has declined over the years due to the increase in the demand for drinking water. Meromictic with a tendency to warm monomictic, following Lewis’ (1983) criteria; shows hypolimnetic anoxia during the rainy season (González et al., 2004).
Taguaza (TAG): Located within a protected area (Guatopo National Park, Miranda State). Used to supply drinking water to areas surrounding the city of Caracas (population approximately 4 million). Shows low nutrient concentrations. Meromictic with a tendency to warm monomictic and with permanent hypolimnetic anoxia (González et al., 2002).
Lagartijo (LAG): Located within a protected area (Guatopo National Park, Miranda State). Used to supply drinking water to the city of Caracas (population approximately 4 million). Shows low nutrient concentrations, but due to the increasing demand for water by the metropolitan area of Caracas, water is pumped to the reservoir from the Tuy river (a highly contaminated river) after sedimentation and chlorination, although this pumped water only affects a small part of the water body. Meromictic with a tendency to warm monomictic and with nearly permanent hypolimnetic anoxia (Infante et al., 1992; Infante & O. Infante, 1994; Ortaz et al., 1999).
Clavellinos (CLA): Located in Sucre State and used to supply drinking water to the town of Carúpano and Nueva Esparta State (population 512,366) as well as for irrigation. High nitrate concentrations were detected in its waters, possibly from the use of fertilizers on the surrounding land. Warm monomictic; shows anoxic conditions in the hypolimnion during the rainy season (Merayo & González, 2010).
Tierra Blanca (TBL): Situated in Guárico State and used to supply drinking water to the city of San Juan de Los Morros (population 85,000); it is also used for recreational purposes. Its drainage basin is partially protected, although this is limited by free public access. Its water level fluctuates strongly due to demand. Meromictic with a tendency to warm monomictic and with nearly permanent hypolimnetic anoxia (González, 2006).
El Pueblito (EPU): Located in Guárico State and used for flood control, subsistence agriculture, irrigation and recreation. Shows moderate nutrient concentrations. Classified as warm monomictic according to the criteria of Hutchinson (1957) and Lewis (1983), with hypolimnetic anoxia during the rainy season (González, 2000a).
El Cigarrón (ECI): Located in Guárico State and used for flood control, subsistence agriculture and irrigation. Shows high nutrient concentrations due to the use of fertilizers in the surrounding areas. Warm monomictic; with hypolimnetic anoxia during the rainy season (Unpublished data).
El Andino (EAN): Located in Anzoátegui State. Used for subsistence agriculture and irrigation. Shows moderate nutrient concentrations due to the use of fertilizers in the surrounding areas. Warm monomictic; with hypolimnetic anoxia during the rainy season (Infante et al., 1995; González, 2000b).
El Cují (ECU): Situated in Anzoátegui State and used for the supply of drinking water to the towns of Onoto and Zaraza, as well as for flood control and irrigation. Warm monomictic; with hypolimnetic hypoxia and anoxia during the rainy season (Infante et al., 1995).
La Mariposa (LMA): This is an urban reservoir, located 8 km from the city of Caracas (population approximately 4 million) and used to supply drinking water as well as for recreation. The catchment area is highly intervened and its waters show high nutrient concentrations, which has recently produced excessive growth of the macrophyte Eichhornia crassipes. In spite of low residence time, its waters show thermal stratification during the rainy season, when hypoxic conditions may also be detected in the hypolimnion (Ortaz et al., 1999).
La Pereza (LPE): Located in Miranda State and used for recreational purposes and the supply of drinking water to areas surrounding Caracas (population approximately 4 million). Its waters show high nutrient concentrations, which come from nearby pig and chicken farms, as well as waste waters from a galvanized steel factory. Warm monomictic; with anoxic conditions in the hypolimnion during the rainy season (Ortaz et al., 1999).
Quebrada Seca (QSE): Located in Miranda State and used for purifying untreated water from the Tuy river before pre treating and pumping it to the Lagartijo reservoir, from which it is used to supply drinking water to Caracas. Its catchment area is highly intervened, with surrounding rural communities that discharge their wastewaters directly into the reservoir. It mixes only once a year (warm monomictic) and shows hypolimnetic anoxia during the rainy season (Ortaz et al., 1999).
Suata (SUA): Located in Aragua State and used to supply water for subsistence agriculture and cattle ranching. This reservoir is fed by the Aragua river which collects the wastewaters of several populations along its course that are then deposited into the reservoir without prior treatment. It is polymictic, due to the shallowness of its waters (González et al., 2009).
The reservoirs represent a gradient of different trophic states, from ultra-oligotrophic (Agua Fría and Taguaza) to hypertrophic (Quebrada Seca, La Mariposa and Suata), according to their total phosphorus concentration following Salas & Martinó (1991), and determined by the authors cited for each reservoir description. Phytoplankton biomass, estimated as the concentration of chlorophyll a in the euphotic zone of each water body, also reflects the trophic state of the reservoirs (Table 2). The mean values of both total phosphorus and chlorophyll a for the euphotic zone of these reservoirs varied between 4 and more than 1500 µg/l and between 2.16 and 92.89 µg/l, respectively, for Agua Fría (the most oligotrophic) and Suata (the most eutrophicated) reservoirs.
\n\t\t\tThe variation intervals of the abundance and biomass of the zooplankton for each of the reservoirs surveyed are shown in Table 3. The dominant zooplankton taxa for each water body are also specified.
\n\t\t\t\tCopepods were the dominant group in 8 of the 13 reservoirs sampled (Agua Fría, Taguaza, Lagartijo, Clavellinos, El Pueblito, El Cigarrón, El Cují and La Mariposa) and second in numeric abundance in the El Andino reservoir, where rotifers were the most dominant. Ostracods dominated in the Tierra Blanca and Suata reservoirs and protozoa showed the highest relative abundances in La Pereza and Quebrada Seca. The relative proportions of the different zooplankton taxa are shown in Figure 2. It can be appreciated that copepods were the dominant group in all of the ultra-oligotrophic and oligotrophic reservoirs, but as the trophic state of the water bodies increased other taxa became more abundant.
\n\t\t\t\tReservoir \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTotal P (µg/l) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChlorophyll a\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t (µg/l) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTrophic state \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAgua Fría\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t6.57 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.27 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tUltra-oligotrophic | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTaguaza\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t8.63 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.67 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tUltra-oligotrophic | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLagartijo\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t17.08 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5.78 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tOligotrophic | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tClavellinos\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t9.60 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t15.41 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tOligotrophic | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTierra Blanca\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t23.11 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t11.66 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tOligo-mesotrophic | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEl Pueblito\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t21.31 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t8.46 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tOligotrophic | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEl Cigarrón\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t37.21 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t6.71 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMesotrophic | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEl Cují\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t23.58 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t11.05 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tOligo-mesotrophic | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEl Andino\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t25.60 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t26.10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMesotrophic | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLa Mariposa\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t136.83 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t41.92 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHypertrophic | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLa Pereza\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t94.64 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t44.36 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEutrophic | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tQuebrada Seca\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t121.25 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t62.71 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHypertrophic | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSuata\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1616,43 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t92.89 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHypertrophic | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Mean values of total P, chlorophyll a and trophic state in the studied reservoirs.
It can be observed that in general, as the trophic state of the reservoir increases, the mean abundances of the zooplankton also seem to increase. This can be seen from Figure 3, where the abundance and biomass of the zooplankton were ordered according to the mean concentrations of chlorophyll a in the water bodies. Thus, the lowest phytoplankton biomass values (as chlorophyll a) and the lowest abundance and biomass values of the zooplankton are found in the ultra-oligotrophic reservoirs (24 individuals/l and 48.51 µg d.w./l in Agua Fría, and 86 individuals/l and 28.71 µg d.w./l in Taguaza), whilst the highest
\n\t\t\t\tRelative proportion of zooplankton groups in the studied reservoirs. AFR: Agua Fría, TAG: Taguaza, LAG: Lagartijo, CLA: Clavellinos, TBL: Tierra Blanca, EPU: El Pueblito, ECI: El Cigarrón, ECU: El Cují, EAN: El Andino, LMA: La Mariposa, LPE: La Pereza, QSE: Quebrada Seca, SUA: Suata.
phytoplankton biomass values and the highest mean abundance and biomass values of the zooplankton are found in the hypertrophic reservoirs (1130 individuals/l and 1127.26 µg d.w./l in Quebrada Seca, and 753 individuals/l and 2026.14 µg d.w./l in Suata).
\n\t\t\t\tGiven the associations found between the phytoplankton and zooplankton, we explored the relationships between phytoplankton biomass, zooplankton abundance and zooplankton biomass in greater detail using a further set of graphs: 1) Chlorophyll a vs zooplankton abundance (Figure 4), 2) chlorophyll a vs zooplankton biomass (Figure 5) and 3) zooplankton abundance vs zooplankton biomass (Figure 6). The relationships between these parameters are presented using both the raw and logarithmically transformed data, in order to see which gives a better fit.
\n\t\t\t\tFrom Figure 4 we can see that there is a good fit between the mean chlorophyll a values of the water bodies and the mean abundance of the zooplankton, either when the raw data were used (Figure 4a) or after logarithmic transformation (Figure 4b). In both cases the relationship best fitted to a straight line, and the linear regression coefficients were higher than 0.60 and statistically significant (p<0.05).
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFigure 5 shows another good fit, this time between the mean chlorophyll a values and mean zooplankton biomass, either when using the raw (Figure 5a) or logarithmically transformed (Figure 5b) data. In both cases, as for the relationship between phytoplankton biomass and zooplankton abundance, the association was linear; although the linear regression coefficients were lower, they remained statistically significant (p<0.05).
\n\t\t\t\tFigure 6 shows that the relationship between the abundance and biomass of the zooplankton can also be described linearly, both with the raw (Figure 6a) and logarithmically transformed (Figure 6b) data.
\n\t\t\t\tReservoir | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbundance (Ind./l) Min. – Max. (Mean ± S.D.) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBiomass (µg/l) Min. – Max. (Mean ± S.D.) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDominant zooplankton group | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Agua Fría \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t9.68 – 39.41 (23.91 ± 8.98) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t11.56 – 123.44 (48.51 ± 32.08) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCopepods | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Taguaza \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t43.86 – 150.00 (85.58 ± 29.79) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.82 – 55.03 (28.71 ± 15.91) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCopepods | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Lagartijo \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t34.00 – 373.00 (155.64 ± 128.34) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t82.43 – 863.78 (251.31 ± 218.53) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCopepods + Rotifers | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Clavellinos \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t30.48 – 99.94 (61.84 ± 22.33) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t97.40 – 1406.29 (504.28 ± 351.84) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCopepods | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Tierra Blanca \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t131.80 – 688.67 (309.16 ± 187.14) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t100.08 – 2307.10 (607.21 ± 571.54) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tOstracods | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
El Pueblito \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t73.00 – 218.00 (123.17 ± 41.17) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t69.80 – 228.10 (127.25 ± 49.77) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCopepods | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
El Cigarrón \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t35.00 – 272.00 130.00 ± 69.66) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t40.00 – 360.00 (164.67 ± 103.86) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCopepods | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
El Cují \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t125.50 – 330.60 (228.05 ± 145.03) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t141.37 – 1643.14 (1092.40 ± 546.93) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCopepods | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
El Andino \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t8.80 – 616.40 (287.89 ± 201.36) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t402.98 – 634.67 (381.72 ± 169.46) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRotifers + Copepods | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
La Mariposa \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t111.00 – 669.00 (423.33 ± 182.13) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t154.83 – 1297.77 (787.42 ± 355.74) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCopepods | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
La Pereza \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t32.00 – 643.00 (278.40 ± 262.17) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t20.09 – 184.18 (121.77 ± 79.50) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tProtozoans | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Quebrada Seca \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t98.00 – 2472.00 (1129.80 ± 871.30) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t259.46 – 1833.49 (1127.26 ± 710.50) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tProtozoans | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Suata \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t133.76 – 2518.47 (752.93 ± 678.60) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t305.73 – 13853.50 (2026.14 ± 3757.81) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tOstracods | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Zooplankton abundance, biomass and dominant groups in the studied reservoirs.
Mean values of chlorophyll a, zooplankton abundance and biomass in the studied reservoirs. AFR: Agua Fría, TAG: Taguaza, LAG: Lagartijo, CLA: Clavellinos, TBL: Tierra Blanca, EPU: El Pueblito, ECI: El Cigarrón, ECU: El Cují, EAN: El Andino, LMA: La Mariposa, LPE: La Pereza, QSE: Quebrada Seca, SUA: Suata.
Relationship between chlorophyll a and zooplankton abundance: a) Raw data, b) logarithmically transformed data. For reservoir names, see Figures 2& 3.
Relationship between chlorophyll a and zooplankton biomass: a) Raw data, b) logarithmically transformed data. For reservoir names, see Figures 2& 3.
Relationship between zooplankton abundance and biomass: a) Raw data, b) logarithmically transformed data. For reservoir names, see Figures 2& 3.
As for the associations shown in Figures 4 and 5, the linear regression coefficients for zooplankton abundance vs biomass were also statistically significant (p<0.05) and higher than 0.51.
\n\t\t\t\tThe linear correlation coefficients (r) between these variables were also calculated and were also statistically significant (p<0.05), as was to be expected from the linear regressions obtained:
\n\t\t\t\tChlorophyll a vs. zooplankton abundance; r= 0.778.
Chlorophyll a vs. zooplankton biomass; r= 0.718.
Zooplankton abundance vs. zooplankton biomass; r= 0.751.
The majority of the reservoirs included in this study show a tight linear relationship between total phosphorus and the concentration of chlorophyll a; thus these variables are good predictors of their trophic state (\n\t\t\t\t\tGonzález, 2008\n\t\t\t\t; González & Quirós, submitted). Reservoirs whose drainage basins are protected or in areas with low anthropogenic impact show the lowest total phosphorus and chlorophyll values, whilst those found in degraded catchment areas give the highest values.
\n\t\t\tAs regards the zooplankton, Matsumura-Tundisi (1997) suggests that an understanding of the population dynamics of the different groups constitutes a useful tool for the management of reservoirs, since the composition, abundance and spatial distribution of the zooplankton communities are strongly related to their trophic state and the degree of biological interactions that occur within them, and that furthermore, the prevalence of certain species could indicate of the trophic state of the ecosystem.
\n\t\t\tAccording to Esteves (1998), an increase in phytoplankton primary production due to eutrophication has immediate effects on heterotrophic organisms, considerably increasing their production. As for phytoplankton, the specific composition of zooplankton and the relative density of each species changes with eutrophication (Esteves, 1998; Pinto-Coelho et al., 2005; Leitão et al., 2006; Landa et al., 2007; Tundisi et al., 2008). Thus many species either reduce in abundance or disappear completely, and are substituted by others that take over as the dominant zooplankton taxa. For example, Infante & Riehl (1984) suggested that pelagic cladocerans, such as Ceriodaphnia cornuta, Diaphanosoma sp. and Moina micrura, may be more susceptible to the proliferation of cyanobacteria than copepods and rotifers in highly eutrophicated systems. In most cases, cyanobacteria negatively affect zooplankton (Zhao et al., 2008).
\n\t\t\tAs far as we are aware this is the first comparative analysis of the relationships between the abundance and biomass of the zooplankton and phytoplankton biomass in reservoirs with different trophic states in Venezuela that takes into account the mean annual cycles of these three variables. Several previous studies only consider fluctuations in the abundance and biomass of zooplankton with respect to physicochemical changes and phytoplankton abundance and biomass (Infante, 1993; Infante et al., 1995; Mendoza, 1999; Carrillo, 2001; González et al., 2002; Gavidia, 2004\n\t\t\t\t; González, 2006; Cabrera, 2009\n\t\t\t\t; Merayo & González, 2010). In some of these investigations, statistically significant correlations between phytoplankton and zooplankton were not found, especially in eutrophic systems, where links between the two communities may be weakened by the proliferation of microalgae that are not the preferred food of zooplankton (Mc Queen et al., 1986). In these cases, zooplankton dynamics were registered as being principally determined by environmental fluctuations, although some of the abundance and biomass peaks coincided with peaks of chlorophyll a concentrations. In contrast, in several oligotrophic systems, such as the Agua Fría and Taguaza reservoirs in this study (González et al., 2002; González, 2006) and the Jucazinho reservoir in Brazil (Mélo-Júnior et al. 2007), significant correlations between phyto- and zooplankton have been reported.
\n\t\t\tFrom the analyses done in this study, it seems common that in water bodies with a higher degree of eutrophication, zooplankton abundance and biomass are higher compared to oligotrophic reservoirs. This relationship has been reported in other comparative studies of these variables in water bodies with contrasting trophic states in both Venezuela and Brazil (González et al., 2002; González, 2006; Sendacz et al., 2006; Blettler & Bonecker, 2007), the only countries in which these types of investigations have been done within the South American tropics (\n\t\t\t\t\tGonzález et al., 2008\n\t\t\t\t).
\n\t\t\tFrom this study it can be observed that the association between phytoplankton biomass and the abundance and biomass of the zooplankton is not perfect (see Fig. 3). The explanation for this is indicated by Fig. 2, however, which gives the relative proportions of the different zooplankton groups, as well as the information given in Tables 2 and 3.
\n\t\t\tAs has already been mentioned, copepods dominate in the oligotrophic environments considered in this study, but as the trophic state increases, the relative abundances of other groups also increase. Thus, the lack of association between the variables could be due to the dominance of zooplankton taxa with small sized species, which contribute little in terms of weight to the total zooplankton biomass. In contrast, copepods contribute more to total zooplankton biomass in many fresh water bodies due to their larger sizes and heavier dry weights (Infante, 1993; Infante et al., 1995; Castilho-Noll & Arcifa, 2007; \n\t\t\t\t\tGonzález et al, 2008\n\t\t\t\t; Merayo & González, 2010).
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tSendacz et al. (2006) affirm that rotifers tend to dominate zooplankton communities in tropical and sub-tropical lakes and reservoirs, independently of their trophic state, but due to their small size and light weight, often contribute little to total zooplankton biomass. This could explain the lack of a perfect association between zooplankton abundance and biomass in the Venezuelan reservoirs studied.
\n\t\t\tIn contrast to that indicated by Sendacz et al. (2006), the zooplankton community in most Venezuelan reservoirs seems to be dominated by copepods (López et al., 2001). This agrees with our results where copepods were the dominant group in 8 out of the 13 Venezuelan reservoirs studied. This could be promoted by high water residence times that favor species with relatively long development cycles (Santos-Wisniewski & Rocha, 2007). The dominance by groups other than copepods in Venezuelan systems could be related to factors such as temperature, the quantity and quality of available food, species genotypes, climatic periods and differences in habitat conditions, among others (Gavidia, 2004; Sendacz et al., 2006; Mustapha, 2009; Merayo & González, 2010).
\n\t\t\tIn spite of the lack of a perfect fit between phytoplankton biomass and the abundance and biomass of zooplankton, strong linear relationships between the annual means were found. Thus, in the same way as for the strong linear relationships found between nutrients and phytoplankton biomass in Venezuelan reservoirs (\n\t\t\t\t\tGonzález, 2008\n\t\t\t\t; González & Quirós, submitted), a strong linear association was also found between zooplankton abundance and biomass, between each of these and phytoplankton biomass (estimated as chlorophyll a), and between all these variables and the trophic state of the reservoirs.
\n\t\t\tDue to the fact that zooplankton dynamics are associated with the effects of anthropogenic activities in the drainage basins of these fresh water bodies (Infante, 1993), the identification of the dominant taxa (composition), and estimates of their abundance and biomass provide us with valuable tools for the determination of the trophic state, and thus should be taken into account when designing policies for the adequate management of reservoirs in Venezuela.
\n\t\tThe authors would like to thank the Organization of American States, Fondo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (Project S1-98-1361), Consejo de Desarrollo Científico y Humanístico – UCV (Projects 03.33.4728.2000 and 03.00.6495.2006), Hydrological Companies HIDROVEN, HIDROCAPITAL, HIDROCARIBE and HIDROPAEZ, Ministerio del Ambiente for logistic and financial support. We also thank Mario Ortaz for field and laboratory assistance and discussions on zooplankton. We would also like to thank the Coordinación de Investigación, Ciencias – UCV and Frances Osborn who helped with the translation of the manuscript into English.
\n\t\tMangroves act as frontiers that protect the coastal land against destruction of ocean waves, tsunamis and storms. Mangroves also provide habitat for various aquatic life forms and function as natural filter, which improves the quality of water. Mangroves also play important roles as a significant carbon sink in coastal environment. It is interesting fact that despite only 0.05% of plant biomass stored in the ocean and coastal areas out of the total plant biomass on land, it can absorb a comparable amount of carbon every year. A study demonstrated that primary productivity in mangroves is higher than other types of forests. Biomass carbon in mangroves stands is among the highest in the tropics. Mangroves can store up to four times more carbon (C) as compared to other tropical forests around the world [1].
\nA mangroves ecosystem has an ability to absorb carbon dioxide (CO2) and store carbon 40% more than the dry land forest ecosystem. Due to this ability, the total carbon deposited in a square kilometer of mangrove ecosystem is 50 times faster than those of the same area in a dryland tropical forest ecosystem. The absorbed CO2 is stored not only in the plants, but in layers of soils underneath [2]. Therefore, mangroves are playing a crucial role in global carbon budgets and thus mitigating climate change.
\nHowever, despite being realized the importance of mangroves in the global carbon cycle and climate change, the extents of mangroves have inevitably declined since the last few decades. Unfortunately, the declines have been resulting mainly from human activities such as aquaculture expansion, coastal development, and over-harvesting [3]. Malaysia is one of the countries in South East Asia that has among the largest extents of mangroves. Despite its extensive distribution of mangrove ecosystem, this forest is inevitable from threats by various land use activities. The total area of mangrove forest was approximately 2% (650,000 ha) of the total land area in Malaysia in the 1990s [4].
\nHowever, the mangroves in Malaysia have been gradually diminishing, where the total area of mangrove forest has reduced to approximately 580,000 ha in the last decade [5]. Other reports indicated that the extent of mangrove areas in Malaysia is decreasing, from about 700,000 ha in 1975 to 572,000 ha in 2000 due to the intensive harvesting and natural wave actions [6, 7]. Globally, mangroves have also declined from 18.8 million ha to 15.6 million ha between years 1980 and 2005 [8]. Overall Asia was the largest net loss of mangroves since 1980, with about 1.9 million ha have loss, mainly due to conversion of mangrove forest to other land uses. However, there has been a slowdown in the annual rate of mangrove loss, from about 187,000 ha in the 1980s to 102,000 ha between 2000 and 2005. This reflects an increased awareness and an improved management system in mangroves ecosystem.
\nMajor threats towards the mangroves that are triggered by human activities can generalized into six [9], which are (i) conversion to other uses, (ii) overharvesting, (iii) overfishing, (iv) pollution, (v) sedimentation and (vi) alteration of flow regimes. Direct conversion to other uses was identified as the major factor that changes the world’s mangroves. This includes conversions to (i) urban and industrial areas, (ii) aquaculture, and (iii) agriculture. Additionally, natural phenomena such as coastal erosion, storm and lightning strikes are also the natural impacts that kill mangroves in Peninsular Malaysia, including the tragic tsunami on 24 December 2004.
\nDespite widespread concern and numerous case studies describing local issues and challenges, comprehensive information on the global extent of mangroves and trends of deforestation is largely lacking [10]. It is because determining the precise area of mangroves is not always easy. Measurement is affected by varying definitions of what constitutes mangroves; inclusion only on the basis of official recognition such as gazetted forest reserves; scattered or sparse areas considered too inconsequential for inclusion; and the accuracy of the returns made by the responsible authorities. Each of these can create uncertainty and produce significant variation depending on the timing and purpose of the assessment exercise.
\nRecently, RS satellites have been widely used for mangrove monitoring. They greatest reasons why is because the RS can (i) acquire information over large areas, (ii) produce repeated measurement over a place, and (iii) make full use of electromagnetic spectrum for quantitative and qualitative measurements over mangroves [11]. Satellites also provide information on spatial distribution and temporal changes of mangrove forests. When this information is gathered over decades, the mangrove monitoring over the large area will become possible. There are studies on the assessment of mangroves changes and identifying threats, for example in Terengganu [12], Selangor [13], and Peninsular Malaysia [14]. However, these studies are unable to represent the holistic conditions at national level. Therefore, this study was conducted to provide the information pertaining status of mangroves and changes that occurred since the last three decades.
\nThe study area covers the entire mangroves ecosystem in Malaysia, which can be divided into two regions, which are Peninsular Malaysia and East Malaysia (i.e. Malay Borneo). Forests in these regions can be divided into three major types, which are inland dipterocarps (dryland), peat swamp, mangrove forests (wetlands). The mangrove forest is a unique ecosystem and the second largest wetland forest type after the peat swamp forest. Ecologically based on elevation the mangrove forest is located at the lowest elevation, which is equivalent to the sea level. The mangrove forest is generally found along sheltered coasts where it grows abundantly in saline soil and brackish water dominated mainly by trees from the Rhizophoraceae family. Mangroves are fringing the coastlines (up to 5 km landward) and major estuaries of the regions and they reside on wetlands ecosystem of not more than 20 m land altitude.
\nImages from Landsat-5 Thematic Mapper (TM), Landsat-7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM+), and Landsat-8 Operational Land Imager (OLI) satellite were used in this study. Images from three different epochs, which are 1990, 2000 and 2017 were acquired to conduct the work. For the respective years were utilized in this study. All images are available at
Landsat scenes that were used for the classification. Numbers within the scene boundary indicates path/row ID of Landsat satellites.
Cloud cover is inevitable on the images acquired by the satellites. However, cloud patching process can eliminate the cloud covers that appear on a single-date observation data. Images of particular scenes that were acquired on different dates were used for cloud patching process as shown in Figure 2. F_mask algorithm was used to perform this process [15, 16]. Seamless mosaics product (i.e. images without cloud covers and atmospherically corrected) were used as input for subsequent processes.
\nCloud detection and removal process. Individual Landsat scene that was captured on 26 January 2017 (a) was merged with that captured on 14 June 2017 (b), where both produced a cloud-free images for the year 2017 (c).
Appropriate enhancement techniques were applied to the images to make the mangroves appear better on the images [17]. In addition to the individual spectral bands of Landsat images, vegetation indices such as Normalized Different Vegetation Index (NDVI), Green Atmospherically Resistant Index (GARI), and Normalized Difference Infrared Index (NDII) were also derived from the images to improve quality of classification. The vegetation indices that were used in this study are summarized in Table 1.
\nVegetation indices that were used derived from the images.
Note: NIR = near infrared, G = green, B = blue, R = red, and MidIR = middle wave infrared channels.
Most spectral-based image classifications are performed using traditional methods such as maximum likelihood, linear discriminant analysis, and spectral angle mapper classifiers. These methods are applied to the spectral bands to produce a classified feature in images [18]. Instead of using these approaches, this study attempted a new approach to classify the images. R Package, which is free, open source software with the RandomForest algorithm [19] was used.
\nRandomForest implements Breiman’s RandomForest algorithm, based on Breiman and Cutler’s original FORTRAN code for classification and regression [20]. It can also be used for assessing proximities among data points without necessarily a training set. All sampling points that were collected on the ground were connected to the corresponding pixels on the image through this algorithm. Classification was done by searching the most important variables i.e. which spectral bands are used in decision tree approach [21, 22, 23]. RandomForest applies four major steps of looking at the importance of variables as follow:
Step 1: to determine the significance of the mth variable. In the left out cases for the kth tree, randomly permute all values of the mth variable. Put these new covariate values down the tree and get classifications.
Steps 2 and 3: for the nth case in the data, its margin at the end of a run is the proportion of votes for its true class minus the maximum of the proportion of votes for each of the other classes. The 2nd measure of importance of the mth variable is the average lowering of the margin across all cases when the mth variable is randomly permuted as in Step 1. Step 3 then count the margins that was shrank.
Step 4: the splitting criterion used in RandomForest is the Gini criterion, a mechanism that can measure the most to least importance of variables used in decision tree. At every split, one of the mth variables is used to form the split and there is a resulting decrease in the Gini. The sum of all will decrease the forest due to a given variable, normalized by the number of trees.
All images have been classified to distinguish mangroves from the other land uses. The classification results were transformed into vector shapefile for further refinement and editing. The accuracy of the classification results were assessed by using a number of ground truth points. The GIS platform was used to carry out post-classification analysis. Post-classification analysis is usually used for quantifying changes of land uses. Changes of mangroves were identified from the conversions of mangroves to other landuse classes, which are (i) urban, settlement, and industrial areas, (ii) agricultural, (iii) aquaculture activities, and (iv) coastal erosion.
\nCarbon dioxide (CO2) is defined as natural, colorless and odorless greenhouse gas that is emitted when fossil fuels (i.e. natural gas, oil, coal, etc.) are burnt. In this study, the CO2 emission is expressed as C loss, assuming that the gas is emitted when deforestation occur. The units of metric tons C was converted to CO2 by multiplying the ratio of the molecular weight of carbon dioxide to that of carbon (44/12 = 3.67) [24].
\nThe CO2 resulted from deforestation is one of the important elements in greenhouse gases emissions. Therefore, it is also essential to quantify the contribution of mangrove deforestation towards the CO2 emission. Net emission as resulted from deforestation of mangroves can be estimated based stock-difference method, which can be expressed as Eq. (1) as follow [24];
\nwhere ∆C is changes in carbon stock (Mg C yr−1), Ct1 and Ct2 (Mg C) is carbon stock at time t1 and t2 (year), respectively. In this case, the Ct1 and Ct2 was quantified from the changes analysis that have been carried out earlier this study.
\nF mask algorithm successfully removed almost 100% of cloud covers and their shadows on the images. The algorithm also managed to detect thin, low temperature clouds in the high altitude by thermal sensors onboard the Landsat TM, ETM+ and OLI. The algorithm somehow failed to detect small scattering clouds that occurred in small patches on the images. Nevertheless, the algorithm has facilitated the cloud removal process and make the mangroves mapping and monitoring work at landscape-level practical. Figure 2 shows a portion of mangroves on two different images that were captured on different dates with clouds. These images were used to produce seamless mosaic of images without cloud covers.
\nThe study indicated that the suitable spectral bands for species discrimination varied with scale. However, near-infrared (700–1327 nm) bands were consistently important spectrum across all scales and the visible bands (437–700 nm) were more important at pixel and crown scales. By using the RandomForest algorithm, the most important bands in the classification were represented by a mean decrease Gini values. The most important bands in mangroves discrimination, from most to least, are; MidIR, NIR-2, NIR, Green, Blue, Red. Spectral profile of the images also showed that the NIR channels separate the mangroves from the other land covers very well (Figure 3). On the other hands, the vegetation indices that were used in this study played similar important role in mangroves classification.
\nSpectral profiles of several land covers extracted from the images. Channel 1 through 6 on the y-axis are blue, green, red, NIR, NIR-2 and MidIR, respectively.
The image classification approach that has been applied in this study was found to be effective only at large coverage of mangroves. The accuracy for all classifications were ranging from 83 to 91%, which were acceptable and reliable for monitoring purpose. Mangroves are normally appear dark on any combination of spectral bands of multispectral image. This is due to the natural ecosystem of mangroves, which is covered by swamps and sometimes inundated by tidal water. The chlorophyll content of the mangrove leaves, which is higher than those of trees and crops, tends to make them appear darker on satellite images [25], as depicted in Figure 4. Each mangrove species has a unique configuration of trunks, prop roots and pneumatophores that works as a different drag force therefore resulting in a different reduction rate of sea waves (Figure 5). Not only this, the wet floor of the forest gives special spectral characteristics on satellites images that can be differentiated easily from other features (Figure 6).
\nImages showing (a) combination of bands 5, 6 and 4 of Landsat-8 OLI and (b) combination of vegetation indices, NDVI, GARI and NDII. These images were selected for the classification process.
Roots and successive stands of Rhizophora apiculata in a common mature mangrove forest.
Mangroves as they appeared on Landsat-8 image. The dark green areas represent the mangrove areas. The image classification process, either automated or manual digitizing, is usually easier for mangrove areas than for other vegetation. The image is displayed using a combination of bands 543 (RGB) over the Kapar area in Klang, Selangor. The central bottom is Klang port complex and the bottom left is Pulau Klang, which is predominantly covered by mangroves.
The classification results were further edited to refine the shapes and accuracy. This process was conducted manually on the vector shapefile by visual interpretation on GIS platform. Finally the spatial distribution of the mangroves were mapped properly (Figure 7). The mangroves in Malaysia were mostly found in Sabah (60%), followed by Sarawak (22%) and Peninsular Malaysia (18%). Table 2 summarizes the total extents of mangroves in the respective regions that have been produced from the classification. It is notable that the total extents of mangroves have been decreasing throughout the monitoring period. Figure 8 shows spatially explicit map of mangroves distribution in Malaysia as of year 2017. Mangroves are found mainly along the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia, west coast of Sarawak and the east coast of Sabah.
\nMangroves appear dark green on the original image (left) and the classified mangroves, indicated as red polygons (right).
Region | \nMangroves 1990 (ha) | \nMangroves 2000 (ha) | \nMangroves 2017 (ha) | \n
---|---|---|---|
Peninsular Malaysia | \n116,746 | \n114,353 | \n110,953 | \n
Sabah | \n385,630 | \n382,448 | \n378,195 | \n
Sarawak | \n147,936 | \n145,263 | \n139,890 | \n
Total | \n650,311 | \n642,063 | \n629,038 | \n
Extents of mangroves in Malaysia.
Distribution of mangroves in Malaysia over the year 2017.
Table 3 reports the changes of mangroves that occurred over the 27 years of monitoring period. The total loss of mangroves was about 21,274 ha where majority of the mangroves loss were outside the Permanent Forest Reserve or within the stateland areas. These areas are actually the land bank for the states developments, which are principally included in the State’s Structural Planning. Example of mangroves changes detected from the multi-temporal mapping process is shown in Figure 9. From this information, it can be concluded that the annual decrease rate of mangroves was about 788 ha per year or about 0.13% per annum since year 1990. Major factors that contributed to these changes have been identified as: (i) direct conversion to other land uses (Figure 10), predominantly for commercial-scale agriculture (Figure 11) and aquaculture (Figure 12), and (ii) coastal erosion (Figure 13). The other factors such as overharvesting and pollution affect the mangroves to a lesser degree.
\nRegion | \nMangrove loss 1990–2000 (ha) | \nMangrove loss 2000–2017 (ha) | \nRate of deforestation 1990–2000 (ha yr−1) | (% yr−1) | \nRate of deforestation 2000–2017 (ha yr−1) | (% yr−1) | \nAverage rate of deforestation 1990–2017 (ha yr−1) | (% yr−1) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Peninsular Malaysia | \n2393 | \n3400 | \n239 | 0.20 | \n200 | 0.17 | \n215 | 0.19 | \n
Sabah | \n3182 | \n4253 | \n318 | 0.08 | \n250 | 0.07 | \n275 | 0.07 | \n
Sarawak | \n2673 | \n5373 | \n267 | 0.18 | \n316 | 0.22 | \n298 | 0.21 | \n
Total | \n8227 | \n13,190 | \n823 | 0.13 | \n776 | 0.12 | \n793 | 0.13 | \n
Mangroves deforestation in Malaysia between years 1990 and 2017.
Changes of mangroves that occurred between 1990 and 2017 overlaid on GIS platform.
Land developments on mangroves. Reddish color represents newly opened areas for development purposes that were cleared from the original mangroves areas (dark green color).
Expansion of oil palm plantation on mangroves. Reddish color represents newly opened plantations from the original mangroves areas (dark green color). The bright green represents existing plantations.
Expansion of aquaculture industries on mangroves. Dark blue patches represents newly opened aquaculture ponds from the original mangroves areas (dark green color).
Shoreline changes that resulted from coastal erosion along the coast of south Pontian, Johor. The study indicated that 14.2 km stretches have been facing serious coastal erosion within the last two decades with the rate of erosion ranging from 3.2 to 12.5 m per year.
Although coastal erosion was identified as one of the factors of mangroves loss, there were some accretions occurred in some other places. Erosion and accretion is a dynamic process and takes place along the coastlines and major estuaries, where suspended sediments are likely to settle. These phenomena also lead to species succession when the existing plant species die due to unsuitable soil and new species emerge. Besides, mangrove roots can act as wave breaker and promote flocculation and sedimentation, eventually forming mudflats that allow positive accretion (Figure 14). Coastal erosion occurs when the waves hit perpendicular to the coastlines and when the rapid flow of sea currents wash away the sand or soil particles. The frequency and height of waves hitting the coastlines contribute to the harshness of coastal erosion. Thus, the presence of mangroves can reduce the coastal erosion significantly. This condition is obvious particularly in the areas facing the sea [26, 27].
\nPositive accretion of mangroves at estuaries. The new formations at the river mouths were colonized by mangroves trees forming a naturally generated forest.
A study has indicated that the average C stock (aboveground and belowground) in mangroves in Malaysia is about 181 Mg C ha−1 [28]. The extents of mangroves loss for each epoch were multiplied by this average carbon stocks. The study demonstrated that the total loss of carbon due to the loss of mangroves was about 2.6 million Mg C. Subsequently, this has led to the CO2 emission at about 14.2 million Mg CO2, with an average of about 0.5 million Mg CO2 emission per year, along the monitoring period. Table 4 summarizes the impact of mangroves loss in terms of CO2 emission. Although the figures are generally crude, the study provided some ideas for further studies, especially which related to carbon cycles and climate change.
\nRegion | \nMangrove loss (ha) | \nCarbon loss (Mg C) | \nCO2 emission (Mg CO2) | \nRate of CO2 emission (Mg CO2 yr−1) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Peninsular Malaysia | \n5793 | \n1,048,567 | \n3,848,242 | \n142,527 | \n
Sabah | \n7435 | \n1,345,672 | \n4,938,617 | \n182,912 | \n
Sarawak | \n8046 | \n1,456,288 | \n5,344,578 | \n197,947 | \n
Total | \n21,417 | \n3,876,409 | \n14,226,422 | \n526,905 | \n
CO2 emission resulted from mangroves loss between years 1990 and 2017.
This study has successfully assessed the current state of mangroves and determined the rate of mangroves loss in Malaysia since the last decade. Total mangroves in Malaysia has decreased from 650,311 ha in 1990 to 629,038 ha in 2017. Total deforestation was accounted at 21,274 ha or 3.3% with the annual rate of deforestation of 788 ha yr−1 or 0.13% yr−1, between 1990 and 2017. The study also quantified the C stock changes and estimated CO2 emission due to the loss of mangroves in Malaysia. Total emission caused by the mangroves deforestation was accounted at about 14 million Mg CO2 with annual emission rate of around 0.5 million Mg CO2 yr−1.
\nThe study found that the Landsat-based mapping and monitoring of mangroves was very practical. It provides a reliable information on mangroves distribution, both qualitatively and quantitatively. Landsat missions provide a very useful RS tool for monitoring changes of mangroves over time. The study suggests that appropriate actions should be taken by the Government of Malaysia to protect the mangroves and keep their ecosystem intact forever. The most effective way to conserve the mangroves is to gazette the remaining stateland forest as Permanent Reserved Forests (PRFs). These PRFs should then be maintained as amenity for current and future generations, while contributing to the mitigation of climate change impacts at the local level. Any development in PRFs should be prohibited or implemented with caution.
\nOverall, there is great potential in the application of Landsat-based data with appropriate GIS technique for mapping and monitoring of mangroves in Malaysia. Although there are cloud covers problems on some of the images, this has not hindered the assessment of mangroves at landscape and regional levels. The accuracy and precision also vary depending on the objective of the application. However, the ability to detect major changes in the ecosystem that can cause profound and irreversible damage far outweighs a perfectly or highly accurate and precise RS based method at this point.
\nCurrently, Malaysia has reserved about 85% (~535,000 ha) out of the total areas of mangroves as Permanent Forest Reserve and State/National Parks. The remaining 15% is under the state-lands and alienated lands. By far, the most effective way to preserve these mangroves is through gazzeting into permanent forest reserves.
\nThis work has been carried out under the Research and Development Committee on Mangroves (JTRD) led by FRIM. Special thanks for the Forestry Department Peninsular Malaysia (JPSM), Sabah Forestry Department (SFD), and Forest Department Sarawak (FDS) for the supports on the ground data collection activities.
\nThe authors declare no ‘conflict of interest’ for this chapter.
IntechOpen aims to ensure that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. To that end we maintain a flexible Copyright Policy guaranteeing that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their Work.
',metaTitle:"Publication Agreement - Chapters",metaDescription:"IN TECH aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our authors. For that matter, we uphold a flexible copyright policy meaning that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and authors retain exclusive copyright to their work.\n\nWhen submitting a manuscript the Corresponding Author is required to accept the terms and conditions set forth in our Publication Agreement as follows:",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/publication-agreement-chapters",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Book Chapter:
\\n\\n1. DEFINITIONS
\\n\\nCorresponding Author: The Author of the Chapter who serves as a Signatory to this Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author.
\\n\\nCo-Author: All other Authors of the Chapter besides the Corresponding Author.
\\n\\nIntechOpen: IntechOpen Ltd., the Publisher of the Book.
\\n\\nBook: The publication as a collection of chapters compiled by IntechOpen including the Chapter. Chapter: The original literary work created by Corresponding Author and any Co-Author that is the subject of this Agreement.
\\n\\n2. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\\n\\n2.1 Subject to the following Article, the Corresponding Author grants and shall ensure that each Co-Author grants, to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright and any extensions or renewals of that term the following:
\\n\\nThe aforementioned licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Agreement for any reason.
\\n\\n2.2 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of any Co-Author) reserves the following rights to the Chapter but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Chapter as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author confirms that they (and any Co-Author) are and will remain a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\\n\\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Chapter and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process (including the published version) is retained by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\\n\\nSubject to the license granted above, the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author retains patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Chapter.
\\n\\n2.3 All rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the Corresponding Author's or any Co-Author’s specific approval.
\\n\\n2.4 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author) will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Chapter as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Chapter arising from translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits.
\\n\\n3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\\n\\n3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Chapter.
\\n\\n3.2 When submitting the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to:
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Open Access Publishing Fees.
\\n\\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\\n\\n3.3 The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Chapter worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or photocopies of such consents.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\\n\\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\\n\\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\\n\\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Chapter does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Chapter contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Chapter is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Chapter has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Chapter to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Chapter was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Chapter on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\\n\\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\\n\\n5. TERMINATION
\\n\\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\\n\\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\\n\\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\\n\\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Chapter attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\\n\\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Chapter and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Chapter is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\\n\\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Chapter, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\\n\\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\\n\\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\\n\\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\\n\\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\\n\\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\\n\\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\\n\\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\\n\\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
\\n\\nLast updated: 2020-11-27
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"
The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Book Chapter:
\n\n1. DEFINITIONS
\n\nCorresponding Author: The Author of the Chapter who serves as a Signatory to this Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author.
\n\nCo-Author: All other Authors of the Chapter besides the Corresponding Author.
\n\nIntechOpen: IntechOpen Ltd., the Publisher of the Book.
\n\nBook: The publication as a collection of chapters compiled by IntechOpen including the Chapter. Chapter: The original literary work created by Corresponding Author and any Co-Author that is the subject of this Agreement.
\n\n2. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\n2.1 Subject to the following Article, the Corresponding Author grants and shall ensure that each Co-Author grants, to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright and any extensions or renewals of that term the following:
\n\nThe aforementioned licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Agreement for any reason.
\n\n2.2 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of any Co-Author) reserves the following rights to the Chapter but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Chapter as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author confirms that they (and any Co-Author) are and will remain a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Chapter and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process (including the published version) is retained by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author retains patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Chapter.
\n\n2.3 All rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the Corresponding Author's or any Co-Author’s specific approval.
\n\n2.4 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author) will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Chapter as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Chapter arising from translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits.
\n\n3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\n3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Chapter.
\n\n3.2 When submitting the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to:
\n\nThe Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Open Access Publishing Fees.
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\n3.3 The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Chapter worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\n\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Chapter does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Chapter contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Chapter is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Chapter has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Chapter to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Chapter was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Chapter on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\n5. TERMINATION
\n\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\n\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Chapter attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Chapter and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Chapter is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Chapter, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\n\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\n\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\n\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\n\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\n\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
\n\nLast updated: 2020-11-27
\n\n\n\n
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5681},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5161},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1683},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10200},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:886},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15610}],offset:12,limit:12,total:117096},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"dateendthirdsteppublish"},books:[],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:63},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Sanity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-sanity",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9279",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7807",title:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"05c608b9271cc2bc711f4b28748b247b",slug:"a-closer-look-at-organizational-culture-in-action",bookSignature:"Süleyman Davut Göker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7807.jpg",editors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5126},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Sanity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-sanity",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-health",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9523",title:"Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5eb6ec2db961a6c8965d11180a58d5c1",slug:"oral-and-maxillofacial-surgery",bookSignature:"Gokul Sridharan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9523.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82453",title:"Dr.",name:"Gokul",middleName:null,surname:"Sridharan",slug:"gokul-sridharan",fullName:"Gokul Sridharan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9018",title:"Some RNA Viruses",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a5cae846dbe3692495fc4add2f60fd84",slug:"some-rna-viruses",bookSignature:"Yogendra Shah and Eltayb Abuelzein",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9018.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"278914",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yogendra",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"yogendra-shah",fullName:"Yogendra Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9585",title:"Advances in Complex Valvular Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef64f11e211621ecfe69c46e60e7ca3d",slug:"advances-in-complex-valvular-disease",bookSignature:"Michael S. Firstenberg and Imran Khan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9585.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64343",title:null,name:"Michael S.",middleName:"S",surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. Firstenberg"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10150",title:"Smart Manufacturing",subtitle:"When Artificial Intelligence Meets the Internet of Things",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"87004a19de13702d042f8ff96d454698",slug:"smart-manufacturing-when-artificial-intelligence-meets-the-internet-of-things",bookSignature:"Tan Yen Kheng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10150.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78857",title:"Dr.",name:"Tan Yen",middleName:null,surname:"Kheng",slug:"tan-yen-kheng",fullName:"Tan Yen Kheng"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9386",title:"Direct Numerical Simulations",subtitle:"An Introduction and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"158a3a0fdba295d21ff23326f5a072d5",slug:"direct-numerical-simulations-an-introduction-and-applications",bookSignature:"Srinivasa Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9386.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6897",title:"Dr.",name:"Srinivasa",middleName:"P",surname:"Rao",slug:"srinivasa-rao",fullName:"Srinivasa Rao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"622",title:"World Wide Web",slug:"world-wide-web",parent:{title:"Web Engineering",slug:"web-engineering"},numberOfBooks:1,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:1,numberOfWosCitations:26,numberOfCrossrefCitations:31,numberOfDimensionsCitations:50,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"world-wide-web",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"3747",title:"Semantic Web",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8af87459d3a9ad6217d374bbd7db5f85",slug:"semantic-web",bookSignature:"Gang Wu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3747.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"129588",title:"Dr.",name:"Gang",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"gang-wu",fullName:"Gang Wu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:1,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"9386",doi:"10.5772/7315",title:"UnBBayes: Modeling Uncertainty for Plausible Reasoning in the Semantic Web",slug:"unbbayes-modeling-uncertainty-for-plausible-reasoning-in-the-semantic-web",totalDownloads:3012,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:16,book:{slug:"semantic-web",title:"Semantic Web",fullTitle:"Semantic Web"},signatures:"Rommel Carvalho, Kathryn Laskey, Paulo Costa, Marcelo Ladeira, Laecio Santos and Shou Matsumoto",authors:null},{id:"9394",doi:"10.5772/7305",title:"Leveraging Semantic Web Computing for Context-Aware Software Engineering Environments",slug:"leveraging-semantic-web-computing-for-context-aware-software-engineering-environments",totalDownloads:2043,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:13,book:{slug:"semantic-web",title:"Semantic Web",fullTitle:"Semantic Web"},signatures:"Roy Oberhauser",authors:null},{id:"9387",doi:"10.5772/7311",title:"Alternative Bootstrapping Design for the PORTAL-DOORS Cyberinfrastructure with Self-Referencing and Self-Describing Features",slug:"alternative-bootstrapping-design-for-the-portal-doors-cyberinfrastructure-with-self-referencing-and-",totalDownloads:1840,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"semantic-web",title:"Semantic Web",fullTitle:"Semantic Web"},signatures:"Carl Taswell",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"9386",title:"UnBBayes: Modeling Uncertainty for Plausible Reasoning in the Semantic Web",slug:"unbbayes-modeling-uncertainty-for-plausible-reasoning-in-the-semantic-web",totalDownloads:3012,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:16,book:{slug:"semantic-web",title:"Semantic Web",fullTitle:"Semantic Web"},signatures:"Rommel Carvalho, Kathryn Laskey, Paulo Costa, Marcelo Ladeira, Laecio Santos and Shou Matsumoto",authors:null},{id:"9390",title:"Semantic Infrastructures",slug:"semantic-infrastructures",totalDownloads:1927,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"semantic-web",title:"Semantic Web",fullTitle:"Semantic Web"},signatures:"Jiri Dokulil, Jakub Yaghob and Filip Zavoral",authors:null},{id:"9393",title:"Using Semantic Technology to Enable Behavioural Coordination of Heterogeneous Systems",slug:"using-semantic-technology-to-enable-behavioural-coordination-of-heterogeneous-systems",totalDownloads:1462,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"semantic-web",title:"Semantic Web",fullTitle:"Semantic Web"},signatures:"Artem Katasonov and Vagan Terziyan",authors:null},{id:"9394",title:"Leveraging Semantic Web Computing for Context-Aware Software Engineering Environments",slug:"leveraging-semantic-web-computing-for-context-aware-software-engineering-environments",totalDownloads:2043,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:13,book:{slug:"semantic-web",title:"Semantic Web",fullTitle:"Semantic Web"},signatures:"Roy Oberhauser",authors:null},{id:"9389",title:"Sustainable Advantage for the Investor Relations Team through Semantic Content",slug:"sustainable-advantage-for-the-investor-relations-team-through-semantic-content",totalDownloads:2052,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"semantic-web",title:"Semantic Web",fullTitle:"Semantic Web"},signatures:"Daniel Hladky",authors:null},{id:"9397",title:"Use Case Semantics for Business Process Validation",slug:"use-case-semantics-for-business-process-validation",totalDownloads:3266,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"semantic-web",title:"Semantic Web",fullTitle:"Semantic Web"},signatures:"Michael Wolters and German Nemirovskij",authors:null},{id:"9401",title:"Code Clone Detection Using String Based Tree Matching Technique",slug:"code-clone-detection-using-string-based-tree-matching-technique",totalDownloads:3123,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"semantic-web",title:"Semantic Web",fullTitle:"Semantic Web"},signatures:"Ali Selamat and Norfaradilla Wahid",authors:null},{id:"9396",title:"Semantic Web Technologies for Managing EHR-related Clinical Knowledge",slug:"semantic-web-technologies-for-managing-ehr-related-clinical-knowledge",totalDownloads:2599,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"semantic-web",title:"Semantic Web",fullTitle:"Semantic Web"},signatures:"Catalina Martinez-Costa, Marcos Menarguez-Tortosa, Jose Alberto Maldonado and Jesualdo Tomas Fernandez-Breis",authors:null},{id:"9387",title:"Alternative Bootstrapping Design for the PORTAL-DOORS Cyberinfrastructure with Self-Referencing and Self-Describing Features",slug:"alternative-bootstrapping-design-for-the-portal-doors-cyberinfrastructure-with-self-referencing-and-",totalDownloads:1840,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"semantic-web",title:"Semantic Web",fullTitle:"Semantic Web"},signatures:"Carl Taswell",authors:null},{id:"9388",title:"Providing Semantic Content for the Next Generation Web",slug:"providing-semantic-content-for-the-next-generation-web",totalDownloads:1988,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"semantic-web",title:"Semantic Web",fullTitle:"Semantic Web"},signatures:"Irina Efimenko, Serge Minor, Anatoli Starostin, Grigory Drobyazko and Vladimir Khoroshevsky",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"world-wide-web",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/205944/rongwei-xuan",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"205944",slug:"rongwei-xuan"},fullPath:"/profiles/205944/rongwei-xuan",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var t;(t=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(t)}()