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\n\t\t\t
1. Introduction
\n\t\t\t
In this modern era, it is necessary for regulated and deregulated power sectors to properly monitor power system signals in order to be able to access and maintain the quality of power according to the set standards.
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Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages or currents having frequencies, that are integer multiples of the fundamental frequencies (50 or 60 HZ), at which the supply system is designed to operate.
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The identification, classification, quantification and mitigation of power system harmonics signals is the burning issue for various stake holders including utilities, consumers and manufacturers world widely.
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To accomplish this task mathematical and computational tools like MATLAB and Electrical Transient Analyzer Program (ETAP) have been used while conducting this research.
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Experimental work and simulation, pertaining to harmonics, will really help the scientific community to understand this phenomenon comprehensively to gain in-advance information, acquired for remedial measures.
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This chapter will comprise of the following:
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Harmonics background and their analysis
Harmonics modelling and simulation at high and low distribution voltage level
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2. Harmonics background
\n\t\t\t
Over recent years, there has been a considerable increase in the installation and use of electronic devices in electrical power system revealing non-linear behavior. They draw current which is non-sinusoidal in nature because of the rectification/inversion phenomena of their operation. The reason of this non-sinusoidal/distorted current is the presence of harmonic contents in the current waveform drawn by these electronic equipment.
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3. Harmonics Modelling & Simulation at High Voltage (HV) level
\n\t\t\t
In this chapter harmonics modelling and simulation has been performed at power distribution voltage level. For this purpose the chapter is sub-divided into two main parts. The first part deals with harmonics modelling and simulation at High Voltage (HV) distribution level which is 11 kV in most of the countries including Pakistan.
\n\t\t\t
A practical case of an independent 11 kV furnace has been discussed in this section. Modern induction furnace is an example of large non-linear load. Its operational and economic impacts have been analyzed comprehensively.
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4. Operational and Economic Impacts of Large distorted current drawn by modern induction furnaces
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Modern induction furnace draws heavy current with considerable distortion in the current waveform. This section focuses on indirect consequences caused by distorted current waveform drawn by modern induction furnaces in terms of operational and economic impacts. This heavy distorted current cause’s distortion in the system voltage also. Owing to the insulation limitations at 11 kV line, it is very taxing for modern Power Quality Analyzers to capture the exact distorted voltage waveform. However the distorted waveform of current with high amplitude can be captured by these analyzers by virtue of the appropriate CT ratios of their current clamps. By using the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) of the current waveform, a new mathematical approach using MATLAB has been developed for the exact modelling of distorted voltage waveform. This new approach has further been worked out to derive mathematical relation to compute the THDv which also shows its trend as a function of distance between the supply (utility) and Induction furnace (load). The rest of impacts are the derivation of distortion power, extra active power and reactive power in the line, percentage increase in system losses, displacement and true power factor measurement and finally the calculation of extra bill charged from the consumers. Mentioned above parameters have been derived mathematically and simulated in MATLAB, which also demonstrate their drift as a function of distance from grid to furnace at 11 kV voltage level.
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4.1. Block diagram of modern induction furnace
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To illustrate the basic operation of the modern induction furnace, the generalized block diagram is given in Figure 1 which is self explanatory.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 1.
Block diagram of Induction Furnace.
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\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
4.2. Single line diagram of case under study
\n\t\t\t\t
The single line diagram of 11 kV furnace feeder is given in Figure 2. The monitoring points (M1, M2, M3 and M4) have clearly been depicted in the Figure 2. At these points the waveform, RMS value, FFT and THD (Following the IEEE standards) of distorted current have been recorded using power quality analyzer “Fluke 43B” making sure that the furnaces are running at considerable load. This type of analyzer is capable of recording the FFT of a distorted current waveform up to the 50th harmonic present in that distorted current waveform. Since all the furnaces are three phase and there is a negligible load unbalancing, therefore, only readings from red phase of 11 kV furnace feeder have been recorded for analysis. The data obtained at monitoring points shown in Figure 2, is given in Table 1.
\n\t\t\t\t
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Monitoring Point
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
RMS value of Current (A)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
(%) THDi
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
M-1 (Furnace-A)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
62.20 A
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
21.2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
M-2 (Furnace-B)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
160.9 A
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
17.8
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
M-3 (Furnace-C)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
136.5 A
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
13.2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
M-4 (Coupling point F)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
358.1 A
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
14.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 1.
RMS Current and (%) THDi at different Monitoring Points.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 2.
Single Line diagram of 11 kV furnace feeder.
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\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
4.3 Description of captured current waveforms at various monitoring points
\n\t\t\t\t
a. Monitoring point M1 (Furnace-A)
\n\t\t\t\t
The Current waveform captured at monitoring point M1 having RMS value of 62.2A is shown in Figure 3. It is clearly visible that this current waveform is non-sinusoidal. The FFT Spectrum of the distorted waveform of Figure 3 is given in Figure 4, which clearly indicates the significant presence of 5th, 7th, 11th and 13th harmonics. However the higher order harmonics are considerably small as compared to above mentioned harmonics.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 3.
Current waveform at red phase of furnace A.
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Figure 4.
Current spectrum at red phase of furnace-A.
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b. Monitoring point M2 (Furnace-B)
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The current waveform captured at monitoring point M2 having RMS value of 160.9 A is shown in Figure 5 which is also distorted.
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Figure 5.
Current waveform at red phase of furnace-B.
\n\t\t\t\t
The FFT Spectrum of the distorted current waveform of Figure 5 is Shown in Figure 6, which shows the considerable presence of 5th,7th,11th,13th and 17th harmonics. It is obvious that harmonics higher than 17th order are significantly smaller in magnitude as compared to above mentioned harmonics.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 6.
Current spectrum at red phase of furnace-B.
\n\t\t\t\t
c. Monitoring point M3(Furnace-C)
\n\t\t\t\t
The Current waveform captured at monitoring point M3 having RMS value of 136.5 A is shown in Figure 7. Again it is clearly visible that this waveform is significantly distorted.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 7.
Current waveform at red phase of furnace-C.
\n\t\t\t\t
The FFT Spectrum of the distorted waveform of Figure 7 is given in Figure 8, which clearly indicates the significant presence of 7th, 11th, 13th, 17th, 21th, 23rd etc harmonics. However harmonics having order higher than 23rd are visibly small as compared to above mentioned odd harmonics. The operating frequency of furnace-C is 650 Hz, while the other furnaces operate at 600 Hz. Due to this difference in frequency, current waveform drawn by furnace-C is different from rest of the two furnaces.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 8.
Current spectrum at red phase of furnace-C.
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d. Monitoring point M4 (common coupling point F)
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The Current waveform captured at monitoring point M4 (common coupling point F) having RMS value of 358.1 A is shown in Figure 9 and its FFT is shown in Figure 10.
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Figure 9.
Current Waveform at coupling point F.
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The FFT Spectrum of the distorted waveform of Figure 9 is given in Figure 10 which clearly indicates the significant presence of 5th, 7th, 11th and 13th harmonics. However, the presence of higher order harmonics seems to be insignificant as they are smaller in magnitude in comparison with previously mentioned odd harmonics. It is obvious that the reactance of the line increases directly with increase in frequency of the current passing through it. Therefore, these higher order harmonics also contribute significantly to Voltage Distortion. It is worth mentioning that triplen harmonics (3th, 9th, 15th etc) of all the waveforms shown above have been trapped by the delta-Winding of line transformers of all the Furnaces.The position of line transformer has clearly been illustrated in block diagram of furnace, which is shown in Figure 1.
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Figure 10.
Current spectrum at coupling point F.
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Based upon the discussion carried out in previuos sections, M4 which is the reference point (Common Coupling Point F) will be focussed for modlling of distorted voltage waveform in terms of distance “d” from terminal pole T (Starting point of feeder) upto the coupling point-F. In latter sections, for mathematical analysis, the Monitoring point M4 will be denoted by F as shown in single line diagram shown in Figure 2.
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4.4. Impedance diagram for the case under study
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For the calculation of mathematical expressions impedance diagram corresponding to the single line diagram of Figure 2 is shown in Figure 11. Current at M4 is taken as reference current. For simplification in analysis all the three furnaces (loads) are replaced with an equivalent load F.
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Figure 11.
Impedance diagram corresponding to single line diagram.
\n\t\t\t\t
Where,
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V s
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= Voltage at source (grid), pure sinusoid
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V F
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= Voltage at load (F) terminal, to be calculated
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I F
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= Common Coupling Point Current
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R cable
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= Resistance of 100meters 500 MCM cable (in Ohms)
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L cable
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= Inductance of 100meters 500 MCM cable (in Henry)
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R osp
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= Resistance of Osprey conductor (in Ohms/Km)
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L osp
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= Inductance of Osprey conductor (in Henry/Km)
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d
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= Length of Osprey conductor from terminal pole T to Common Coupling Point F
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The impedance diagram will be solved using phasor algebra by converting it into two parts. First it will separately solve for fundamental frequency current (IF1) and second for harmonic frequency currents (IFn, where n = 2 to 50). Taking IF1 as reference current the phasor diagram at fundamental frequency current is shown in Figure 12.
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Figure 12.
Phasor diagram for fundamental frequency current.
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Here;
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VF1x = VSCos(θ) - VR1\n\t\t\t\t
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VF1y = VSSin(θ) - VX1, where, Cos (θ) is the displacement power factor at grid = 0.95, and
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VR1 = IF1 (2Rospd + 2Rcable)
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VX1 = IF1 (2πf(2Lospd) + 2πf(2Lcable)), here f is the fundamental frequency i.e., 50 Hz, therefore,
For any nth harmonic current IFn the source voltage Vs behaves as short circuit because it is pure sinusoidal in nature and load F acts as a source of harmonic current. Taking IFn as reference current, assuming Vs as zero, the required phasor diagram is shown in Figure 13.
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Figure 13.
Phasor diagram for harmonic currents.
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Here;
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θn= Phase angle of nth harmonic current with respect to IF1, and
By implementing Equ. (6) using MATLAB, the distorted voltage waveform at any point
\n\t\t\t\t
along the distance d from terminal point T to common coupling point F can be generated. For instance distorted voltage waveforms and their FFT’s have been generated at different points between terminal pole T and coupling point F, which are given as:
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Figure 14.
Voltage wave form at terminal pole T.
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Figure 15.
FFT Spectrum of voltage waveform shown in Figure 14.
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Figure 16.
Voltage waveform at 2.5 KM from Terminal pole T.
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Figure 17.
FFT Spectrum of voltage waveform shown in Figure 16.
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Figure 18.
Distorted Voltage waveform at common coupling point F.
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Figure 19.
FFT corresponding to waveform shown in Figure 18.
\n\t\t\t\t
The above given waveforms along with their FFT’s signify the fact that the distortion in voltage increases as it travels from terminal pole (T) to common coupling point (F).
By putting the values of VF1 and \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tV\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t|\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tV\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t|\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tsin \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tπ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tft\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t|\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tV\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tn\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t|\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tsin \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tπ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tft\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tθ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFn\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tfrom Equ.’s (2) and (5) in above expression, the following expression is obtained:
\n\t\t\t\t\tEqu. (7) expresses THDv as a function of distance d in kilo-meters from terminal pole (T) to common coupling point (F).
\n\t\t\t\t
The values of % THDv computed have been tabulated in Table 2.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Distance d (km’s)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
(%) THDv
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.2178
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.7163
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.2357
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4.7759
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
6.3370
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
7.9191
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
9.5222
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11.146
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
12.792
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
14.458
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
16.145
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 2.
Variation of (%) THDv with distance.
\n\t\t\t\t
In order to illustrate the trend of increase in THDv from terminal pole (T) to common coupling point (F), a graph has been drawn by using the values given in the above table. This graph shows that the trend of increase in THDv with distance is approximately linear.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 20.
Graph showing trend of (%) THDv with increasing distance d.
\n\t\t\t\t
c. Distortion Power
\n\t\t\t\t
Following the power triangle P, Q and S are Active, Reactive and Apparent powers respectively. These are the powers present in system in case of linear load.
\n\t\t\t\t
But in case of harmonics in the system, another power is introduced, which is called as Distortion power and represented by D. Figure 21 shows the association among the powers in case of non-linear load.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 21.
Change in power triangle in case of non-linear load.
After simplification the required solutions in terms of distance d from starting point (T) to common coupling point (F) are given in Equ.’s (9) and (10) respectively:
The derived expression in terms of distance d from terminal pole (T) up to common coupling point (F), is for the measurement of Distortion Power D. This expression also describes the relation between Distortion power (D) and the distance (d). In this case the value of d is fixed at 5 km’s but it can be generalized by putting the value of displacement power factor along with rest of the single line diagram parameters. Simulating these Equ.’s in MATLAB, the result obtained at different values of distance d is given in Table 3.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Distance d (km’s)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Distortion Power (VA)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
16.86×10 5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
16.44×10 5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
16.23×10 5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
16.24×10 5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
16.46×10 5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
16.88×10 5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
17.50×10 5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
18.28×10 5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
19.22×10 5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
20.29×10 5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
21.46×10 5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 3.
Distortion Power (D) trend from Point T to F.
\n\t\t\t\t
d. Extra Active & Reactive Power
\n\t\t\t\t
The Active and Reactive powers due to the presence of harmonics can be derived in terms of distance d from point T to F as:
Implementing the Equ.’s (12) and (13) in MATLAB, the resulted values in terms of distance are given in Table 4.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Distance d (km’s)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Extra Active Power (W)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Extra Reactive Power (VAR)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
180.96
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2536.57
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
975.46
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
19.86
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1769.99
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.72×10 3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2564.54
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5.45×10 4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.36×10 3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
7.48×10 4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4.16×10 3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
8.92×10 4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4.95×10 3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11.85×10 4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5.75×10 3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
12.38×10 4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
6.54×10 3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
14.11×10 4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
7.33×10 3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
15.85×10 4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
8.13×10 3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
17.58×10 4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 4.
Extra Active & Reactive Power in terms of distance.
\n\t\t\t\t
e. Percentage Increase in Line Losses
\n\t\t\t\t
The losses due to the ohmic resistance of the line are known as line losses or copper losses (I2R). Here in case of harmonic currents, these losses can be calculated as:
Following the allowable permissible limit of technical losses i.e. 5%, this considerable increase in technical losses due to the presence of harmonic currents, is really alarming for utilities and furnace owners.
\n\t\t\t\t
f. Displacement and True Power Factors
\n\t\t\t\t
The power factor of fundamental frequency components of the voltage and current is known as Displacement Power Factor (DPF). Where, the ratio of total active and reactive power including harmonic contents is called True Power Factor (TPF).
The values of DPF and TPF obtained from MATLAB are given in Table 5.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Distance ( k m ’s )
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
DPF
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
TPF
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Difference
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.9504
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.9406
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.0098
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.9530
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.9431
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.0099
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.9556
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.9454
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.0102
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.9581
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.9474
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.0107
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.9606
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.9491
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.0115
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.9631
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.9505
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.0126
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.9655
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.9517
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.0138
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.9679
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.9525
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.0154
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.9702
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.9530
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.0172
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.9725
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.9532
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.0193
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.9747
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.9530
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.0217
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 5.
Displacement and True Power Factor.
\n\t\t\t\t
The graph in Figure 22 shows the behavior of DPF and TPF in terms of distance.
\n\t\t\t\t
Here DPF follows a linear pattern, where the TPF pursues a curve pattern. The reason of this curve pattern is the quadratic behavior of Equ.’s 15& 16.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 22.
Graph of DPF and TPF.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
4.6. Economic Impact
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tTable 4 shows the Extra Active Power flow in line, and its value calculated at Common Coupling Point (M4) is 8.13 KW. On the basis of this value Extra Bill of handsome amount charged from furnace owners using the tariff of the utility can be calculated.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tTable 6 shows the Sanctioned Load and Maximum Demand Indicator (MDI) of all the three furnaces. These MDI’s are of the same month, when readings are taken during monitoring.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Furnace
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Sanctioned Load (KW)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
MDI (KW)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
A
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1160
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1008
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
B
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3200
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2442
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
C
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2500
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2083
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
TOTAL
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
6860
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5533
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 6.
Sanctioned Load and MDI of all the Furnaces.
\n\t\t\t\t
The Tariff for independent industrial (furnace) consumer is given in Table 7:
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Charges (Rs.)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Off Peak
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Peak
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Fixed (per KW per Month)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
305.00
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
305.00
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Variable (per KWh)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.88
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
6.97
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 7.
Tariff for Furnace Consumers.
\n\t\t\t\t
Extra Active Power P = 8.13 KW
\n\t\t\t\t
Off Peak Units (per month) = 8.13*20*30= 4878 KWh
\n\t\t\t\t
Peak Units (per month) = 8.13*4*30= 975 KWh
\n\t\t\t\t
Fixed Charges = 305*MDI = Rs. 1687565
Variable Charges:
Off Peak (O) = 4878*3.88 = 18927
Peak (P) = 975*6.97 = 6796
TOTAL = (O) + (P) = Rs. 25723
GST (15% of Variable Charges) = Rs. 3858
Income Tax = Rs. 2000
Additional Charges = Rs. 34212
TOTAL EXTRA BILL = Rs. 17,53,358/-
\n\t\t\t\t
This considerable extra bill charged by utility will be divided among the furnaces according to their KWh and MDI.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
4.7. Conclusion of operational and economic impacts of distorted current drawn by modern induction furnaces
\n\t\t\t\t
The novel approach presented here will really help the power sector stake holders to measure the voltage distortion at any desired location irrespective of voltage level. Moreover, this newly developed methodology can be generalized to solve any type of electric circuits involving non-linear loads.
\n\t\t\t\t
The above section reveals that the presences of large distorted current in a power distribution network adversely affect the performance of the system operationally and economically. Its indirect consequences result in network overloading even under normal operating conditions. The life of power system reduces and some times can cause damaging to power/distribution transformers and furnace installations etc due to excessive system losses. This novel approach will really open the pathway for researchers and scientists in mitigation of these impacts in future.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
5. Harmonics Modelling & Simulation at Low Voltage (LV) level
\n\t\t\t
This section deals with mathematical modelling and simulation at low voltage (LV) i.e. 400volts (secondary distribution voltage) level. Computer load, as case study has been selected for mathematical modelling and simulation.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
6. Mathematical modelling of current harmonics caused by personal computers
\n\t\t\t
Personal computers draw non-sinusoidal current with odd harmonics more significantly. Power quality of distribution networks is severely affected due to the flow of these generated harmonics during the operation of electronic loads. In this section, mathematical modelling of odd harmonics in current like 3rd, 5th, 7th and 9th influencing the power quality has been presented. Live signals have been captured with the help of power quality analyzer for analysis purpose. The interesting feature is that Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) in current decreases with the increase of nonlinear loads has been verified theoretically. The results obtained using mathematical expressions have been compared with the practical results.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
6.1. Methodology and instrumentation
\n\t\t\t\t
In this case study various computers were connected to the main of the power supply one by one and effect of each computer on the current waveform of the main was recorded. Figure 23 indicates the hardware arrangement and apparatus used during the experimental work. As it is evident from Figure 23, inputs for various computers under test one by one are drawn from AC mains. The waveforms of odd harmonics and THD have been observed and recorded. This data has been used to make observations about the changes and effects of electronic loads.
\n\t\t\t\t
Following equipment have been used for the experiment work.
\n\t\t\t\t
i) Power quality analyzer was used to record the current waveforms and THD.
\n\t\t\t\t
ii) Personal Computer (PC) details are as under:
\n\t\t\t\t
Pentium (R) 4 CPU 2.40 GHz
\n\t\t\t\t
ATX Power supply 220 t0 230 Volts
\n\t\t\t\t
Monitor 15 inch (100- 240V, 50/60Hz, 0.8- 1.5A)
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 23.
Hardware arrangement.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
6.2. Results and discussions
\n\t\t\t\t
PC’s numbering from PC 1 to PC 23 were connected to the AC mains gradually and then wave-forms of odd harmonics and THD in current have been captured and recorded in real time for observations. Table 8 describes the results taken for Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) in current and individual magnitudes of odd harmonics corresponding to different number of PCs connected to the main.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
No. of PC’s
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
% Mag. of 3rd harmonic
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
% Mag. of 5th harmonic
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
% Mag. of 7th harmonic
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
% Mag. of 9th harmonic
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
% THDi
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
50
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
45
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
37
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
23
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
79.3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
53
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
42
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
25
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
13
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
74.6
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
7
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
54
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
40
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
21
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
72.3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
10
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
56
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
38
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
16
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
70.1
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
13
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
58
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
35
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
12
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
68.6
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
16
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
58
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
33
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
8
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
66.2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
19
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
57
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
29
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
6
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
7
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
64.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
21
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
58
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
27
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
7
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
62.8
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
23
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
58
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
25
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
9
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
61.4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 8.
Online recorded results.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
6.3. Graphical representation of results
\n\t\t\t\t
3rd Harmonic Only
\n\t\t\t\t
From graph shown in Figure 24, it is clear that the magnitude of 3rd harmonic increases up-to certain level then it remains constant with further increase of the electronic load. Mathematically, using Curve Fitting technique, the relation between columns 1 and 2 of Table 8 can be written as:
From graph shown in Figure 25, the magnitude of 5th harmonic decreases in linear fashion, as the number of PC’s connected to the supply mains increases, ultimately the magnitude of this odd harmonics approaches to zero.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 25.
Graphical representation of 5th harmonic only.
\n\t\t\t\t
Mathematically, using Curve Fitting technique relation between columns 1 and 3 of Table 8 can be written as:
\n\t\t\t\t
Y = - 0.8916X + 46.239
\n\t\t\t\t
In the form of magnitude of harmonic current and the no. of PCs connected to the supply mains:
Where, - 0.8961 is the slop of the line 46.239 is its y-intercept
\n\t\t\t\t
c. 7th Harmonic Only
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tFigure 26 indicates that the magnitude of 7th harmonic decreases in a logarithmic fashion, rather than linear as in the case of 3rd and 5th harmonic, as the number of PC’s increases and consequently it becomes zero.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 26.
Graphical representation of 7th harmonic only.
\n\t\t\t\t
Mathematically, using Curve Fitting technique relation between columns 1 and 4 of Table 8 can be written as:
\n\t\t\t\t
Y = -11.278ln(x) + 39.85
\n\t\t\t\t
In the form of magnitude of harmonic current and the no. of PCs connected to the supply mains:
From this graph shown in Figure 27, it is observed that the magnitude of 9th harmonic is following the trend line of polynomial of order 2 as compared to other harmonics as the number of PC’s is increasing the magnitude of 9th harmonic is decreasing resultantly.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 27.
Graphical representation of 9th harmonic only.
\n\t\t\t\t
Mathematically, using Curve Fitting technique relation between columns 1 and 5 of Table 8 can be written as:
\n\t\t\t\t
Y = 0.1188NPC2 – 3.3403NPC + 25. 159
\n\t\t\t\t
In the form of magnitude of harmonic current and the no. of PCs connected to the supply mains:
Where the expression on right hand side is a polynomial of 2nd order, geometrically it represents the characteristics of parabolic curve.
\n\t\t\t\t
e. THD in Current
\n\t\t\t\t
The percentage of Total Harmonic Distortion (%THD) can be defined in two different ways, as a percentage of the fundamental component (the IEEE definition of THD) or as a percentage of the rms (used by the Canadian Standards Association and the IEC).
Where Irms,n is the amplitude of the harmonic component of order n (i.e., the nth harmonic). The numerator gives the RMS current due to all harmonics and I1 is the RMS value of fundamental component of current only. Given above is the mathematical form of the IEEE definition of THD. According to IEC standards, the mathematical form of THD is
\n\t\t\t\t
given below:
\n\t\t\t\t
THD = \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDPF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t P\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t/Irms, and
Where Irms,n is the amplitude of the harmonic component of order n (i.e., the nth harmonic) and Irms is the rms value of all the harmonics plus the fundamental component of the current. The later standard is referred in this study, because the apparatus used for analysis was based on IEC Standards. The 3rd, 5th, 7th and 9th harmonics being the most significant, the definition of THD may be modified and written as in the next page.
The value of THD may be calculated for any number of computers using the above formula. Figure 28 is showing the magnitude of individual harmonics, when 4 PCs were connected to the supply mains.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 28.
FFT of current waveform.
\n\t\t\t\t
Irms = 3.28 A
\n\t\t\t\t
RMS magnitude of 3rd Harmonic = 53% of 3.28 = 1.7384 A
\n\t\t\t\t
RMS magnitude of 5th Harmonic = 42% of 3.28 = 1.3776 A
\n\t\t\t\t
RMS magnitude of 7th Harmonic = 25% of 3.28 = 0.8200 A
\n\t\t\t\t
RMS magnitude of 9th Harmonic = 13% of 3.28 = 0.4264 A
Where I3, I5, I7 and I9 are the %age magnitudes of the 3rd, 5th, 7th and 9th harmonics respectively. In this case it can be calculated as:
\n\t\t\t\t
THD = 73.26 %
\n\t\t\t\t
In the Table 8, the online value of THD is 74.6%. The difference of the calculated and experimental value is 1.34, which is only 1.8%. This negligible difference caused by other odd harmonics being neglected proves the validity of measurement and it consequently plays a pivotal role for the accurate analysis of the odd harmonics under test in this research. Figure 29 explains the overall impact of individual harmonics cumulatively. Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) in Current with increase in electronic loads is decreasing. As discussed in previous sections, among odd harmonics only third harmonic plays active role whereas the other odd harmonics impact with increase in electronic loads is negligible.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 29.
Graphical representation of THD in current.
\n\t\t\t\t
The relation between THD in current and the number of PCs is given below:
\n\t\t\t\t
It = 80.11 – 0.81 NPCs\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
The relation was not justified in but the analysis of individual harmonics performed in this paper justifies this relation too, as all individual harmonic components except 3rd harmonic are decreasing with the increasing number of PCs.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
6.4. Justification of mathematical models
\n\t\t\t\t
Odd harmonic currents can be calculated for any desired number of PCs using Equ.’s (17) to (20) given in previous section. The obtained values of odd harmonics can be used to calculate THD in current using Equ. (22). For 10 PCs, the calculated values of 3rd, 5th, 7th and 9th harmonic currents are given below:
Following the same pattern for any number of PCs connected to the supply mains, percentage of odd harmonics and THDi can be calculated as follows:
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
No. of PC’s
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Parameters description
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Calculated values
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Experimental Values
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
% Error
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
10
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
I3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
56.09
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
56.00
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.16
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
I5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
37.28
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
38.00
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.89
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
I7
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
13.88
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
16.00
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
13.25
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
I9
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.636
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.000
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2.12
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
THDi
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
68.86
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
70.10
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.80
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
13
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
I3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
57.19
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
58.00
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.40
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
I5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
34.59
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
35.00
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.17
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
I7
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
10.92
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
12.00
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
9.00
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
I9
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.812
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2.000
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
9.40
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
THDi
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
67.75
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
68.60
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.23
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 9.
Comparison of calculated and experimental values.
\n\t\t\t\t
Last column of Table 9 reveals the ignorable values of error; all this confirms the authenticity of the developed mathematical models.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
6.5. Conclusion of mathematical modelling of current harmonics caused by PC’s
\n\t\t\t\t
During the mathematical modelling, the individual assessment of odd harmonics in current waveform which are significant in magnitudes proved theoretically that THDi decreases with the increase of electronic/nonlinear loads using IEC Standards. Keeping in view predicted magnitudes by virtue of mathematical modelling, this innovative technique will certainly draw the attention of researchers, consumers, utilities and the manufacturers to think about the remedial measures for mitigation of this undesired phenomenon for smooth operation of power distribution network.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
7. Impacts of harmonics caused by personal computers on distribution transformers
\n\t\t\t
As it is mentioned in previous section, Personal Computers (PC’s) being electronic load draw non-sinusoidal current. When this non-sinusoidal current passes through the impedance of the line/cable, it causes considerable distortion in voltage. This distorted voltage in a parallel connection scheme appears at the LT/HT sides of distribution transformer and causes significant effects on equipment performance which are designed to operate at sinusoidal voltage and current only. The complete distribution network of Rachna College of Engineering & Technology (RCET), Pk has been simulated using Electrical Transient Analyzer Program (ETAP) software. For this purpose an experiment has been performed in which current waveform drawn by a PC along with its spectrum has been recorded using oscilloscope at RCET Research Lab as prototype. This model of a single PC is injected into the harmonic library of ETAP for simulation of RCET distribution network. The impacts of harmonics caused by PC’s on distribution transformers have been completely analyzed. Moreover, the trend of Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) with variation in different types of loads using IEEE Standards has been analyzed mathematically & graphically.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
7.1. Experimental work
\n\t\t\t\t
The current waveform and its harmonic spectrum drawn by Personal Computer has been recorded using oscilloscope. The description of equipment and test unit is as under:
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Digital Storage Oscilloscope: TEXIO 60 MHz, 1000 Ms/s, with voltage range 100-240 V ac.
\n\t\t\t\t
Pentium 4.0 Computer: CPU 2.40 GHz, ATX power supply 115-230 Vac, 2/1.5 Ampere current rating. Monitor: Philips, 100-240 V ac with 1.5/0.8 Ampere current rating.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tFigure 30 shows the experimental setup, in which current drawn by a single Personal Computer (Monitor & CPU) along with its FFT has been recorded using Digital Storage Oscilloscope. Resistor is a linear element in which voltage and current waveforms are in phase with each other, so voltage waveform recorded across it is also the current waveform drawn by single PC.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 30.
Experimental setup.
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\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
7.2. Software used for simulation
\n\t\t\t\t
The software used for obtaining results is Electrical Transient Analyzer Program (ETAP), which is recognized software and currently used for power system analysis world widely. It has capacity to perform analysis including Load Flow (LF), Harmonic Load Flow (HA), Harmonic Frequency Scan, Optimal Power Flow, Short-Circuit, Motor Starting and Transient Analysis etc. In Harmonic Analysis (HA) this software has the provision to inject user defined library.
\n\t\t\t\t
The Results obtained at RCET Research Lab of a single PC are inserted into harmonic library of ETAP for simulation.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tTable 10 shows the percentage of Individual Harmonic Distortion (IHD) with reference to fundamental and Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) in current waveform drawn by single PC.
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Harmonic No.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
% IHD
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3 rd
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
91.63
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5 th
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
86.61
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
7 th
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
69.87
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
9 th
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
44.76
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11 th
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
54.81
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
13 th
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
46.44
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
15 th
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
46.44
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
17 th
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
33.05
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
19 th
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
24.70
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
23 rd
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11.74
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
25 th
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
7.900
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
29 th
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5.120
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
% THDi
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
178.97
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 10.
% IHD with reference to fundamental.
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\n\t\t\t
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7.3. Single line diagram of RCET power distribution network
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 31.
Single line diagram of RCET power distribution network.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tFigure 31 shows the single line diagram of RCET distribution network. The 11 kV line is emanating from 20/26 MVA Power Transformer at 220 kV Grid Ghakkar, Pk. The details of distribution transformers along with their loads are shown in Table 11.
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
ID
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Location
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Ratted kVA
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
No. of PC’s
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Other Load (KW)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
PC Load (KW)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
T1
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Old Building
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
200
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
30
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
93.21
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
22.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
T2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Independent T/F
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
25
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11.18
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
T3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Hostel A,B
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
100
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
22
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
36.44
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
16.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
T4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
New Building
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
100
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
25
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
33.89
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
18.75
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
T5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Staff Colony
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
100
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
15
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
25.42
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11.25
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
T6
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Mobile Tower
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
25
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
15.00
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
T7
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Hostel E,F
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
50
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
13
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
12.71
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
9.75
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
TOTAL:-
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
600
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
105
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
212.85
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
78.75
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 11.
Distribution T.F’s ratting and connected load.
\n\t\t\t\t
The lengths of secondary distribution line (11 kV) are clearly mentioned in single line diagram. The description for 11 kV line conductors is shown in Table 12.
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Cond. Name
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Resistance (Ohms/Km)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Reactance (Ohms/Km)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Max. Current (A)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Dog
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.336
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.378
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
307
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Rabbit
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.659
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.202
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
202
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 12.
Conductor table.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
7.4. Harmonic Analysis
\n\t\t\t\t
Current and voltage waveforms along with their harmonic spectrums at LT & HT sides of all the distribution transformers have been recorded during Harmonic Analysis. Due to lack of space available only 100 kVA New Building transformer T4 results has been discussed.
\n\t\t\t\t
a. 100 kVA New Building TransformerT4
\n\t\t\t\t
The waveforms recorded at LT/HT sides of distribution transformer T4 are:
\n\t\t\t\t
i. Current waveform & its Spectrum at LT side of T4
\n\t\t\t\t
Current waveform and its FFT recorded at LT side are given in Figures 32& 33 respectively. The waveform is highly distorted due to the presence of 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th, 11th etc. harmonics.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 32.
Current waveform at LT side of T4.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 33.
FFT of current waveform of Figure 32.
\n\t\t\t\t
ii. Current waveform & its Spectrum at HT side of T4
\n\t\t\t\t
Current waveform and its FFT recorded at HT side are given in Figures 34& 35 respectively. This waveform is also distorted but it is noticeable that triplen harmonics (3rd, 9th, 15th etc.) have been trapped by delta winding of distribution transformer.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 34.
Current waveform at HT of T4.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 35.
FFT of current waveform of Figure 34.
\n\t\t\t\t
iii. Voltage waveform & its Spectrum at LT side of T4
\n\t\t\t\t
Voltage waveform & its FFT at LT side of distribution transformer T4 are given in Figures 36& 37. This distortion in voltage waveform is the result of current waveform distortion. When the distorted current passes through the series impedance of the line it causes considerable distortion in voltage waveform. The LT voltage waveform spectrum also contains the triplen harmonics which are major cause of distortion in voltage waveform.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 36.
Voltage waveform at LT side of T4.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 37.
FFT of voltage waveform of Figure 36.
\n\t\t\t\t
iv. Voltage waveform & its Spectrum at HT side of T4
\n\t\t\t\t
Voltage waveform & its FFT at HT side of distribution transformer are given in Figures 38& 39. The magnitude of harmonic contents with reference to fundamental frequency are very low and that’s why the waveform is almost sinusoidal.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 38.
Voltage waveform at HT side of T4.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 39.
FFT of voltage waveform of Figure 38.
\n\t\t\t\t
b. Summary of Over all distribution transformers THD’s at LT/HT sides
\n\t\t\t\t
It is clear from single line diagram of Figure 31 that five number transformers are general duty transformers and remaining two are independent transformers. These general duty transformers contained PC’s load along with other load. The transformer T2 is running a motor load, so it has zero harmonic distortion at LT side.
\n\t\t\t\t
The transformer T6 is also an independent transformer feeding to mobile tower having non-linear load but will not be high lighted because the focus of this research work is mainly based upon PC’s.
\n\t\t\t\t
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) of voltage and current waveforms are summarized in Table 13 at LT and HT sides of the distribution transformers.
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
ID
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
% THDi
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
% THDv
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
LT
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
HT
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
LT
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
HT
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
T1
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
14.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
25.28
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
9.97
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.127
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
T2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.139
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
T3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
27.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
47.94
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
16.39
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.145
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
T4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
28.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
49.41
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
17.26
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.149
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
T5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
42.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
44.30
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
10.21
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.152
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
T6
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
30.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
27.61
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
34.03
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.153
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
T7
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
37.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
65.76
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
16.99
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.1554
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 13.
% THD at different Buses.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tTable 14 shows the percentage Individual Harmonic Distortion of voltage waveform (% IHDv) at LT side of those distribution transformers where its value is significant.
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
ID
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3rd
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5 th
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
7 th
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
9th
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11 th
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
13 th
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
15 th
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
17 th
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
19 th
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
23 rd
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
T1
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.8
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2.6
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.1
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5.3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.9
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4.2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.6
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
T3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2.4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4.6
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
6.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
7.7
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
6.1
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5.9
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5.2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.1
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
T4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2.8
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4.2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4.8
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.8
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
6.3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
8.1
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
6.2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
6.2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5.4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
T5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2.4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2.9
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2.1
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.7
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4.8
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.6
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.8
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2.1
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
T7
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.8
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4.2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2.6
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
6.25
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
8.6
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4.4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
7.2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
6.4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4.2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 14.
% IHDv with ref. to fundamental at HT side of T/F’s.
\n\t\t\t\t
IEEE Std. 519-1992, deals with standards and limitations of harmonics level in electrical power system in presence of non-linear loads. For voltage level up to 69 kV, the level of distortion for % THDv is 5.0% and for % IHDv is 3.0%. Table 13 and 14 give the % THD and % IHD at LT/HT sides of distribution transformers. It is clear from the Tables that voltage limit set by IEEE is violated which is a proof of poor power quality.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
7.5. THD trend with variation in different types of loads
\n\t\t\t\t
ETAP has the provision to vary the load according to requirement and then to record the harmonic distortion in voltage and current waveforms:
\n\t\t\t\t
a. Increasing the No. of PC’s
\n\t\t\t\t
For case study, the transformer T4 (New Building, 100 kVA) computer load has varied from 1 PC up to the 50th PC to record the values of current and voltage waveform distortion by disconnecting other linear load.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tTable 15 shows that by increasing the number of PC’s, Total Harmonic Distortion in Current (THDi) remains same for 1 PC to 50th PC at LT side, by disconnecting other linear loads.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
No. of PC’s
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
% THDi
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
159.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
159.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
10
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
159.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
15
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
159.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
20
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
159.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
30
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
159.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
40
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
159.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
50
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
159.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 15.
THD trend at LT of T4 by increasing the no. of PC’s.
\n\t\t\t\t
According to IEEE Standards, Total Harmonic Distortion is defined as “The ratio of the root- mean-square of the harmonic content to the root-mean-square value of the fundamental quantity, expressed as a percentage of the fundamental”.
The Equ. (25) proves that by increasing the number of PC’s the Total Harmonic Distortion will remain the same. It is worth mentioning here that this relation holds when the same electronic load is increased by disconnecting the other linear loads. If different types of non-linear loads are increased their THD trend may be increasing or decreasing depending upon fundamental and individual harmonic contents magnitudes.
\n\t\t\t\t
b. Increasing the Linear Load by fixing PC load
\n\t\t\t\t
THD trend can also be confirmed by fixing number of PC’s and varying the linear loads (i.e. resistive & inductive). For this purpose Transformer T4 of 100 kVA has been selected. There are 25 No. of PC’s connected with this transformer and linear load comprises of 20% resistive and 80% inductive.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tTable 16 indicates that by increasing the linear load by keeping PC’s load constant, THD in current and voltage will decrease accordingly at LT side of the transformer.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Linear Load (kVA)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
% THDi
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
% THDv
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
95.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
18.08
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
82.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
17.73
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
10
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
69.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
17.31
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
15
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
60.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
16.9
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
20
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
53.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
16.52
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
25
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
47.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
16.16
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
30
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
42.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
15.82
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
35
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
38.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
15.49
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
40
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
35.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
15.18
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 16.
THD trend at LT of T4 by increasing Linear Load.
\n\t\t\t\t
The reason for this decreasing trend is given mathematically in Equ. 26. Where ‘n’ represents number of PC’s which are fixed in this case. ‘Ic’ is current drawn by PC’s where ‘IL’ is current due to linear loads. Here, ‘m’ is the integer which shows the increase in linear load.
Solving Equ. (26), the results are shown in Equ.’s (27) and (28) respectively, which verify that by increasing ‘m’ (Linear load) the THDi decreases because of the inverse relation between THD and fundamental current.
Graphical representation of decreasing trend of THDv and THDi are shown in Figure 40 and 41 respectively.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 40.
Decreasing trend of THDv with increase in linear load.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 41.
Decreasing trend of THDi with increase in linear load.
\n\t\t\t\t
c. Mixing of another Non-Linear Load
\n\t\t\t\t
For comprehensive modelling of THDi at the LT side of 100 kVA T4 transformer, another non-linear load has taken from ETAP harmonic library for further simulation. The manufacturer of this load is Toshiba and its model is PWM ASD. The Spectrum for this non-linear load is given in Figure 42.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 42.
Harmonic Spectrum for PWM ASD.
\n\t\t\t\t
This load is connected with PC and other linear load. The PC and linear load is kept same while this PWM ASD load has varied and results are given in Table 17:
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
PWM Load (KW)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
% THDi
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
34.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
31.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
10
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
30.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
15
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
30.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
20
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
30.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
25
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
31.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
30
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
33.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
35
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
34.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
40
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
36.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 17.
THD at LT of T4 by increasing PWM .
\n\t\t\t\t
This trend can be represented graphically as shown in Figure 43.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 43.
THDi trend during mixing of another non-linear load.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
7.6. Conclusion of harmonic impacts caused by PC’s on distribution transformers
\n\t\t\t\t
Simulation conducted in ETAP based upon the experimental work injected in its library from proto type developed at RCET Lab is really interesting and innovative. All stake holders of Power Industry, Consumers and Manufacturers can have in advance knowledge using the mathematical relations derived during this research for predictive measures. Moreover, scientific community will really be beneficiary from the mathematical models developed by varying nature of connected load, keeping in view the on ground reality.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/8697.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/8697.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/8697",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/8697",totalDownloads:8407,totalViews:892,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:null,datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"October 1st 2009",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/8697",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/8697",book:{slug:"advanced-technologies"},signatures:"Rana Abdul Jabbar Khan and Muhammad Junaid",authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Harmonics background",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Harmonics Modelling & Simulation at High Voltage (HV) level",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Operational and Economic Impacts of Large distorted current drawn by modern induction furnaces",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1. Block diagram of modern induction furnace",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2. Single line diagram of case under study",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.3 Description of captured current waveforms at various monitoring points",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.4. Impedance diagram for the case under study",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.5. Operational Impacts",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.6. Economic Impact",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.7. Conclusion of operational and economic impacts of distorted current drawn by modern induction furnaces",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"5. Harmonics Modelling & Simulation at Low Voltage (LV) level",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"6. Mathematical modelling of current harmonics caused by personal computers",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"6.1. Methodology and instrumentation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"6.2. Results and discussions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"6.3. Graphical representation of results",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"6.4. Justification of mathematical models",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"6.5. Conclusion of mathematical modelling of current harmonics caused by PC’s",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19",title:"7. Impacts of harmonics caused by personal computers on distribution transformers",level:"1"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"7.1. Experimental work",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"7.2. Software used for simulation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"7.3. Single line diagram of RCET power distribution network",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"7.4. Harmonic Analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"7.5. THD trend with variation in different types of loads",level:"2"},{id:"sec_24_2",title:"7.6. Conclusion of harmonic impacts caused by PC’s on distribution transformers ",level:"2"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJabbar\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRana Abdul\n\t\t\t\t\t\t, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJunaid\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMuhamad\n\t\t\t\t\t\t, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAli Masood\n\t\t\t\t\t\t& Khalid Saeed Akhtar, (2009). Impacts of Harmonics caused by Personal Computers on Distribution Transformers, Proceedings of 3rd International Conference on Electrical Engineering (ICEE’09), IEEE, ISBN No. 978-1-4244-4361-1, Paper ID PWR_024, 09-11 April, 2009, University of Engineering & Technology, Lahore, Pakistan.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B2",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJabbar\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAkmak\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMuhammad\n\t\t\t\t\t\t, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJunaid\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMuhamad\n\t\t\t\t\t\t& \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAli Masood\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t, (2008). Operational and Economic Impacts of Distorted Current drawn by the Modern Induction Furnaces, Proceedings of Australasian Universities Power Engineering Conference (AUPEC’08), IEEE, Paper No. 266, ISBN: 978-0-7334-2715-2, 14-17 December, 2009, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B3",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJabbar\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAldabbagh\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAzah\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMuhammad\n\t\t\t\t\t\t, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKhawaja\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR. H.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAkmal\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t& \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tArif\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRehan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, (2008). Impact of Compact Fluorescent Lamp on Power Quality, Proceedings of Australasian Universities Power Engineering Conference (AUPEC’08), IEEE, Paper No. 025, ISBN: 978-0-7334-2715-2, 14-17 December, 2009, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B4",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJabbar\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAkmal\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMuhammad\n\t\t\t\t\t\t, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAli Masood\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJunaid\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMuhammad\n\t\t\t\t\t\t, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAkram\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFiaz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, (2008). Voltage Waveform Distortion Measurement Caused by current drawn by Modern Induction Furnaces, Proceedings of 13th International Conference on Harmonics and Quality of Power (ICHQP2008), IEEE, PES, On page(s): 1-7, ISBN: 978-1-4244-1771-1, Digital Object Identifier: 10.1109/ICHQP.2008.4668764, Published: 2008-11-07 University of Wollongong, Australia.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B5",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJabbar\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAkmal\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, (2008). Mathematical Modelling of Current Harmonics Caused by Personal Computers, International Journal of Electrical Systems Science and Engineering (IJESSE), WASET, pp. 103-107, ISSN 1307-8917, Volume 1, Number 2, Winter, May 2008, Bangkok.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B6",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tJabbar\n\t\t\t\t\t\tR. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t, \n\t\t\t\t\t\tQureshi\n\t\t\t\t\t\tS. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t& \n\t\t\t\t\t\tAkmal\n\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t, (2007), Practical Analysis and Mathematical Modelling of Harmonic Distortions Caused by Electronic Loads, Proceedings of 7th the International Association of Science and Technology for Development (IASTED), pp. 145-150, ISBN: 978-0-88986-689-8, 29-31 August, 2007, Spain. '}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Rana Abdul Jabbar Khan",address:null,affiliation:'
Rachna College of Engineering & Technology, Gujranwala, Pakistan
Rachna College of Engineering & Technology, Gujranwala, Pakistan
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"3612",title:"Advanced Technologies",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Advanced Technologies",slug:"advanced-technologies",publishedDate:"October 1st 2009",bookSignature:"Kankesu Jayanthakumaran",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3612.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY-NC-SA 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"2259",title:"Dr.",name:"Kankesu",middleName:null,surname:"Jayanthakumaran",slug:"kankesu-jayanthakumaran",fullName:"Kankesu Jayanthakumaran"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"8690",title:"Multilateralism, Regionalism and Income Convergence: ASEAN and SAARC",slug:"multilateralism-regionalism-and-income-convergence-asean-and-saarc",totalDownloads:2097,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Kankesu Jayanthakumaran and Shao-Wei Lee",authors:[null]},{id:"8691",title:"Newton-Raphson State Estimation Solution Employing Systematically Constructed Jacobian Matrix",slug:"newton-raphson-state-estimation-solution-employing-systematically-constructed-jacobian-matrix",totalDownloads:3865,totalCrossrefCites:5,signatures:"Nursyarizal Mohd Nor, Ramiah Jegatheesan and Ir. 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1. Origin of groin pain
It refers to the discomfort that occurs in the groin area of abdominal wall.
The most common causes of groin pain include:
Pulling on a muscle, tendon, or ligament in the leg
Hernia
Hip joint disease or injury
Less common causes include:
Inflammation of the testicle or epididymis and related structures
Torsion of the spermatic cord attached to the testicle (testicular torsion)
Tumor of the testicle
Kidney stones
Inflammation of the large and small intestine
Skin infection
Swelling of the lymph nodes
Urinary infection
This groin pain is perceived, integrated, transmitted and evaluated by neurons and the nervous system, but we have not yet elucidated how this process takes place. Such is the profuse network of nerves that cover the area, that their involvement is a not uncommon phenomenon (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Nervous system in the groin hernia area (3D 4Medical app).
In fact, the most frequent surgical reason is inguinal pain resistant to conservative treatments. Besides, poor preoperative pain control is a key factor in developing acute and chronic postsurgical pain (CPSP; Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Predictability of the appearance of CPSP.
2. Risk factors
Each patient who develops CPSP has a specific genotype, medical history, previous experiences, beliefs and psychosocial conditions related to their pain; but, in general, there are some common risk factors in the development of chronic pain.
Psychosocial factors: Anxiety, depression and catastrophizing that surround the patient during the perioperative period.
Demographic factors: In some surgeries, age is a determining factor (i.e. young women for mastectomies [1]). In others, the male gender is more prone than the female [2, 3].
Genetic factors: Several authors point to the relationship of different clinical pathologies such as fibromyalgia, migraine, irritable bowel, irritable bladder, Raynaud’s syndrome … as markers of chronic postsurgical pain [4, 5].
Preoperative pain: The presence of preoperative pain has been correlated in different studies with the development of CPSP. Of all the types of surgical interventions, the hernia procedure stands out for its high preoperative pain rates [6, 7, 8, 9].
Surgical factors: Some important surgical factors may be related to the development of CPSP such as:
Duration of the operation (more than 3 h),
Surgical technique (laparoscopy vs. open),
Incision (site and type),
Experience of the surgeon,
Center where the intervention is carried out [10].
Acute postsurgical pain (APSP): Various studies show the importance of optimal APSP control to avoid chronification of postsurgical pain. Among them, surgeries such as groin, breast, hip, knee … are the most identified [11, 12, 13].
However, and despite the fact that there are different studies addressing this issue, the controversy remains dominant. To date, it can only be suggested that they do not play in favor of a better recovery or a lower probability of chronification, in addition to reducing quality of life in the process; but in no case can we establish a universally accepted causal relationship [3, 13, 14, 15, 16].
3. Nociception
For the response to a noxious stimulus (be it chemical, thermal, pressure or any other characteristic that can cause pain), there are structures sensitive to those stimuli in the periphery: they are nociceptors [17].
Different classes of afferent nerve fibers are responsible for the communication of nociceptive information and pain:
Type Aβ: with a myelin sheath, are sensitive fibers responsible for touch and pressure.
Type Aδ: with a myelin sheath are responsible for the transmission of localized acute pain, temperature and part of the touch.
C fibers, without myelin sheath are responsible for the transmission of deep diffuse pain, smell, information from some mechanoreceptors, responses of the reflex and postganglionic arcs of the autonomic nervous system.
In a basal state, a noxious stimulus depolarizes a sensory or nociceptor neuron. The stimulation of nociceptors causes the propagation of the nerve stimulus to the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. Control at the spinal level is carried out in the gelatinous substance of Rolando (Rexed plate II) by stimulating inhibitory interneurons (Golgi II type) that cancel or reduce the nociceptive signal towards the lateral spinothalamic tract. In addition, glutamate is released, an excitatory amino acid that binds to a specific receptor, called AMPA and located in a postsynaptic neuron that transmits information to the higher centers of the CNS. Different brain centers are stimulated from the thalamus:
Periaqueductal gray substance (PAGS): Located in the midbrain, it is one of the most important nuclei and its functions are mediated by the opioid system. Its activation allows the inhibition of the painful process. It is connected with brain structures, with the ascending bundles and sends its projections to structures of the pons such as the nuclei of the raphe magnum.
Nuclei of the raphe magno: Located in the protuberance, receives connections from the ascending systems and the PAGS. It sends its axons to the first afferent synapse of the posterior horn and its nature is serotonergic.
Cerulean nucleus: Located on both sides of the fourth ventricle in the bridge. It is noradrenergic in nature.
The prefrontal cortex integrates all the information and the patient feels pain [18]. From these same superior nuclei, descending pathways are set in motion and reach the dorsal horn of the medulla again releasing endogenous inhibitory substances (mainly opioids and GABA). These inhibitory substances act by modulating the transmission of the stimulus: on the one hand, by decreasing the release of glutamate, and on the other, by hyperpolarizing the membrane of the postsynaptic neuron [19]. Inhibitory interneurons also come into play, which by releasing endogenous opioids, mimic and potentiate the inhibitory effect of the descending pathways.
3.1 Nociceptive pain
Refers to pain that is associated with actual or threatened damage to non-neural tissue and involves the activation of peripheral nociceptors (IASP Taxonomy, 2015). There are three major forms of nociceptive pain:
3.1.1 Somatic
Includes all pain originating from non-visceral structures, (i.e. skull, meninges, and teeth) and is the most common cause of consultation for almost all specialties, especially those dedicated to the locomotor system.
3.1.2 Myofascial
Extremely frequent, although in many cases it is not diagnosed as such. It is a neuromuscular dysfunction with a tendency to chronicity. It consists of a regional pain disorder, which affects the muscles and fasciae, so that the muscles involved have trigger points as essential components. In addition, regional and segmental autonomous alterations may coexist.
3.1.3 Visceral
Dull, diffuse and poorly localized pain, referred to an area of the body surface, being frequently accompanied by an intense motor and autonomic (sympathetic) reflex response. The stimuli that can produce visceral pain are: spasm of the smooth muscle (hollow viscera), distension and ischemia.
4. Neuropathy
Sometimes there is no relationship between the painful stimulus and the response that it originates in the CNS: it is then when a very important amplification of the nociceptive signal occurs, and this phenomenon is known as neuronal sensitization or neuropathy, so that the information transmitted to the brain causes a disproportionate pain reaction. This derangement occurs both at the peripheral and central levels.
4.1 Neuropathic pain
Persistent pain becomes a pathological state that includes a series of elements that facilitate its generation and persistence over time. For this reason, any process that injures nerve tissues or causes neuronal dysfunction can produce neuropathic pain (NP). NP is qualitatively characterized by the absence of a causal relationship between injury and pain. Its etiology is very diverse and the relationship between etiology, pathophysiological mechanisms and symptoms is complex. NP differs from nociceptive pain in several aspects (Table 1).
Nociceptive (somatic / visceral)
Neuropathic
Official definition
Pain caused by activation of peripheral / visceral nociceptors
Pain caused by PNS / CNS dysfunction
Mechanism
Natural physiological transduction (nociceptor)
Ectopic pulse generation
Symptom location
Local pain + referred
Territory of innervation of the affected nerve pathway
No neurological topography
Quality of symptoms
Common painful sensations of daily life - easy verbal description (i.e. Head ache, belly ache…)
Differences between nociceptive and neuropathic pain.
Adapted from Serra Catafau, Treatise on neuropathic pain (Adapted from SGADOR Handbook).
The balance between arousal and inhibition of the somatosensory system is dynamic and is influenced by context, behaviors, emotions, expectations, and pathology. In NP this equilibrium is broken and a loss in inhibitory currents has been demonstrated, with dysfunction in the mechanisms of production and release of GABA, a decrease in μ-opioid receptors in the dorsal root ganglia, and less receptivity to opioids in the spinal neurons. In summary, the neuronal pathological process changes in the course of injury and its pathophysiological mechanisms are evolutionary. The mechanisms that trigger NP produce:
Local inflammation
Glia cell activation
Changes in neuronal plasticity of nociceptive pain-transmitting pathways
5. Acute pain
Acute pain is an experience, usually of sudden onset, of short duration in time and with remission parallel to the cause that produces it. There is a close temporal and causal relationship with tissue injury or nociceptive stimulation caused by disease. Its duration ranges from a few minutes to several weeks. Acute pain has been attributed a “protective” function, its presence acts by preventing the individual from developing behaviors that may increase the injury or leads him to adopt those that minimize or reduce its impact. The fundamental emotional response is anxiety, with less involvement of other psychological components. Its characteristics offer important help in establishing the etiological diagnosis and selecting the most appropriate treatment. Its presence follows a classic treatment scheme such as Pain-Symptom. The most common causes of acute pain are:
Visceral pain
Gastrointestinal
Biliary
Urological
Cardiovascular
Pulmonary
Nervous system
Pancreatic
Gynecological
Muscle Skeletal Pain
Arthropathies
Chest wall pain
Fractures
Costochondritis
Tendinitis
Oral pain
Burn pain
Postoperative pain
6. Chronic pain
Chronic pain extends beyond the tissue injury or organic involvement with which, initially, there was a relationship. It can also be related to the persistence and repetition of episodes of acute pain, with the progression of the disease, with the appearance of complications thereof and with degenerative changes in bone and musculoskeletal structures. Examples of this are cancer, secondary pathological fractures, osteoarthritis, postherpetic neuralgia, etc.
Chronic pain does not prevent or avoid damage to the body. Both their nature and their intensity show great variability over time, in many cases the complaints are perceived as disproportionate to the underlying disease. The most frequent repercussions in the psychological sphere involve anxiety, anger, fear, frustration or depression, which, in turn, contribute to further increasing pain perception. The socio-family, labor and economic repercussions are multiple and generate important changes in the lives of the people who suffer from it and their families: disability and dependency. The need to use drugs to relieve pain becomes a potential risk factor for use, abuse and self-prescription, not only of analgesics, but also tranquilizers, antidepressants and other drugs.
In its management, in addition to the physical aspects of pain, the other components, emotional, affective, behavioral and social, must be taken into account. The treatment scheme is complicated, we are facing the Pain-Syndrome (Table 2).
Acute Pain
Chronic pain
Purpose
Initial-biological
Initial-destructive
Duration
Temporary
Persistent
Generator mechanism
Unifactorial
Multifactorial
Affected component
Organic+++Psychic+
Organic+Psychic+++
Organic response
Adrenergic: raise in heart rate, arterial hypertension, sweating, pupillary dilation
Vegetative: anorexy, constipation, less lybid, insomnia
Affective component
Anxiety
Depression
Physical exhaustion
No
Yes
Therapeutic goal
Cure
Relief and adaptation
Table 2.
Differences between acute and chronic pain.
7. Postsurgical groin pain
7.1 Acute postsurgical groin pain
All surgical intervention is associated with acute postsurgical pain (APSP) whose intensity decreases during the first days and weeks, in parallel with the tissue repair process. However, sometimes this pain lasts longer than is reasonable in relation to the surgical procedure. This fact can lead to the appearance of severe and disabling chronic pain syndromes, frequently associated with certain surgical procedures.
The definition of chronic postoperative pain (CPSP) does not find a consensus among the different authors in the literature reviewed. The most commonly used definition continues to be that of McRae [20, 21] based on the following aspects:
pain with a minimum duration of two months after a surgical procedure
after excluding other etiologies of pain
ruled out any pre-existing cause of pain (Figure 3).
Figure 3.
Temporal evolution of postsurgical pain (adapted from Woolf and salter, science 2000; 288: 1765 [22]).
CPSP originates from the injury to the nerves and tissues inherent in the surgical process. During the immediate postsurgical period appears the breakthrough pain limited to the surgical site and its vicinity and develops through the direct activation of nociceptors, the inflammatory process and, in some cases, of direct nerve injury [23]. For this reason, the patient will present pain in the area of the surgical scar (primary hyperalgesia) and around it (secondary hyperalgesia). These changes are usually reversible and the normal sensitivity of the nociceptive system will then be restored. This type of pain, APSP, has a known beginning and an end in direct relation to tissue repair. In addition, it responds effectively to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, paracetamol, and minor or major opioids.
In the event of nerve injury during surgery, the neuropathic component of pain can immediately develop and persist in the absence of any noxious peripheral stimuli or ongoing peripheral inflammation [24]. The prerequisite for the development of CPSP is an injury to the major nerves that run through the surgical site. However, in a small group of patients, an ongoing inflammatory response may help maintain inflammatory pain and lead to a CPSP, such as that occurs after inguinal mesh hernia repair [25]. During progression from APSP to CPSP after inguinal hernia surgery:
7% of patients present severe acute pain the first 24 h;
14% of patients present subacute pain that could last until 8 weeks after surgery;
12% of patients present CPSP that could last until 12 months after surgery (80% of whom present Neuropathic component)
The incidence of chronic pain after inguinal hernia surgery rates from 5–63%, with an estimated incidence of severe chronic pain (VAS > 4) between 2% and 4%.
7.2 Inguinal chronic pain
Inguinal hernia surgery can trigger a post-herniorrhaphy chronic inguinal pain syndrome, which can occur in up to 10% of the interventions performed [21].
The symptoms of postherniorrhaphy neuropathic inguinodynia consist of pain, paresthesias, allodynia (sensation of pain in the presence of non-harmful stimuli such as touch or pressure), pain radiating to the scrotal area, labia majora of the vagina and Scarpa’s triangle. This symptomatology also worsens with walking or hyperextension of the hip and decreases with decubitus and flexion of the thigh. These last aspects of the symptomatology make us see that the affectation of the nervous tract is the main actor of the chronic pain postherniorrhaphy [26].
There are three types of causes for the appearance of this painful syndrome:
Non-neuropathic
Reaction of the periosteum of the pubis
Keloid scar formation
Direct pressure exerted by bent or wrinkled prosthetic material (mesh) [27].
Neuropathic
Fibrosis of the perineurium of the nerves that run along the inguinal path (ilioinguinal nerve and genital branch of the genitofemoral nerve)
Compression of these by suture material, staples or prosthetic material
Direct injury to the nervous tract in a complete or incomplete manner. It can be produced by traction, direct cutting with a scalpel, or excessive thermocoagulation.
7.2.1 Peripheral sensitization
Peripheral sensitization involves lowering the discharge threshold from the peripheral terminal of the nociceptor. The molecules released in response to tissue damage and the activation of cells in the environment such as keratinocytes, mast cells, lymphocytes, platelets or the nociceptor itself, are called inflammatory soup (Substance P, calcitonin gene receptor protein [CGRP], quinines, amines, prostaglandins, growth factors, chemokines, cytokines, ATP, protons, etc.). These molecules induce morphological and functional changes in the neuron, which consequently generate an increase in the expression of structures such as the Na2+ channels and transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily V member 1 [TRPV1]; or molecules such as neuropeptides, or brain-derived neurotrophic factor [BDNF]. The interaction of these molecules with the different membrane receptors initiates an activation cascade of intracellular second messengers that modify the firing capacity of the cell, the final consequence being a greater capacity to respond to stimuli. This circumstance translates clinically into the following processes: hyperalgesia, allodynia, and spontaneous pain.
Spontaneous pain can be caused by:
An abnormal response to stimuli that normally do not cause harm (arterial heartbeat, increased temperature)
Ectopic discharges from the damaged nociceptor itself
Those produced by surrounding healthy fibers in response to the release of TNFα by damaged Schwann cells
At present, it is proposed a new state of the nociceptor, called “priming”, in which, a sensitized nociceptor, after a few hours will have a normal response to physiological stimuli, but will have an increased response to stimuli derived from inflammation. This state lasts for weeks and the hyperalgesic response to inflammatory agents is greater, which could be a possible explanation for the maintenance of chronic pain.
In a situation in which nociceptive information continues to be sent from the periphery to the dorsal horn of the spinal cord, the nociceptive neuron itself sends, from its soma (without the need for external stimulation) substance P and peptide related to the calcitonin gene (PRCG). These substances bind to neutrophils, mast cells and basophils, and release pro-inflammatory molecules: cytosines, bradykinins, histamines, cyclooxygenases, prostaglandins, eicosanoids and nerve growth factor (NGF). All this “inflammatory soup” produces changes in pH, release of ATP from injured cells, synthesis and release of nitric oxide (NO), etc., which induces amplification of the signal towards the spinal cord and higher centers and causes what is known as peripheral sensitization, which contributes in a very important manner to the maintenance of chronic pain.
7.2.2 Central sensitization
If the nociceptive impulses are of great intensity or are sustained over time, plastic changes occur in the neurons of the posterior horn that facilitate the transmission of the nociceptive impulse. These changes in functionality are called central sensitization and cause specific clinical manifestations. It may represent the anatomical and physiological substrate to the fact of persistence of pain in the absence of peripheral nociceptive impulses in chronic pain, since the state of hyper-reactivity of the system would allow to explain the autonomous activity of the system in the absence of peripheral stimulus. In general terms, the following changes can be considered, which can all occur simultaneously or simply manifest some of them:
Disinhibition of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor by release of the Mg2+ ion at the first medullary synapse
Access of peripheral Aβ fibers to the nociceptive system. It is one of the causes of the phenomenon of allodynia
Dysregulation of the GABAergic system of inhibitory interneurons, which finally produces an alteration in the current of the Cl− channel.
Activation of the glia with the release of pro-analgesic substances
Alteration of the regulatory capacity of the downstream system
There is also the release of glutamate, which binds to specific receptors, which are not expressed in situations of acute pain. When activated, they contribute not only to depolarize the postsynaptic neuron, but also to generate a series of intracellular changes, which will increase the nociceptive signal. In response to peripheral sensitization, the primary afferent pathways also release substance P, resulting in an increase in signal. In situations of chronic pain there is also a reorganization of the neuronal structure: axonal collateral branches appear that increase the amount of nociceptive afferent signal.
On the other hand, a loss of efficacy of the inhibition produced by the descending pathways has been described, with a decrease in the release of endogenous opioids, and even cellular degeneration of those descending neurons, which indirectly also increases the nociceptive signal that is send to higher centers.
All these changes greatly amplify and sustain the nociceptive signal produced in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord, producing what is known as central sensitization.
The main clinical manifestations of nervous sensitization are hyperalgesia and allodynia phenomena, with the consequent increase in the extension of the painful area.
The presence of sensitization leads to the appearance of vicious circles in which there is a continuous sending of the afferent signal from the periphery to the brain centers in the absence of stimuli that generate them. This sustained stimulation leads to adaptive changes in the brain, such that the brain remains active even in the absence of noxious peripheral stimulus.
This continuous brain overexcitation conditions the effectiveness of the integrative pain response of the higher centers and the inhibitory descending pathway, in such a way that there is no inhibition proportional to the ascending amplified stimulus and the pain becomes chronic. This “centralizing” effect of the neuronal sensitization of nociceptors is one of the most relevant chronifying factors in the postoperative period of surgeries that present moderate to severe acute pain, that is not adequately controlled.
7.2.3 Pharmacological strategies
The type of pain, its location, duration and intensity determine the pharmacological approach (Figure 4).
Drugs that target peripheral sensitization: such as topical capsaicin (i.e. 8% capsaicin patch); topical lidocaine (i.e. 5% lidocaine patch); NSAIDs; paracetamol and local anesthetics.
Drugs that target central sensitization: such as serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs); tapentadol; tramadol; opioids; calcium channel ligands; adjuvants; tricyclic antidepressants; anticonvulsants and COX-2.
Figure 4.
Pharmacological approach to chronic pain.
7.2.4 Preventive strategies
Blocking the pain signal before it reaches the central nervous system prior to surgery will prevent the development of central sensitization. The times that include the first consultation, the referral to the specialist, the decision of surgical treatment, the pre-anesthetic consultation and the appointment for surgery would favor peripheral and central sensitization if pain is not controlled, making the pain chronic and making it independent of the injury.
7.2.5 Rescue strategies
Using aggressive perioperative analgesia (antihyperalgesics, regional blocks, and multimodal analgesia) during the peri-surgical period could reduce the incidence of CPSP (Figure 5).
Figure 5.
Perioperative analgesia.
7.2.6 Are all the operations necessary or appropriate?
Chronic pain is common after hernia surgery. Patients with pain before the operation benefit from surgery, but some patients who have no pain before hernia repair surgery develop significant groin pain later. Watchful waiting has proven to be safe [28] and profitable [29] in patients with asymptomatic inguinal hernia. It is a theme of debate whether surgery is appropriate in asymptomatic hernias and possibly in some other interventions as well.
8. Summary
CPSP is a common entity in interventional procedures today. Progress continues in the standardization of prevention and treatment strategies for this delicate problem in the technical and organizational sphere.
The improvement efforts aim to:
Early identification of patients with preoperative pain who need intervention.
Avoid delaying this intervention as far as possible, and if there is a delay, provide adequate pain management until the time of surgery.
At the time of the intervention, determine the least invasive and most appropriate surgical technique for the pathology.
Implement the most appropriate perioperative anesthetic and analgesic techniques for the patient.
Once intervened, individualize postoperative analgesia so that APSP is as low as possible, thus avoiding, as far as possible, chronic pain.
Acknowledgments
Thanks to Merche and Eduardo, for giving me the opportunity to study without worrying about anything else. To Monica, for her patience in preparing this chapter and to Alaitz and Inhar, for their fun distractions.
Conflict of interest
I declare that I have no conflict of interests.
\n',keywords:"groin pain, acute postsurgical pain, chronic postsurgical pain, sensitization",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/74796.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/74796.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74796",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74796",totalDownloads:10,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"July 7th 2020",dateReviewed:"December 17th 2020",datePrePublished:"January 13th 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"January 13th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Groin pain is the most common cause of surgical intervention. There are 3 parameters that increase the chances of chronic pain. On the one hand, starting the surgery with high intensity pain that has not been previously controlled. On the other, insufficient anesthetic and analgesic control during the surgical procedure. Finally, an inadequate management of acute postoperative pain. The presence of groin pain and its poor control before the intervention predisposes to difficulties during the perioperative process. Thus, the appearance of acute postoperative pain not adequately controlled will prevent its remission in a natural way in the usual period (approximately 1 month) and will cause it to progress in intensity and continuity (from 1 month to 3 months after surgery), transforming into a chronic pain (from 3 months after the intervention). In this process of chronification, in which pain goes from nociceptive to neuropathic, different physiological sensitization mechanisms are involved, both peripheral and central. The chronification of the painful process and, ultimately, the therapeutic approach that we will have to use to try to prevent this process depends to a large extent on these modifications that facilitate the change in the nature of pain.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/74796",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/74796",signatures:"Roberto Sanisidro Torre",book:{id:"10447",title:"The Art and Science of Abdominal Hernia",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"The Art and Science of Abdominal Hernia",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Muhammad Shamim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10447.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"235128",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Shamim",slug:"muhammad-shamim",fullName:"Muhammad Shamim"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Origin of groin pain",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Risk factors",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Nociception",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Nociceptive pain",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"3.1.1 Somatic",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"3.1.2 Myofascial",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"3.1.3 Visceral",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Neuropathy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.1 Neuropathic pain",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"5. Acute pain",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"6. Chronic pain",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"7. Postsurgical groin pain",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"7.1 Acute postsurgical groin pain",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"7.2 Inguinal chronic pain",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"7.2.1 Peripheral sensitization",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"7.2.2 Central sensitization",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"7.2.3 Pharmacological strategies",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"7.2.4 Preventive strategies",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"7.2.5 Rescue strategies",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"7.2.6 Are all the operations necessary or appropriate?",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21",title:"8. Summary",level:"1"},{id:"sec_22",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_25",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Tasmuth T, von Smitten K, Hietanen P, Kataja M, Kalso E. Pain and other symptoms after different treatment modalities of breast cancer. 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Tension-free repair versus watchful waiting for men with asymptomatic or minimally symptomatic inguinal hernias: a cost-effectiveness analysis. J Am Coll Surg. 2006;203:458-68.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Roberto Sanisidro Torre",address:"roberto.sanisidro@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Experimental Surgery Department, UPV/EHU, Bilbao, Spain
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These materials undergo the martensitic transformation (MT) at around room temperature accompanied by a significant entropy change. The application of the magnetic field at the low-temperature martensitic phase realizes the magnetic field-induced martensitic transformation (MFIMT). Through the MFIMT, the materials show an unconventional magnetocaloric effect (MCE), which is called inverse magnetocaloric effect (IMCE). In this chapter, the direct measurement system of MCE in pulsed-high-magnetic fields is introduced. With taking the advantage of the fast field-sweep rate of pulsed field, adiabatic measurements of MCE are carried out at various temperatures. Using this technique, the IMCEs of the metamagnetic shape memory alloys NiCoMnIn and NiCoMnGa are directly measured as adiabatic temperature changes in pulsed fields. From the experimental data of MCE for NiCoMnIn, the entropy of spin system in the austenite phase is estimated through a simple mean-field model. By the combination of MCE, magnetization and specific heat measurements, the electronic, lattice and magnetic contributions to the IMCE are individually evaluated. The result for NiCoMnIn demonstrates that lattice entropy plays the dominant role for IMCE in this material.",signatures:"Takumi Kihara, Xiao Xu, Wataru Ito, Ryosuke Kainuma, Yoshiya\nAdachi, Takeshi Kanomata and Masashi Tokunaga",authors:[{id:"202151",title:"Dr.",name:"Takumi",surname:"Kihara",fullName:"Takumi Kihara",slug:"takumi-kihara",email:"t_kihara@imr.tohoku.ac.jp"},{id:"205412",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiao",surname:"Xu",fullName:"Xiao Xu",slug:"xiao-xu",email:"xu@material.tohoku.ac.jp"},{id:"205413",title:"Prof.",name:"Ryosuke",surname:"Kainuma",fullName:"Ryosuke Kainuma",slug:"ryosuke-kainuma",email:"kainuma@material.tohoku.ac.jp"},{id:"205414",title:"Dr.",name:"Wataru",surname:"Ito",fullName:"Wataru Ito",slug:"wataru-ito",email:"ito@sendai-nct.ac.jp"},{id:"205415",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoshiya",surname:"Adachi",fullName:"Yoshiya Adachi",slug:"yoshiya-adachi",email:"adachy@yz.yamagata-u.ac.jp"},{id:"205416",title:"Prof.",name:"Takeshi",surname:"Kanomata",fullName:"Takeshi Kanomata",slug:"takeshi-kanomata",email:"kanomata@mail.tohoku-gakuin.ac.jp"},{id:"205418",title:"Dr.",name:"Masashi",surname:"Tokunaga",fullName:"Masashi Tokunaga",slug:"masashi-tokunaga",email:"tokunaga@issp.u-tokyo.ac.jp"}],book:{title:"Shape Memory Alloys",slug:"shape-memory-alloys-fundamentals-and-applications",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}},{title:"Magnetic Field-Induced Strain of Metamagnetic Heusler Alloy Ni41Co9Mn31.5Ga18.5",slug:"magnetic-field-induced-strain-of-metamagnetic-heusler-alloy-ni41co9mn31-5ga18-5",abstract:"Ni41Co9Mn31.5Ga18.5 is a re-entrant and metamagnetic Heusler alloy. In order to investigate the magnetic functionality of polycrystalline Ni41Co9Mn31.5Ga18.5, magnetic field-induced strain (MFIS) measurements were performed. A 0.12% MFIS was observed at 340 K and 10 T. Strict MFISs between 330 and 370 K were observed. These magneto-structural variances acted in concert with the metamagnetic property observed by the magnetization measurements and magneto-caloric property observed by the caloric measurements in applied magnetic fields. The MFISs were proportional to the fourth power of the magnetization, and this result is in agreement with Takahashi’s spin fluctuation theory of itinerant electron magnetism. The investigation of time response of the MFIS was performed by means of water-cooled electric magnet, zero magnetic field to 1.66 T in 8.0 s at 354 K. A 2.2×10−4 MFIS was observed, which was 80% of the MFIS in a 60-s mode. This indicates that a high-speed transition has occurred on applying magnetic fields.",signatures:"Takuo Sakon, Naoki Fujimoto, Sho Saruki, Takeshi Kanomata,\nHiroyuki Nojiri and Yoshiya Adachi",authors:[{id:"205415",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoshiya",surname:"Adachi",fullName:"Yoshiya Adachi",slug:"yoshiya-adachi",email:"adachy@yz.yamagata-u.ac.jp"},{id:"185327",title:"Prof.",name:"Takuo",surname:"Sakon",fullName:"Takuo Sakon",slug:"takuo-sakon",email:"sakon@rins.ryukoku.ac.jp"},{id:"244994",title:"Mr.",name:"Naoki",surname:"Fujimoto",fullName:"Naoki Fujimoto",slug:"naoki-fujimoto",email:"t140307@mail.ryukoku.ac.jp"},{id:"244995",title:"Mr.",name:"Sho",surname:"Saruki",fullName:"Sho Saruki",slug:"sho-saruki",email:"saruki_sho@daitron.co.jp"},{id:"244996",title:"Prof.",name:"Takeshi",surname:"Kanomata",fullName:"Takeshi Kanomata",slug:"takeshi-kanomata",email:"kanomata@tjcc.tohoku-gakuin.ac.jp"},{id:"244997",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroyuki",surname:"Nojiri",fullName:"Hiroyuki Nojiri",slug:"hiroyuki-nojiri",email:"nojiri@imr.tohoku.ac.jp"}],book:{title:"Shape-Memory Materials",slug:"shape-memory-materials",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"187023",title:"Prof.",name:"Takashi",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"takashi-suzuki",fullName:"Takashi Suzuki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Osaka University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"199409",title:"Prof.",name:"Xuexi",surname:"Zhang",slug:"xuexi-zhang",fullName:"Xuexi Zhang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harbin Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"202151",title:"Dr.",name:"Takumi",surname:"Kihara",slug:"takumi-kihara",fullName:"Takumi Kihara",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tohoku University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"204180",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuji",surname:"Yoshikawa",slug:"shuji-yoshikawa",fullName:"Shuji Yoshikawa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"204181",title:"Dr.",name:"Shinya",surname:"Okabe",slug:"shinya-okabe",fullName:"Shinya Okabe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"205412",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiao",surname:"Xu",slug:"xiao-xu",fullName:"Xiao Xu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"205413",title:"Prof.",name:"Ryosuke",surname:"Kainuma",slug:"ryosuke-kainuma",fullName:"Ryosuke Kainuma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"205414",title:"Dr.",name:"Wataru",surname:"Ito",slug:"wataru-ito",fullName:"Wataru Ito",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"205416",title:"Prof.",name:"Takeshi",surname:"Kanomata",slug:"takeshi-kanomata",fullName:"Takeshi Kanomata",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"205418",title:"Dr.",name:"Masashi",surname:"Tokunaga",slug:"masashi-tokunaga",fullName:"Masashi Tokunaga",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"open-access-funding",title:"Open Access Funding",intro:"
IntechOpen’s Academic Editors and Authors have received funding for their work through many well-known funders, including: the European Commission, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Wellcome Trust, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC), CGIAR Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centers, National Institute of Health (NIH), National Science Foundation (NSF), National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), German Research Foundation (DFG), Research Councils United Kingdom (RCUK), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Austrian Science Fund (FWF), Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT), Australian Research Council (ARC).
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
\\n\\n
In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
\\n\\t
Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
\\n
\\n\\n
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\\n\\n
Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at oapf@intechopen.com
\\n\\n
Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
\n\n
In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\n\n
\n\t
Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
\n\t
Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
\n
\n\n
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\n\n
Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at oapf@intechopen.com
\n\n
Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. 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After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. 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He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). 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