PV system specifications of each sensor.
\r\n\tSolar radiation is the radiant energy that originated from the sun in the form of electromagnetic radiation at various wavelengths. Solar radiation is the source of renewable energy and can be captured and converted into various forms of energy (e.g. electricity and heat) using different technologies.
\r\n\tA very vast amount of solar energy reaches the atmosphere and surface of the earth and solar energy has been used for heating purposes for a very long-time and after solar cells’ invention in 1954, solar cells have also been used widely for electricity generation. Solar cells convert the sunlight into electricity by the creation of voltage and electric current through the so-called photovoltaic effect.
\r\n\tPhotovoltaic (PV) solar energy has attracted significant attention in the recent decade as a reliable source for power generation due to various merits such as the free source of energy, abundant materials resources, environmentally friendly and noise-free, longtime service life, requiring low maintenance, technological advancements, market potential, and very importantly, low cost. The growth of using photovoltaic (PV) solar energy as a promising renewable energy technology, is being increased more and more worldwide. Therefore, much further research is needed for possible future developments in the field of solar photovoltaic energy.
\r\n\tThe aim of this book is to provide detailed information about solar radiation as the source of photovoltaic (PV) solar energy for a broad range of readership including undergraduate and postgraduate students, young or experienced researchers and engineers.
\r\n\tThis should be accomplished by addressing the various technical and practical aspects of solar radiation fundamentals, modeling and the measurement for photovoltaic (PV) solar energy applications.
\r\n\tThe majority of this book should describe the basic, modern, and contemporary knowledge and technology of extraterrestrial and terrestrial solar irradiance for photovoltaic (PV) solar energy.
\r\n\tThe book covers the most recent developments, innovation and applications concerning the following topics:
\r\n\t• Fundamental of solar radiation and photovoltaic solar energy
\r\n\t• Solar radiation and photovoltaic solar energy potential
\r\n\t• Solar irradiance measurement: techniques, instrumentation and uncertainty analysis
\r\n\t• Solar radiation modeling for photovoltaic solar energy applications
\r\n\t• Solar monitoring and data quality assessment
\r\n\t• Solar resource assessment and photovoltaic system performance
\r\n\t• Solar energy and photovoltaic power forecasting
\r\n\tThese are accompanied with other useful research topics and material.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-859-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-858-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-860-7",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4c3d1319d7286e81bfb15c1f4b20460a",bookSignature:"Dr. Mohammadreza Aghaei",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9862.jpg",keywords:"Solar Radiation Modeling, Solar Data Assessment, Solar Monitoring, Solar Radiation Forecasting, Solar Irradiance Measurements, Solar Instruments, Solar Spectral Distributions, Uncertainty Analysis, Solar Cell Technologies, Photovoltaics (PV), Solar Resource Assessment, Photovoltaics Power Forecasting",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 17th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 15th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 14th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 4th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 3rd 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A senior researcher in the field of photovoltaic solar energy, a postdoctoral scientist at Eindhoven University of Technology (TU/e), Chair of the WG2: reliability and durability of PV in EU COST PEARL PV.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"317230",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammadreza",middleName:null,surname:"Aghaei",slug:"mohammadreza-aghaei",fullName:"Mohammadreza Aghaei",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317230/images/system/317230.jpg",biography:"Mohammadreza Aghaei is a senior researcher in the field of photovoltaic solar energy, Eindhoven University of Technology (TU/e), The Netherlands. He is chair of the Working Group 2: reliability and durability of PV in European Cooperation in Science and Technology, COST Action PEARL PV.\nHe received the M.S. degree in electrical engineering from the Universiti Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN), Selangor, Malaysia, in 2013, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy, in 2016.\nHe was a Postdoctoral Scientist with Fraunhofer ISE and Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin (HZB)-PVcomB, Germany, in 2017 and 2018, respectively. He is a Guest Scientist with the Department of Microsystems Engineering (IMTEK), Solar Energy Engineering, University of Freiburg since 2017. He is currently a Postdoctoral Scientist with the Design of Sustainable Energy Systems Group, Eindhoven University of Technology (TU/e), The Netherlands. He has authored numerous publications in international refereed journals, book chapters, and conference proceedings. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"70226",title:"Introductory Chapter: The Importance of Reception Studies for Ancient History",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90441",slug:"introductory-chapter-the-importance-of-reception-studies-for-ancient-history",body:'\n“The landscape of my days appears to be composed, like mountainous regions, of varied materials heaped up pell-mell. There I see my nature, itself composite, made up of equal parts of instinct and training. Here and there protrude the granite peaks of the inevitable, but all about is rubble from the landslips of chance (…) [1].
\nReception studies applied to history constitute a relatively new research field that was clearly influenced by the postulates of Reception Theory’s scholars, such as Hans-Robert Jauss [21], which were developed during the 1960s and 1970s within literary studies. For this theoretical current, the significances of a given literary composition should be understood as always dependable of the readers, who produce meanings according to their own background. This proposal thus responded to the structuralist approach of the 1940’s New Criticism, which defended that a text stood for itself ([2], pp. 250–255).
\nSubsequently, several academics applied these notions in their historical approaches to literature. One of the scholars we should mention is Martindale [3, 16] who postulates in his opus Redeeming the Text the imperative need to include reception theory in the research area of classical studies ([4], p. 1). In this seminal work, Martindale identified some of the theoretical formulations that allow to recognise relevant historical significances in the different uses of antiquity.
\nWithin classical studies, Hardwick’s [5] book Reception Studies: Greece and Rome: New Surveys in the Classics constituted another important step into the theoretical and methodological definitions of reception studies applied to ancient history. In this work, Hardwick detailed the main notions and concepts of the field, elaborating on how certain texts, images, and events of the ancient classical world were used in other historical contexts as political, cultural, and social autorictas, but also as symbols of resistance and controversy [19].
\nIf we think about the pre-modern and modern western history, it becomes easy to identify this use of elements produced in antiquity as legitimation tools for those contexts. Take the Renascence, for instance, where there was an obvious reception of ancient Greek and Roman cultural and artistic traits, or the eighteenth century Enlightenment, profoundly marked by considerations on ancient literature, philosophy, and art. And more closely, let us not forget the nineteenth and twentieth century western imperialisms and colonialisms, where political, social, and military practices were justified through allusions to ancient Greek and Roman imperialisms. Given these multiple cases, one can say that recent western history is, in a way, a history of reception of classical antiquity.
\nHowever, when we speak about reception of antiquity by the so-called western world, we should look beyond the Greek and Roman pasts. We should address antiquity in its multiple expressions, integrating other civilizations and cultural contexts, such as the Egyptian, the Mesopotamian, the Hebrew, the Persian, or the Hittite.
\nNotwithstanding their pivotal importance, the first major historiographic publications regarding reception studies were mainly focused on the ancient Greco-Roman cultures, namely on their written products. Hence, reception studies were firstly more cohesively and robustly applied to the classical era, which impacted the volume and characteristics of the academic works produced. In the last years, however, there is a more integrated approach to the reception of antiquity, whereas scholars specialised in different ancient context works towards a broader development of the field.
\nHaving all this in mind, what constitutes the objects and the major historical problematics that should guide us when working on the reception studies field? First, we should address the different and multiple forms by which “ancient material was transmitted, translated, extracted, interpreted, rewritten, reedited, and represented” by later historical agents ([6], p. 4). The understanding of ancient material should be broader and inclusive, that is, one must work from an intertwined perspective that analyses the intertextuality between material, iconographic, and written data produced in ancient civilizations and received by later contexts.
\nSecond, we should analyse how this ancient material was transformed to better deal with the anxieties, the contingencies, and the expectations of the agents/authors who took over this material and appropriated it as their own. In this sense, the perceptions, transformations, and appropriations of antiquity become part of a context that must be present at the time of the phenomenological analysis of reception. We should bear in mind that the significances attributed to the material received results largely from the aspirations, feelings, and mental framework of the agent who receives it. Thus, we should also consider the coetaneous political, social, economic, and cultural processes, given that they influenced the ways this ancient material was received and transformed.
\nMoreover, it is usual to identify ancient material as integrating the notion of common heritage of a given context. And as such, ancient material was reinterpreted and used in the most diverse manners. In order to understand how and why a specific ancient material is transformed into heritage, one must truly know antiquity and the different layers of its reception, so that we are able to recognise its appropriation. And even if this appropriation is evident, it needs to be problematised so that its multiple significances may become clearer.
\nSo, in order to do update and value the many forms of relations between ancient and modern material, it is imperative to incorporate various theoretical and methodological tools of the modern literary criticism and of the post-modern theories, such as cultural, subalternity, and gender studies, to name just a few.
\nAn example of this is the modern context in which the ancient civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia were interpreted at the time of the Napoleonic expeditions and during the first European archaeological campaigns at the middle of the nineteenth century. At the time, the new field of archaeology functioned as a political arena, which moulded itself to the nationalist and imperialist interests of the powers involved in those same expeditions and discoveries.
\nThus, the reception of the so-called pre-classical civilizations was, from the beginning, intimately associated with an imperialist logic, which claimed that the antiquities exhumed were a cultural estate of the European powers. On the other hand, there was a great impact of an orientalist vision, which was translated in a very distinctive glance of the other. As Said [7] stated: “the Orient was Orientalized not only because it was discovered to be ‘Oriental’ in all those ways considered commonplace by an average nineteenth-century European, but also because it could be… made Oriental”.
\nThis nineteenth century vision about ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt was thus dual: these oriental civilizations were envisioned as environments full of vice, sin, and excess (both moral and sexual) and, consequently, condemned to auto destruction due to its own transgressions, but simultaneously and ironically, they were considered as the cradle of the western civilization. This dual vision was due, in great part, to the coeval understandings of the notions transmitted by the Judeo-Christian matrix and the Old Testament accounts, which had marked the mental framework of the western world for centuries ([8], pp. 11–23).
\nDuring the first decades of the twentieth century, all these questions were deepened, and a real race for Mesopotamian and Egyptian antiquities began. The claim and appropriation of these pasts by western powers equated to a declaration of pre-eminence not only upon the oriental other, but also upon all western political contestants in a nationalist logic. Hence, the ancient material was used as a tool to authenticate the legitimacy and sociocultural superiority of these modern powers. The development of museology, with the constitution of public and private collections from this Orient, was a resulting phenomenon. The western audiences were thus faced with this ancient other, opening their horizons to new artistic and iconographic expressions and to a new cultural, social, and religious mentality. However, as mentioned above, the reinterpretation and diffusion of this past heritage were deeply connected with the political, diplomatic, and social demands of the twentieth century. Consequently, a clash between the we and the other was soon felt.
\nHence, the ancient material of Mesopotamia and Egypt, when received and transformed in modern literature, music, art, and, later, in cinema, was intrinsically attached to the authors of these cultural (re)creations and to the audiences to which they were displayed. Antiquity was, and still is, often used as analogy, metaphor, parable, or antithesis to contrast and/or to equate situations of a western contemporary socio-political context. In this sense, antiquity and its reception serve contemporaneity, being that the present we composes itself with the past other.
\nIt is important, however, to highlight an important aspect. When we speak about reception of antiquity by the modern world, we are not facing a static phenomenon clearly defined in a modern time-space context. On the contrary, we are referring to cumulative and continuous processes susceptible to creating, in the longue durée, a phenomenon comparable to a cultural palimpsest. As we mentioned above, the Judeo-Christian matrix and the contents of the Old Testament already contributed to the reception by the western world of echoes from ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt long before the archaeological findings.
\nIn this sense, we should go back to the space that first allowed these echoes to reverberate, that is the Mediterranean, a sea which grew within the western collective imaginary proportionally to the dimension of its history. The Great Sea connected the European, African, and Asiatic worlds since the dawn of time [23]. By allowing a prolific circulation of human agents from multiple contexts, not only their commercial and political activities were developed, but also the cultural and religious transferences were exponentiated. The Great Sea was thus a perfect media for several reception processes, within the long chronological scope of antiquity [24].
\nIf one recalls some of the main historical agents and events of the Mediterranean, from the second millennium BCE onwards, we can identify interesting new developments as well as interchangeable social, political, and cultural phenomena. For instance, given the contacts within the Great Sea between Egyptians, Cretans, and Aegeans, during the second half of the second millennium BCE, the Egyptian art of the period covered itself with Cretan motifs. Moreover, Minoan paintings appeared in various Theban tombs of the 18th dynasty’s pharaohs (ca. 1550–1292 BC), such as the ones of Hatshepsut, Thutmose III, and Amenhotep II.
\nLater, during the first millennium BCE, the Phoenicians, who explored the western Mediterranean (which encompassed the North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula), and the Greeks, who widened their activity from the Red Sea to the Black Sea, inaugurated the colonisation phenomena with the creation of their emporia [9].
\nNotwithstanding, one can say that the true comprehension of the Mediterranean’s importance as a vessel for multi-layered transferences was achieved by Alexander, the Great, in the fourth century BCE. His dream to connect the ancient world and to take the Greek values to the far east led him to create an empire that encompassed Greece, Anatolia, Phoenicia, Syria, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, and the Indus Valley [10]. A new process of cultural exchanges between Europe, Africa, and Asia thus began with this Hellenistic empire.
\nSoon after, the Great Sea was illuminated by two economic and cultural metropolises: Alexandria in Egypt and Cartagena in the Iberian Peninsula. The famous Museum and Library of Alexandria expressed the millenary cumulative cultural exchanges within the Mediterranean [11], and the foundation of Cartagena embodied the multiple ethnical and cultural mixtures between East and West [17].
\nWhile these Hellenistic contacts flourished, another power was preparing itself to conquer the Mediterranean. In just three centuries (ca. sixth to third centuries BCE), Rome redesigned the ancient western world by controlling the territories encompassed by the Great Sea, from the Italian peninsula to Carthage, its great economic rival, and from the Iberian Peninsula to Anatolia.
\nAfter the victory of Gaius Octavius (later, Augustus, the first Roman emperor) over Marcus Antonius and Cleopatra, Egypt became a Roman province, and the imperial power of the eternal city was spread from the Mediterranean to a vast European area. With Augustus, the Great Sea fully became Mare Nostrum. “The control of land and sea is the image of empire. It is through Augustus’ conquest of the sea that peace and wealth are gained for the empire. As Suetonius implies, it was through him that Rome lived and sailed and gained its livelihood (Suet. Aug. 98). And with this sentiment, we will begin our consideration of the Mediterranean Sea as an image of wealth” ([12], p. 54).
\nFor centuries, the Mediterranean witnessed the rise and fall of several social, economic, and political projects—independent city-states, monarchies, and empires. Simultaneously, by allowing the communication between the historical agents who built the ancient world, the Great Sea enabled the diffusion of knowledge, ideas, artistic models, and religious beliefs. Some of these persisted in time, by means of reception, appropriation, and transformation, becoming true archetypes of the so-called western civilization.
\nTo better illustrate this, let us evoke two examples of religious ideas that the biblical tradition and the spread of the Judeo-Christian matrix elevated to a western world heritage level: the cosmogonic and anthropogonic notions. “Ptah, the creator god of Memphis, conceived the cosmos in its different manifestations in his heart and realized it through the creative and operative force of the word. The doctrine of the creator verb, usually recognized from the biblical text (Gen. 1) and situated in a particular historical, geographical and temporal context, actually dates back to a time and a place which was very different, the Nile Valley” ([13], p. 555).
\nIn Mesopotamian, namely the Semitic tradition displayed in the Babylonian epic of creation, Enūma eliš, the fully existence of the cosmic elements was only achieved by the act of naming, that is, by the creative power of the word: “When skies above were not yet named/Nor earth below pronounced by name/Apsu, the first one, their begetter/and maker Tiamat, who bore them all/Had mixed their waters together,/but had not formed pastures, or discovered reed-beds/When yet no gods were manifest/Nor names pronounced, nor destinies decree/Then gods were born within them ([14], p. 233).
\nIn what concerns the creation of humankind, both Egypt and Mesopotamia displayed several coexistent narratives. One of these traditions, however, described how the first humans were fashioned out of clay. The Egyptian potter god Khnum modelled the first humans from the “dust of the earth”, whereas in the land between the rivers human beings were created by the god Enki/Ea, who fashioned them from clay ([13], p. 555; [14], pp. 11–20).
\nThese notions were absorbed and transformed by Hebrews, the main agents and protagonists of the Old Testament, who deeply contacted with ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians ([15], pp. 13–14). In time, via the diffusion of Christianity within the Roman Empire, these notions reached far lands and populations, thus becoming one of the archetypes of the western monotheistic religious system. And when one speaks about biblical monotheism, again ancient civilizations must be recalled, namely the unsettling Egyptian episode of Amarna. It was during the fifteenth century BCE that the pharaoh Amenhotep IV, who later changed his name to Akhenaton, proposed a political and religious revolution, presenting the concept of the singular deity of Aten, the solar disc [20, 22]. The parallels between the Hymn to Aten and Psalm 104 are striking, clearly manifesting reception processes between the religious and cultural contexts that produced both compositions [18]. Moreover, it shows how revolutionary ideas rejected in one context, by means of reception, can become normative in others.
\nThe examples on how the Mediterranean Sea allowed several cumulative and continuous reception processes within antiquity could go on. For the present argument, it becomes clear how these ancient levels of reception should be considered when one analyses the reception of antiquity by the western modern world. Though intricate, there is no doubt that reception studies applied to ancient history constitutes an exciting field to be explored.
\n“(…) To be sure, I perceive in this diversity and disorder the presence of a person, but his form seems nearly always to be shaped by the pressure of circumstances; his features are blurred, like a figure reflected in water” [1].
\nQatar’s rapid development over the past decade led to a remarkable growth on its economy and population. Hence, increasing the demands on food, water, electronics and services. All of which relies on electricity to power the industries such as desalinization plants, farms, commercial infrastructures, semiconductor factories and more. According to the Qatar Water and Electricity Corporation or QWEC, a foremost power generation plant in the country stated that the electricity demand in the country is increasing at an estimated yearly average growth rate of 6–7% in the coming years [1]. In order to address the increasing electricity demand, the state is considering a new energy strategy that would foster sustainability, but also contribute to the reduction of the greenhouse gas emission levels. Fortunately, the gulf region where the country resides, experiences 6 kWh/m2/day amounting to 4449 h/year where 70% comes from sunshine, thus, focusing on optimization of energy extraction from sunlight is a viable solution [2]. In fact, renewable energy sources such as those from photovoltaic cell (PV) plants are estimated to contribute 11% to the global demand by 2050 according to the International Energy Agency (IEA) [3].
\nAnother possible source of renewable energy in Qatar can be harnessed from wind turbines. An assessment on wind energy potential in Qatar conducted by Qatar Petroleum [4] revealed that Qatar may employ use of small and medium wind turbines since 80% of the time wind speed over the country exceeds the critical speed of 3 m/s with annual mean speed over land and offshore of 4.3 and 5.7 m/s, respectively. It was estimated that 150 W/m2 may be harnessed from a 5 m/s wind speed but the power generated from wind turbines may be 8% less compared to the gas fired electricity. The cost projected for an offshore wind turbine is 10% less than the gas-based counterpart. Although wind turbines sound promising as a potential source of renewable energy, it does present several disadvantages compared to PV plants such as: annual maintenance on the turbine’s gear box in contrast to minimal maintenance for the PV, loud noise during operation for nearby inhabitants, and smaller life span of 20–25 years compared to 30 year life span of PV [5]. Qatar does not have immediate plans for installing wind turbines yet, instead it has been focusing on solar energy by allocating US $1 billion investment for the project which includes desalinization plants and a 200 MW power plant by Kahramaa [4]. With the upcoming 2022 FIFA cup, the country aims to be the first carbon neutral world cup utilizing solar energy to power air conditioning and fan zones. Since the state is leaning towards utilizing mostly solar energy to help power its industry, this study was conducted to primarily focus on PV alternative that was designed specifically for Qatar’s environment to test and understand its performance through measurment, prediction and analysis that should provide possible references for its solar industry.
\nLarge-scale PV farms are usually situated where maximum solar energy conversion can be generated which are either semi-arid lands or a desert. However, soaring temperatures reaching 50°C or more, high humidity and heavy sandstorms are some examples of environmental factors that may significantly reduce the efficiency in power generation of the PV systems. These issues are region-specific and may differ from one place to another even within the Gulf region, Hence, it is significant to investigate the modern PV technology under these harsh conditions that are specifically present in Qatar so that performance could be strongly correlated to it [6]. One apparent benefit from this is that the uncertainty of PV performance will be greatly reduced leading to a more predictable and profitable solar megaprojects that are planned to be constructed in the area [7, 8, 9]. The results could also cater to the interests of the manufacturers, researchers and technology enthusiasts in order to develop or innovate solutions.
\nEfficient energy management is among the benefits from understanding PV performance since some modern communities now use hybrid systems where they integrate renewable sources of energy such as solar PV to determine how it behaves in such systems. In [10], the authors discussed modeling and optimization of urban integrated energy systems to provide an energy plan or policy for a better energy efficiency aiming to mitigate energy crisis experienced in urban communities. In addition, Menetti et al. [11] proposed an efficient energy management that effectively use energy storage systems for renewable energy sources and the electric grid to reduce energy exchanged and power peaks on the grid. The data from the monitoring system becomes a necessary tool for conducting important analysis on the system for a region such as [12] to determine its costs and profit throughout its operation to assess its financial sustenance and feasibility for its possible application to other regions. In addition, it would also aid in contributing to the continuing development of efficient operations in industries to yield better results through exergy and energy analysis such as in [13, 14] and techno-economic analysis in [15, 16]. With increasing amount of studies being conducted centered on renewable energy especially on solar energy and PV, this study will prove useful to the scientific community and may serve as a significant reference to the ones conducted similarly in Qatar.
\nSeveral similar investigations in Qatar with same line of inquiries [17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26] were conducted but none has been able to provide a cost-effective yet reliable system that satisfies the requirement for accessing, monitoring and predicting PV yield. Another major concern is the data acquisition system (DAS); most available commercial DAS tend to be costly when implemented for large solar PV plants. In addition, commercial DAS are inflexible for reconfigurations and modifications for various scenarios, thus, limiting its use. Furthermore, numerous efforts have been conducted in designing and implementing PV monitoring systems that utilize several sensors and data acquisition [27]. The system in [28] included an off-shelf component of Agilent 24902A, wherein the data were transmitted to the wired general purpose instrumentation bus to a computer that is running a LabVIEW™ program to determine the impact of solar irradiance and ambient temperature. Haba [29] developed a designated monitoring system for several PV panels that utilizes three gateways intended for weather station, current and voltage readings and storm detection which were then sent and hosted to online cloud specifically freeboard.io. A readily available commercial DAS was used for investigating the impact of module temperature and solar irradiance on PV efficiency and transmits to a server through the use of GPIB bus and cloud service [30]. Study [31] used a system consisting of LM35 temperature sensor and LDRs (light dependent resistors) for measuring ambient temperature and solar irradiance of PV module, respectively. The data is then transmitted to the computer wirelessly via Wi-Fi by connecting the microcontroller with EGSR7150 modem through its serial interface.
\nForecasting of PV performance were recently introduced to improve the quality of the systems such as providing dispatch management, control operations, power ramp and flicker prediction on hourly basis; and load consumption and production monitoring on daily basis [32]. Parametric models were also utilized for forecasting which are mostly affected by the execution of the component models and factors that are not readily available, thus, affects the accuracy of the system [33]. Recently, ML was introduced to overcome the above drawbacks; which is driven by the interactions between the input and output variables according to the data. Several studies were already conducted like in [34] were they determined the solar potential from rooftops in Switzerland by utilizing ML. Li et al. [35] used ML to predict solar irradiance to precisely determine the PV output utilizing Markov model and regression. Most of these forecasts were conducted on a specific environment, hence it would not be able to provide the same accruacy when used in another locations that exhibits different environmetal parameters like in Doha were it experiences unique intense heat and heavy dust storms that lasts year long. Therefore, we planned to deliberately harness ML for predicting the performance of PV systems from the various environmetal parameters that are present in Doha along the year for viability and bankability of PV energy source.
\nThis study describes the development of an in-house customized DAS system that is viable for monitoring PV systems under Qatar’s climate and which comprises of two parts: hardware and software. Also, the study is enhanced by describing the calibration tools that are necessary in such studies. The remainder of the study is as follows: Section 2 describes the hardware and signal acquisition. Section 3 depicts the ML used for the data gathered throughout the duration of the study. Section 4 discusses the results from the developed system and the ML results. Finally, the conclusion and future work is provided in Section 5.
\nThe hardware and signal acquisition system were installed in the Solar Lab facility under the College of Engineering, Qatar University. The ground floor of the solar lab facility houses computer workstation and wireless access point while its rooftop emulates the PV panel remote site where PV panels and data acquisition hardware system are mounted along with all environmental sensors and transducers. Qatar, having an arid environment with extreme ambient temperature easily surpassing 38°C during summer and often approaches 50°C with a humidity of 90% [36].
\nThe authors developed an in-house and customized DAS that acquires six environmental parameters and two electrical parameters enhanced by analog filters with gain and offset adjustments for calibration purposes. The in-house DAS was designed to allow flexibility in order to construct a customized signal conditioning circuit suitable for each sensor that are deemed appropropriate for the range of parameter values in an arid environment. The selected sensors along with the signal conditioning circuit and topology were chosen in order to implement a robust DAS that is appropriate to Doha’s harsh weather condition.
\n\nFigure 1 depicts the overall data acquisition framework. Data acquisition starts from the PV panel remote site where the PV panels are installed to ensure maximum exposure to sun’s irradiance, free from shadows due to obstructions. Selection of azimuth and tilt angle of PV panels are also important mounting details that needs to be considered. Two polycrystalline PV panels connected in series were installed in the remote site where the electrical and environmental parameters are needed to be monitored periodically in a specified sequence of steps as shown in the generalized flowchart in Figure 2. Periodic acquisition are normally spaced 15 minutes apart to ensure seamless wireless transmission between the PV panel remote site to the research lab site due to the considering the response time of the hardware. Information collected in the research lab site are stored locally and to the file hosting service of Dropbox™ along with the visualization facility of ThingSpeak™ through and iCloud™ server.
\nOverall data acquisition system.
Generalized flowchart of the PV monitoring system.
A detailed illustration of the connection diagram exhibiting important components of the PV panel remote site is shown in Figure 3. Six environmental and two electrical parameters, namely; (1) ambient temperature, (2) irradiance level, (3) wind speed, (4) surface temperature, (5) relative humidity, (6) dust levels, along with PV voltage and current are carefully studied and chosen by the authors in [37, 38] in order to provide highest probable impact contributing to the correlation to PV panel performance and efficiency, thus, allowing higher reliability when applying ML algorithms in [37, 38, 39]. The system specifications of each sensor are enumerated in Table 1 that includes actual part number of the off-the-shelf sensors along with the manufacturer and range of operation. The details of DAS design and operation were presented by the authors in [37, 38, 39, 40].
\nSystem set-up of the PV panel remote site.
Parameter to be measured | \nDiscrete sensor | \nManufacturer | \nMeasurement range | \n
---|---|---|---|
Ambient temperature | \nLM35 | \nNational Instruments | \n0–70°C | \n
Irradiance | \nPyranometer SP-110 | \nApogee | \n0 \n | \n
Wind speed | \nType 485 Wind sensor | \nQS-FS | \n0 \n | \n
Surface temperature | \nPlatinum RTD PT100 | \nFarnell | \n0–100°C | \n
Humidity | \nHIH-4000-003 | \nHoneywell | \n0–100% | \n
Dust level | \nGP2Y1010AU0F Optical Sensor | \nSharp | \n0 \n | \n
Voltage | \nVoltage transducer LV 25-P | \nLEM | \n0 V to 40 V | \n
Current | \nHall effect current transducer LA 100-P | \nLEM | \n0A to 5A | \n
PV system specifications of each sensor.
\nFigure 4 exhibits the simplified connection of various elements to process the required signal for redundant storage and visualization in the research lab set-up. The computer workstation uses LabVIEW™ program to process data that allows visualization of recently acquired data as depicted in Figure 5.
\nSystem set-up of the research lab site.
Sample visualization of collected data using LabVIEW™ in the computer workstation.
ML is the process of training a system to automatically predict output from given inputs. The system is trained using available set of inputs and their respective outputs. The concept of ML is useful in biomedical applications [41, 42], power prediction [43] and in general for any data processing and analysis studies. ML will be used to learn from the large amount of monitoring data collected from the setup discussed in the previous section and this phase is the training phase. During the training phase a part of the input data used for training is kept for validation purposes of the trained network. The validation accuracy is a metric used to determine how good or bad a trained ML network is. This ML trained network is then used for testing some data, which was unknown to the ML network, and is used to check if the ML trained network can actually predict the output correctly. The best performing ML network can later be used to predict the PV performance in the future based on the environmental and electrical inputs. The various stages that are involved in the ML are shown in Figure 6 and will also be discussed in details in the sub sections below.
\nStages involved in ML training and testing phase.
It is always important to make sure that the data given to the ML network for training is correctly formatted, making sure all outliers in the data or data which are incorrect and not trustable are removed. The data should be made in a format which is acceptable to the ML network in whichever platform it is being operated on. The ML Toolbox in Matlab 2019a version was used in the study. There are many other popular ML platforms available such as TensorFlow, Keras, Shogun, and RapidMiner.
\nOnce the data (input and output) for the training and testing purpose is ready, it is important to select the inputs that can help in predicting the output better. Sometimes giving more input or options to help in prediction can lead to overfitting problem. Overfitting is an issue where a ML network is trained to work the best for only the trained dataset and predicts mostly wrong outputs in the testing phase. This process of selecting the input data that can increase the testing accuracy is called feature selection. Selection of features is the process of selecting a subset of relevant, high-quality and non-redundant features to create learning models with better accuracy [44, 45]. Well known feature selection techniques – Correlation feature selection (CFS) and Relief feature selection (ReliefF) was used in this study. CFS technique selects feature sub-sets based on correlation-based heuristic evaluation function and ReliefF is an instance-based algorithm that assigns a relevance weight to each feature that reflects its ability to differentiate class values [43].
\nOnce the data that will be given as input to the ML training phase is selected, then there are several ML techniques that can be used to see which techniques help in reaching better performance. The techniques used in this study can be broadly classified into two categories: Classical ML Technique and Artificial Neural Network. These techniques are compared in the performance in prediction during the testing phase and the best performing technique is archived for future use.
\nSeveral simple and popular regression and prediction models are stated in this work to estimate the PV output power. These are namely Simple Linear Regression [46], Gaussian Process Regression (GPR) [47] from the regression learner, and M5P regression tree [37, 48]. Simple linear regression model has a linear relationship between the output response and the input parameters. GPR involves a Gaussian process using lazy learning and a measure of the point similarity (kernel function) to predict the value from the training data for an unseen point. The M5P regression tree uses algorithm which contains if and else statements [48, 49] . In other words, predicted power will be the result of “if… then…else…” statements.
\nArtificial Neural Network (ANN) (Figure 7) can be thought of a replication of how the human nervous system works, but as it is artificial thus it gets its name [50]. ANN has three major layers: (1) Input Layer, Output Layer and the Hidden Layer. The input layer are the artificial neurons where the actual learning happens and is also the layer where the input is fed. Each neuron in this layer has specific weights, which are details used to solve a specific problem. These weighted summed inputs are used in the hidden layers or in the transfer functions. Transfer functions are then inputs to activation function which tries to predict the output or provides the error back to the network as a feedback. This feedback acts as learning for the input layers again to try providing inputs to the activation function to help in better prediction.
\nANN architecture and its main components.
There are several Training Algorithms (TA) available in the Matlab implementation of ANN and each of them have their advantages and disadvantages and each application can have a specific TA giving better results than the others due to the nature of the data. It is always important to explore various combinations of number of hidden layers and training functions to find the best combination that predicts the PV power most accurately, as shown in Figure 8. The algorithm first varies the training algorithms, then the number of hidden layers and then does many tries using the combination. During each trial the algorithm stores the network with best performance for testing purpose. The final best network is used for predicting the PV power using the input variables.
\nMethod to find the best ANN to predict PV power.
\nFigure 9 summarizes the network settings for the ANN based PV power prediction. The optimum number of hidden layers providing the best model were different for all features (60), CFS technique (260) and ReliefF technique (180) and were found using the algorithm stated in Figure 8.
\nDetails of the ANN.
In order to compare between the various categories, techniques of ML and also the various feature selection techniques the below statistical parameters were used as performance metrics [51].
\n\n\n
The prototype system (setup shown in Figures 1 and 3) was used for collecting the PV and environmental parameters and PV power output data from the period November 2014 until October 2016. Summary of the PV and environmental parameters and the data used for deriving the predictive model of the PV power is shown in Table 2.
\nDetails of the environment parameters used for the predictive model.
Selected features vector.
\nTable 3 summarizes the parameters selected based on the feature selection techniques CFS and relief F.
\n\nTable 4 summarizes the performance of the different classical ML techniques with the different feature selection techniques. It shows both the Training and Testing Phase performance metrics. It can be clearly seen the best performance is the CFS feature selection technique using the GPR algorithm with RMSE of 12.7144 watts compared to the maximum power of 114.2017 watts generated from the setup, as shown in Table 2.
\nPerformance comparison between the various regression techniques.
\nTable 5 summarizes the performance of the ANN best trained network found using the algorithm in Figure 8 and with the different feature selection techniques. It can be clearly seen that the ANN trained network outperforms the techniques in the classical ML techniques. In ANN, without feature selection techniques provides the best testing performance with RMSE of 5.48 watts compared to the maximum power of 114.20 watts generated from the setup, as shown in Table 2.
\nPerformance comparison between the various ANN techniques.
A customized PV system was developed at Qatar University to monitor, analyze and evaluate the performance of PV using various weather factors. The study also showed details of how the data collected could be used for training different ML algorithms which were compared using different statistical analytical tools. Several feature selection techniques were also used to avoid the problem of overfitting. Comparison between the different ML techniques and different feature selection techniques helped in concluding an ANN model to be used for predicting PV performance using different environment and electrical parameters. The paper also showed the opportunity of tuning the ANN by varying the number of hidden layers and changing the training algorithm. This study describes the development of an in-house customized DAS system that is viable for monitoring PV systems under Qatar’s climate and which comprises of two parts: hardware and software. Also, the study is enhanced by describing the calibration tools that are necessary in such studies. The remainder of the study is as follows: Section 2 describes the hardware and signal acquisition. Section 3 depicts the ML used for the data gathered throughout the duration of the study. Section 4 discusses the results from the developed system and the ML results. Finally, the conclusion and future work is provided in Section 5.
\nThe authors would like to thank Qatar University for the financial, technical, and administrative support, without which this work would have not been achieved.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
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\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. 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After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. 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