Characteristics of used AC depending on particle diameter.
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-signs-new-contract-with-cepiec-china-for-distribution-of-open-access-books-20210319",title:"IntechOpen Signs New Contract with CEPIEC, China for Distribution of Open Access Books"},{slug:"150-million-downloads-and-counting-20210316",title:"150 Million Downloads and Counting"},{slug:"intechopen-secures-indefinite-content-preservation-with-clockss-20210309",title:"IntechOpen Secures Indefinite Content Preservation with CLOCKSS"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-to-all-global-amazon-channels-with-full-catalog-of-books-20210308",title:"IntechOpen Expands to All Global Amazon Channels with Full Catalog of Books"},{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"4597",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Basic Principles and Clinical Significance of Oxidative Stress",title:"Basic Principles and Clinical Significance of Oxidative Stress",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"It is a natural phenomenon for all living organisms in the world to undergo different kinds of stress during their life span. Stress has become a common problem for human beings in this materialistic world. In this period, a publication of any material on stress will be helpful for the human society. The book Basic Principles and Clinical Significance of Oxidative Stress targets all aspects of oxidative stress, including principles, mechanisms, and clinical significance. This book covers four sections: Free Radicals and Oxidative Stress, Natural Compounds as Antioxidants, Antioxidants - Health and Disease, and Oxidative Stress and Therapy. Each of these sections is interwoven with the theoretical aspects and experimental techniques of basic and clinical sciences. 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Before working for Qassim University, he worked as a faculty member at the Medical Universities in West Indies. Sivakumar has won prizes and awards in different levels of his academic career. He has developed his own research methods and techniques relevant to his research disciplines and has published several journal articles and book chapters. Sivakumar has also edited many books. Currently, he serves as an author and editor of books; editor in chief for an international journal; editorial member and reviewer for journals; fellow and advisory board member of international organizations and external examiner of doctoral thesis work for international universities. 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Davis, Michael T. Walsh and Tim M. McGloughlin",authors:[{id:"36797",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Walsh",fullName:"Michael Walsh",slug:"michael-walsh"},{id:"42731",title:"Prof.",name:"Timothy",middleName:null,surname:"McGloughlin",fullName:"Timothy McGloughlin",slug:"timothy-mcgloughlin"},{id:"56337",title:"Dr.",name:"Anthony",middleName:null,surname:"Callanan",fullName:"Anthony Callanan",slug:"anthony-callanan"},{id:"78468",title:"Dr.",name:"Niall",middleName:null,surname:"Davis",fullName:"Niall Davis",slug:"niall-davis"}]},{id:"19028",title:"Elastin Based Constructs",slug:"elastin-based-constructs",signatures:"Lisa Nivison-Smith and Anthony Weiss",authors:[{id:"53059",title:"Prof.",name:"Anthony",middleName:null,surname:"Weiss",fullName:"Anthony Weiss",slug:"anthony-weiss"},{id:"53063",title:"Dr",name:"Lisa",middleName:null,surname:"Nivison-Smith",fullName:"Lisa Nivison-Smith",slug:"lisa-nivison-smith"}]},{id:"19029",title:"The Use of a Hydrogel Matrix as a Cellular Delivery Vehicle in Future Cell-Based Therapies: Biological and Non-Biological Considerations",slug:"the-use-of-a-hydrogel-matrix-as-a-cellular-delivery-vehicle-in-future-cell-based-therapies-biologica",signatures:"Thomas I. Zarembinski, William P. Tew and Sarah K. Atzet",authors:[{id:"36147",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas I.",middleName:null,surname:"Zarembinski",fullName:"Thomas I. Zarembinski",slug:"thomas-i.-zarembinski"},{id:"53598",title:"Dr.",name:"William P.",middleName:null,surname:"Tew",fullName:"William P. Tew",slug:"william-p.-tew"},{id:"53599",title:"Dr.",name:"Sarah K.",middleName:null,surname:"Atzet",fullName:"Sarah K. Atzet",slug:"sarah-k.-atzet"}]},{id:"19030",title:"Cockle Shell-Based Biocomposite Scaffold for Bone Tissue Engineering",slug:"cockle-shell-based-biocomposite-scaffold-for-bone-tissue-engineering",signatures:"Zuki Abu Bakar, Bahaa F. Hussein and Noordin Mohamed Mustapha",authors:[{id:"42396",title:"Dr.",name:"Zuki",middleName:null,surname:"Abu Bakar",fullName:"Zuki Abu Bakar",slug:"zuki-abu-bakar"},{id:"42420",title:"Dr.",name:"Noordin",middleName:null,surname:"Mohamed Mustapha",fullName:"Noordin Mohamed Mustapha",slug:"noordin-mohamed-mustapha"},{id:"42421",title:"Dr.",name:"Bahaa",middleName:"Fakhri",surname:"Hussein",fullName:"Bahaa Hussein",slug:"bahaa-hussein"}]},{id:"19031",title:"Bioactive Scaffolds for the Controlled Formation of Complex Skeletal Tissues",slug:"bioactive-scaffolds-for-the-controlled-formation-of-complex-skeletal-tissues",signatures:"Sandra Hofmann and Marcos Garcia-Fuentes",authors:[{id:"46057",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcos",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia-Fuentes",fullName:"Marcos Garcia-Fuentes",slug:"marcos-garcia-fuentes"},{id:"54179",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Hofmann",fullName:"Sandra Hofmann",slug:"sandra-hofmann"}]},{id:"19032",title:"Angiogenesis and Vascularity for Tissue Engineering Applications",slug:"angiogenesis-and-vascularity-for-tissue-engineering-applications",signatures:"Remo A. Largo, Venkat M. Ramakrishnan, Martin Ehrbar, Algirdas Ziogas, Jan A. Plock and Daniel Eberli",authors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli"},{id:"62149",title:"Dr.",name:"Remo",middleName:"André",surname:"Largo",fullName:"Remo Largo",slug:"remo-largo"},{id:"62150",title:"BSc",name:"Venkat",middleName:"Madhav",surname:"Ramakrishnan",fullName:"Venkat Ramakrishnan",slug:"venkat-ramakrishnan"}]},{id:"19033",title:"The Liver Vascular Bed for Hepatocytes Cell Therapy and Tissue Engineering",slug:"the-liver-vascular-bed-for-hepatocytes-cell-therapy-and-tissue-engineering",signatures:"Yaacov Baruch",authors:[{id:"45041",title:"Dr.",name:"Yaacov",middleName:null,surname:"Baruch",fullName:"Yaacov Baruch",slug:"yaacov-baruch"}]},{id:"19034",title:"Nano- Coating with Titanium of Glutaraldehyde- Fixed Heart Valve Prostheses Enables a Reduced Immune Response and a Self-Seeding Within Circulation",slug:"nano-coating-with-titanium-of-glutaraldehyde-fixed-heart-valve-prostheses-enables-a-reduced-immune-r",signatures:"Norbert W. Guldner, Hangörg Zimmermann and Hans- H. Sievers",authors:[{id:"53946",title:"Prof.",name:"Norbert W",middleName:null,surname:"Guldner",fullName:"Norbert W Guldner",slug:"norbert-w-guldner"}]},{id:"19035",title:"Formation of Stable Vascular Networks in Engineered Tissues",slug:"formation-of-stable-vascular-networks-in-engineered-tissues",signatures:"Bin Jiang and Eric M. Brey",authors:[{id:"51177",title:"Prof.",name:"Eric",middleName:null,surname:"Brey",fullName:"Eric Brey",slug:"eric-brey"},{id:"53332",title:"BSc.",name:"Bin",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",fullName:"Bin Jiang",slug:"bin-jiang"}]},{id:"19036",title:"Tunable Stimuli-Responsive Polymers for Cell Sheet Engineering",slug:"tunable-stimuli-responsive-polymers-for-cell-sheet-engineering",signatures:"Nithya Joseph, Anil Kumar P R and TV Kumary",authors:[{id:"56551",title:"Dr.",name:"TV",middleName:null,surname:"Kumary",fullName:"TV Kumary",slug:"tv-kumary"},{id:"121843",title:"Dr.",name:"Nithya",middleName:null,surname:"Joseph",fullName:"Nithya Joseph",slug:"nithya-joseph"},{id:"121844",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar PR",fullName:"Anil Kumar PR",slug:"anil-kumar-pr"}]},{id:"19037",title:"Gene-Silencing for Treatment of Cardiovascular Diseases",slug:"gene-silencing-for-treatment-of-cardiovascular-diseases",signatures:"A. Nolte, M. Schneider, T. Walker and H. P. Wendel",authors:[null]},{id:"19038",title:"Hydrodynamic 3D Culture for Bone Tissue Engineering",slug:"hydrodynamic-3d-culture-for-bone-tissue-engineering",signatures:"Dajiang Du, Takashi Ushida and Katsuko Furukawa",authors:[{id:"6737",title:"Assoc Prof",name:"Katsuko S",middleName:null,surname:"Furukawa",fullName:"Katsuko S Furukawa",slug:"katsuko-s-furukawa"}]},{id:"19012",title:"The Fibrotic Response to Implanted Biomaterials: Implications for Tissue Engineering",slug:"the-fibrotic-response-to-implanted-biomaterials-implications-for-tissue-engineering",signatures:"Barbara Rolfe, Jane Mooney, Bing Zhang, Sani Jahnke, Sarah-Jane Le, Yu-Qian Chau, Qiping Huang, Hao Wang, Gordon Campbell and Julie Campbell",authors:[{id:"44830",title:"Dr.",name:"Barbara",middleName:null,surname:"Rolfe",fullName:"Barbara Rolfe",slug:"barbara-rolfe"},{id:"55595",title:"Dr.",name:"Bing",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Bing Zhang",slug:"bing-zhang"},{id:"55608",title:"Mr",name:"Yu-Qain",middleName:null,surname:"Chau",fullName:"Yu-Qain Chau",slug:"yu-qain-chau"},{id:"55622",title:"Ms",name:"Jane",middleName:null,surname:"Mooney",fullName:"Jane Mooney",slug:"jane-mooney"},{id:"55625",title:"Ms",name:"Sarah-Jane",middleName:null,surname:"Le",fullName:"Sarah-Jane Le",slug:"sarah-jane-le"},{id:"55626",title:"Mr",name:"Hao",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Hao Wang",slug:"hao-wang"},{id:"55628",title:"Mr",name:"Qiping",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",fullName:"Qiping Huang",slug:"qiping-huang"},{id:"55631",title:"Prof.",name:"Julie",middleName:null,surname:"Campbell",fullName:"Julie Campbell",slug:"julie-campbell"},{id:"96108",title:"Ms.",name:"Sani",middleName:null,surname:"Jahnke",fullName:"Sani Jahnke",slug:"sani-jahnke"},{id:"96111",title:"Prof.",name:"Gordon",middleName:null,surname:"Campbell",fullName:"Gordon Campbell",slug:"gordon-campbell"}]},{id:"19013",title:"Cell Responses to Surface and Architecture of Tissue Engineering Scaffolds",slug:"cell-responses-to-surface-and-architecture-of-tissue-engineering-scaffolds",signatures:"Hsin-I Chang and Yiwei Wang",authors:[{id:"45747",title:"Dr.",name:"Hsin-I",middleName:null,surname:"Chang",fullName:"Hsin-I Chang",slug:"hsin-i-chang"},{id:"53659",title:"Ms.",name:"Yiwei",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Yiwei Wang",slug:"yiwei-wang"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"66735",title:"Experimental Study of Adsorption on Activated Carbon for CO2 Capture",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85834",slug:"experimental-study-of-adsorption-on-activated-carbon-for-co-sub-2-sub-capture",body:'\n
The emissions of CO2 from burn fossil fuels are the major reason for the increase in the concentration of this gas in the atmosphere [1]. The amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is currently increasing globally by around 6 billion tons per year [2].
\nA feasible technique method used industrially in reduction of CO2 emissions is capture and storage. CO2 capture means separating the CO2 from other gases in flue. The advanced technologies being used worldwide for CO2 capture in different arrangements are post-combustion, pre-combustion, and oxy-fuel processes [1].
\nNumerous investigations have been done for CO2 capture field by using adsorption, which are indicating to the effective usage of a post-combustion treatment of gas emissions of flue. The proposed schemes in a cycle process of capture by adsorption include pressure swing adsorption (PSA) and temperature swing adsorption (TSA) [1, 3, 4, 5]. The capture of carbon dioxide by adsorptive process is mainly based on preferential adsorption of this gas on a porous adsorbent. Thus, the first and most important step is to find a suitable adsorbent [1]. Carbon materials are relatively insensitive to moisture and are suitable candidates for CO2 capture due to their pore structure and surface chemistry properties [6].
\nIn recent years, considerable attention has been focused on removal of pollutants by using adsorbents derived from low-cost agro-wastes. Olive trees (
The prepared activated carbon based on charcoal was prepared from olive trees for low cost and was abundantly available. The used activated carbon was obtained from the local area. The raw material of charcoal as received was crushed, ground, and sieved, and only the fraction of particle size 5 mm was chosen as the mean particle diameter. Then it is heated in an oven for 48 h up to 115°C to dry and activate (to remove the absorbed gases and moisture it contains) [7, 8]. The produced activated carbon is then stored in a tightly closed container to be used as required. The total pore volume and surface area of AC were determined using Gemini VII 2390a analyzer. The particle size is obtained by using standard mesh sieves (standard sieve AS 200), and average value of bed porosity is calculated in terms of the average diameter of particles [9].
\nA laboratory system used for measuring breakthrough curve was set up and shown in Figure 1. The adsorber which is made of carbon steel tube, consists of three zones:
Calming zone with 6.5 cm diameter and 8 cm length containing spherical particles of carbon steel.
Active zone with 8.44 cm diameter and 39 cm length containing the activated carbon particles, and it was surrounded by a shell containing a heating medium.
Ending zone with 6.5 cm diameter and 8 cm length containing spherical particles of carbon steel.
Schematic of the experimental set-up.
N2 and CO2 were supplied by pressurized cylinders. The purity for CO2, NO, and N2 cylinders was 99.9, 99, and 99.99% (vol.%), respectively. The used concentrations of CO2 were 10 and 13.725% (vol.%). Delivery of the feed gas was controlled by mass flow meter. After mixing in a mixing chamber (2.45 cm diameter and 15 cm length), simulated gas was fed into the inlet of the adsorber. Prior to all measurements, an initial degassing of the sample was performed at a given temperature (30, 50, 70, and 90°C) by the flow of nitrogen until reaching steady state. Then mixed gas was passed through the fixed bed column at constant temperature. The inlet and outlet concentrations were analyzed by a Testo 350XL flue gas, which has a resolution for N2, NO, and CO2 of 0.1 ppm, 0.1 ppm, and 0.1% vol., respectively. The total flow was kept constant for 12 l/min; whereas the N2 and CO2 were controlled precisely according to the required balance gas N2 during binary experiments. The dynamic adsorption capacity of CO2 onto AC column was calculated using Eqs. (1) and (2) [10]:
\nwhere
The interval times for measurements were 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 50, 60, 70, and 80 min. The experimental procedures and measurements are replicated three times for accuracy.
\nIn order to optimize the design of a sorption system to capture CO2 on AC, the suitable isotherm model for equilibrium curves must be established. Equilibrium models that have been examined herein are Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin, and Dubinin-Radushkevich. The conformity between the predicted values of models and experimental data is expressed by comparing the experimental adsorption capacity with the adsorption capacity estimated by these models, by means of the determination coefficient (r2, values close or equal to 1) [11, 12].
\nThe widely used Langmuir isotherm found as a successful application in many real sorption processes [12] is expressed as
\nA linear form of this expression is
\nwhere
The well-known Freundlich isotherm is often used for heterogeneous surface energy systems [12]. The Freundlich equation is given as
\nA linear form of this expression is
\nwhere
The Temkin isotherm [13, 14] has been used in the following form:
\nA linear form of the Temkin isotherm can be expressed as
\nwhere
The sorption data can be analyzed according to Eq. (8). Therefore, the plot of
The Dubinin-Radushkevich equation in Eq. (9) is as follows [15]:
\nA linear form of Dubinin-Radushkevich isotherm is
\nwhere
where
To determine an appropriate kinetic model is necessary to analyze the experimental data to investigate the mechanism of adsorption process that may include mass transfer or chemical reaction. Also, other extensive models applied to many models such as homogenous surface diffusion model and heterogeneous diffusion model (also known as pore and diffusion models, respectively) have been extensively applied to expound the adsorbate transfer onto the particles of adsorbent [17, 18, 19]. The determination coefficient (r2) is used to examine the confirmation of the predicted values of models with experimental data (determination coefficient value close or equal to 1). The validity of these models is evaluated by the determination coefficient (r2), which is within the range of 0–1, in which r2 closer to unity implies the best fitting toward the particular kinetic model [20].
\nThe sorption kinetic may be described by a simple order equation [21, 22]. The following simple first-order equation describes the change in bulk concentration:
\nthat can be rearranged to obtain a linear form
\nwhere
Furthermore, Sparks [23] and Hossain et al. [21] proposed that the simple kinetic models such as first- or second-order rate equations are not applicable to the adsorption system with solid surfaces.
\nThe sorption kinetics may be described by pseudo-first Eq. (15) [13, 21, 24, 25, 26]:
\nIntegration of Eq. (15) and using the initial conditions
By rearrangement of Eq. (16), a linear form is obtained:
\nwhere
The pseudo-first-order constant
The adsorption kinetics may also be described by pseudo-second-order Eq. (17) [13, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30]:
\nIntegrating Eq. (18) and applying the initial boundaries yield
\nBy rearrangement Eq. (19), a linear form is obtained:
\nwhere
The slopes and intercepts of plots
The intra-particle diffusion model is expressed as [31, 32, 33]
\nwhere
Thermodynamic parameters were estimated from Langmuir isotherms by using the Van’t Hoff’s equation as in Eqs. (22) and (23). The thermodynamic parameters can be estimated from Langmuir isotherms by using the Van’t Hoff’s equation as follows [12, 35]:
\nwhere
The main characteristics of AC (particle diameter, bed porosity, weight of bed, BET surface area, and pore volume) are shown in Table 1. Due to a high value BET surface area for used AC, its good pore structure makes it a suitable candidate for CO2 capture.
\nCharacteristic | \nValue | \nUnit | \n
---|---|---|
Particle diameter | \n5 | \nmm | \n
Bed porosity | \n0.304 | \n— | \n
Weight of bed | \n500 | \ng | \n
BET surface area | \n602 | \nm2/g | \n
Pore volume | \n0.61 | \ncm3/g | \n
Characteristics of used AC depending on particle diameter.
Two mixtures of CO2 and N2 gases have been used in experiments (initial concentrations of CO2 are 10 and 13.725% vol., respectively). Figure 2 shows that the rate of CO2 adsorption gradually decreased with time, until equilibrium condition was achieved. This behavior is observed for each line in Figures 2 and 3 throughout a gradual increase of the concentration ratio of (outlet/initial) concentrations of CO2 (C/Co).
\nBreakthrough curve for CO2 adsorption onto AC (initial conc. = 10%vol., avg. particle diameter = 5 mm, and volumetric rate = 12 l/min).
Breakthrough curve for CO2 adsorption onto AC (initial conc. = 13.725%vol., avg. particle diameter = 5 mm, and volumetric rate = 12 l/min).
The CO2 adsorption was most intensive during 50 min. and thereafter remains unchanged until saturation was attained. Adsorption process to carbon dioxide for different temperatures (30, 50, 70, and 90°C) on AC reaches equilibrium for increased temperature. The same behavior is shown in Figure 3 when using a high concentration of carbon dioxide but fast (30 min. to reach the equilibrium), due to high CO2 concentration, and this behavior is compatible with previous results when using AC prepared from coconut residue to remove carbon dioxide [36]. It is noted that breakthrough curves become shorter and steeper for high temperatures; this indicates the adsorption process here is exothermic and that’s compatible with previous results for some of the previous adsorption of carbon dioxide on the zeolite [1]. The adsorption of carbon dioxide carbon process was not affected by the presence of nitrogen gas, and this is due to the strength of the links formed by carbon dioxide with AC particles [36].
\nIn post-combustion process, the flue gas temperature is typically within the range of 50–120°C [36, 37]. Thus, an adsorption study was conducted at 30–90°C to investigate the CO2 adsorptive properties at elevated temperatures. Figures 4 and 5 show that the CO2 adsorption capacity of solid adsorbent decreases with temperature, and it implies the existence of physical adsorption (physisorption) between the CO2 molecules and carbonaceous adsorbent. Adsorption capacity decreased with increasing temperature because of exothermic adsorption process as shown in Figures 4 and 5. This behavior is also identical with the results of previous studies [3, 38]. The adsorption capacities recorded in Figure 4 are 109.529, 74.57, 50.61, and 35.46 mg(CO2)/gAC, whereas they recorded in Figure 5 as 129.651, 89.2, 53.079, and 35.546 mg(CO2)/gAC at temperatures 30, 50, 70, and 90°C, respectively. Thus, the optimum temperature for the removal process is 30°C. It also notices that the adsorption process occurs in the beginning quickly and be a decline in the curves and clear because of the abundance of the active sites and the presence of small surface resistance on the surface of adsorbents, then more smoothness gradually less steep and alignment over time because of the fullness of all the active sites on the surface of adsorbents and that the process has become controlled by internal diffusion within the adsorbents in accordance with what has been presented previously [39]. Also the results of comparison for both Figures 4 and 5 together note that the amount of the CO2 adsorbed onto AC increases due to increase of the concentration difference of CO2 between bulk and surface of AC leading to an increase of mass transfer [9, 40].
\nAdsorption capacity of CO2 onto AC (initial concn. = 10%vol., avg. particle diameter = 5 mm, and volumetric rate = 12 l/min.).
Adsorption capacity of CO2 onto AC (initial conc. = 13.725%vol., avg. particle diameter = 5 mm, and volumetric rate = 12 l/min.).
The equilibrium data can be approximated using common and practical adsorption isotherms, which provide the basis for the design of adsorption systems. The amount of adsorbed CO2 onto adsorbent (AC) as a function of its concentration at constant temperature can be described by different adsorption isotherm models (Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin, and Dubinin-Radushkevich). The predicted isotherm constants for the CO2 adsorption and the determination coefficient r2 value from the linear regression method are shown in Table 2.
\n\n | \n\n | \n\n | \n\n | \n\n | \n\n | \n\n | \n\n | \n\n | \n|||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Vol.% | \n\noC | \n\n | \nQo (mg/g) | \nKF (mg/g) | \nn (−) | \n(mg/g) | \n(mg/g) | \n— | \n(mg/g) | \n— | \n|
10 | \n30 | \n0.0492 | \n120.482 | \n0.00081 | \n0.3865 | \n109.53 | \n108.03 | \n0.997 | \n522.49 | \n0.955 | \n|
50 | \n0.01835 | \n99.009 | \n0.04223 | \n0.527 | \n74.57 | \n90.633 | \n0.9976 | \n685.26 | \n0.954 | \n||
70 | \n0.01076 | \n81.301 | \n0.2138 | \n0.5998 | \n50.61 | \n50.92 | \n0.9865 | \n966.67 | \n0.964 | \n||
90 | \n0.00778 | \n66.667 | \n0.5181 | \n0.6342 | \n35.46 | \n49.835 | \n0.9829 | \n1358.19 | \n0.972 | \n||
13.725 | \n30 | \n0.01171 | \n161.29 | \n0.002202 | \n0.5324 | \n129.65 | \n129.693 | \n0.9976 | \n649.62 | \n0.936 | \n|
50 | \n0.0921 | \n133.333 | \n0.0933 | \n0.5821 | \n89.2 | \n89.92 | \n0.9919 | \n1024.09 | \n0.959 | \n||
70 | \n0.0782 | \n85.47 | \n0.1711 | \n0.5596 | \n53.08 | \n53.2934 | \n0.9964 | \n2453.47 | \n0.982 | \n||
90 | \n0.0466 | \n67.11 | \n0.6192 | \n0.5996 | \n35.55 | \n35.78 | \n0.9872 | \n6014.59 | \n0.984 | \n||
\n | \n\n\n | \n||||||||||
10 | \n30 | \n22.305 | \n0.746 | \n0.0078 | \n93.841 | \n8.006 | \n109.53 | \n108.84 | \n0.998 | \n93.76 | \n0.806 | \n
50 | \n22.582 | \n0.167 | \n0.0881 | \n70.316 | \n2.382 | \n74.57 | \n75.009 | \n0.997 | \n69.48 | \n0.909 | \n|
70 | \n19.114 | \n0.092 | \n0.221 | \n51.07 | \n1.506 | \n50.61 | \n50.965 | \n0.994 | \n49.16 | \n0.955 | \n|
90 | \n15.473 | \n0.067 | \n0.339 | \n37.68 | \n1.123 | \n35.46 | \n35.58 | \n0.996 | \n35.02 | \n0.982 | \n|
13.725 | \n30 | \n35.826 | \n0.164 | \n0.104 | \n117.47 | \n2193 | \n129.65 | \n131.45 | \n0.989 | \n116.78 | \n0.86 | \n
50 | \n30.949 | \n0.0813 | \n0.308 | \n86.59 | \n1.27 | \n89.2 | \n89.93 | \n0.996 | \n84.62 | \n0.923 | \n|
70 | \n20.395 | \n0.0642 | \n0.519 | \n54.806 | \n0.981 | \n53.08 | \n53.24 | \n0.998 | \n52.21 | \n0.968 | \n|
90 | \n16.048 | \n0.0378 | \n1.276 | \n39.186 | \n0.626 | \n35.55 | \n35.63 | \n0.9947 | \n35.43 | \n0.996 | \n
Parameters of isotherm models at different temperatures via linearized technique for adsorption of CO2 onto AC.
Based on tabulated data, the maximum capacity (
In addition, the Dubinin-Radushkevich isotherm will provide a useful information related to the energy parameters, in terms of
On the basis of corresponding r2 values and adsorption capacity estimated by each model shown in Table 2, the Langmuir model gives the best fit toward the experimental data over the entire temperature range. Therefore, it implies that the surface of the activated carbon is heterogeneous and a restricted monolayer CO2 adsorption occurs, as results of adsorption CO2 onto activated carbon prepared from coconut fiber studied by Hauchhum and Mahanta [3].
\nAn analysis of kinetic adsorption process is a useful tool to estimate the time of residence for the adsorption process to complete and to determine the dynamics of adsorption and its performance in industrial scale of fixed bed or in flow-through systems. Thus, simple first-order, pseudo-first-order, pseudo-second-order, and intra-particle diffusion models were performed in this study. Kinetic parameters of these models are shown in Table 3.
\nKinetic model | \n\n | \nParameter | \nTemperature (°C) | \n|||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
30 | \n50 | \n70 | \n90 | \n|||
Simple first-order | \n10 | \n\n | \n2.633 | \n1.974 | \n1.394 | \n0.955 | \n
\n | \n4.1 × 105\n | \n1.75 × 1021\n | \n1.67 × 1033\n | \n6.73 × 1040\n | \n||
r2\n | \n0.787 | \n0.667 | \n0.539 | \n0.434 | \n||
13.725 | \n\n | \n3.293 | \n2.404 | \n1.457 | \n1.091 | \n|
\n | \n3.04 × 1017\n | \n8.414 × 1036\n | \n6.52 × 1056\n | \n1.023 × 1080\n | \n||
r2\n | \n0.734 | \n0.624 | \n0.427 | \n0.319 | \n||
Pseudo-first-order | \n10 | \n\n | \n0.0972 | \n0.1521 | \n0.1864 | \n0.2367 | \n
\n | \n159.48 | \n143.481 | \n84.94 | \n62.22 | \n||
r2\n | \n0.967 | \n0.96 | \n0.915 | \n0.952 | \n||
13.725 | \n\n | \n0.1508 | \n0.182 | \n0.2116 | \n0.282 | \n|
\n | \n292.89 | \n195.45 | \n78.25 | \n49.47 | \n||
r2\n | \n0.918 | \n0.927 | \n0.944 | \n0.949 | \n||
Pseudo-second-order | \n10 | \n\n | \n1.6 × 105\n | \n6.59 × 104\n | \n3.14 × 104\n | \n1.69 × 104\n | \n
\n | \n144.93 | \n87.719 | \n55.56 | \n37.45 | \n||
r2\n | \n0.968 | \n0.976 | \n0.989 | \n0.995 | \n||
13.725 | \n\n | \n2.88 × 105\n | \n1.29 × 105\n | \n5.76 × 104\n | \n3.23 × 104\n | \n|
\n | \n161.29 | \n102.04 | \n56.179 | \n36.496 | \n||
r2\n | \n0.96 | \n0.982 | \n0.955 | \n0.998 | \n||
Intra-particle diffusion | \n10 | \n\n | \n13.974 | \n8.755 | \n5.436 | \n3.489 | \n
\n | \n7.686 | \n12.25 | \n13.025 | \n11.775 | \n||
r2\n | \n0.874 | \n0.8123 | \n0.7417 | \n0.6811 | \n||
13.725 | \n\n | \n15.976 | \n10.169 | \n5.219 | \n3.151 | \n|
\n | \n14.137 | \n17.633 | \n17.693 | \n14.578 | \n||
r2\n | \n0.841 | \n0.788 | \n0.677 | \n0.601 | \n
Kinetic parameters of CO2 onto AC.
\nTable 3 shows the simple first-order kinetic model for activated carbon did not fit well with the experimental data, with r2 value found to be within the range of 0.4344–0.7873 and 0.319–0.734 for both initial concentrations 10 and 13.725% vol., respectively. Also, Table 3 shows the pseudo-first-order kinetic model for activated carbon did not fit well with the experimental data, with r2 value found to be within the range of 0.9521–0.967 also from 0.9175 to 0.9487 for both initial concentrations 10 and 13.725% vol., respectively.
\nComparing the values of determination coefficients as stated in Table 3, pseudo-second-order model gives better fit than the pseudo-first-order and intra-particle diffusion models with experimental data, with r2 value within the range of 0.963–0.996 and 0.955–0.998 for both initial concentrations 10 and 13.725% vol., respectively. Also, the values of adsorption capacity of equilibrium (
In similarity to pseudo-first-order and pseudo-second-order models, the intra-particle diffusion model provides insight of the mechanism in adsorption process. Adsorption contains of few steps involved in the transfer of adsorbate (CO2) from the phase of bulk to the solid surface of AC and is followed by the molecule diffusion into the interior of the pores of AC. Intra-particle diffusion is typically described as a slow process and is a limiting step in many adsorption processes. Theoretically, if the adsorption process obeys the intra-particle diffusion model, a straight linear plot that passes through the origin is expected. However, results of the variation of gradient with respect to time show that the intra-particle diffusion is not the sole rate-limiting step in this adsorption process. Note that the first steeper region (2–4 min.1/2) could be due to surface sorption, while the second region (4–9 min.1/2) may be attributed by the intra-particle diffusion rate controlled.
\nThe values of thermodynamic parameters of CO2 adsorption process on AC based on Van’t Hoff plot for Eqs. (22) and (23) are shown in Figure 6.
\nVan’t Hoff plot for adsorption of CO2/AC system.
The estimated values of the thermodynamic parameters are tabulated in Table 4. For significant adsorption to occur, the Gibbs free energy change of adsorption (
Conc. | \nTemp. | \n\n | \n\n | \n\n | \n\n | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
(vol.%) | \n(K) | \n(mol/l) | \n(J/mol) | \n(J/mol) | \n(J/mol.K) | \n
10 | \n303 | \n2164.79 | \n−19347.21 | \n−28038.965 | \n−29.7716 | \n
323 | \n807.71 | \n−17976.75 | \n|||
343 | \n473.45 | \n−17566.61 | \n|||
363 | \n342.50 | \n−17613.77 | \n|||
13.725 | \n303 | \n753.38 | \n−16688.24 | \n−18630.843 | \n−6.748 | \n
323 | \n405.31 | \n−16124.99 | \n|||
343 | \n344.14 | \n−16065.94 | \n|||
363 | \n204.91 | \n−16063.38 | \n
Thermodynamic parameters of CO2 adsorption onto AC.
According to findings of the experimental data, the negative sign of
The adsorption amount for each component in a complex mixture of (CO2, NO, and N2) was compared with that under the single-component conditions, with the results shown in Figure 7. In the single-component condition, the adsorption amount was 109.24 mgCO2/gAC and 0.245 mgNO/gAC in 50 and 40 min for each one, respectively. When all of the components were present in a mixture of CO2, NO, and N2, the CO2 adsorption amount decreased by 6%, and the NO adsorption amount also decreased by 7.6%. The adsorption capacity of CO2 in complex mixture is not changed compared with that under the single-component conditions but is favorable due to decreased equilibrium time required. The adsorption capacities of complex mixture were 103.2 mgCO2/gAC in 40 min and 0.229 mgNO/gAC in 30 min. This decrease in adsorption capacity is due to the competition between both gases on the active sites, whereas the CO2 adsorption capacity is higher than NO gas because of the presence of CO2 gas at high concentrations. NO and CO2 display fast breakthrough, and high adsorption amounts were observed in the pure component adsorption experiments. When the interaction effect of CO2 and NO was considered, a very interesting phenomenon appeared. After the initial breakthrough, the CO2 concentration descends to a minimum and then gradually ascends with the breakthrough ending point of NO. This is observed from the arrival time of the equilibrium state which was 30 min for the NO gas and 40 min for the CO2 gas; the same behavior is shown for the single-component conditions; the difference between them was reached in the equilibrium stage fast approximately 10 min. In Figure 8 the adsorption capacities of complex mixture were 124.4 mgCO2/gAC in 40 min and 0.22 mgNO/gAC in 30 min by using different initial concentrations of gases. This is confirmed by the fact that free Gibbs energy values of both gases are very different, as they have NO gas higher in value, while in the case of CO2, they are much lower. This behavior is shown in previous study for adsorption on activated carbon prepared from coconut husk residues [47].
\nBreakthrough curves for mixture gas (CO2, NO, and N2) (initial conc. = 10% vol. of CO2, and 550 ppm of NO, avg. particle diameter = 5 mm, temperature = 30°C, and volumetric rate = 12 l/min.)
Breakthrough curves for mixture gas (CO2, NO, and N2) (initial conc. = 13.725%vol. of CO2, and 550 ppm of NO, avg. particle diameter = 5 mm, temperature = 30°C, and volumetric rate = 12 l/min.)
In this study, the fixed bed adsorption of carbon dioxide from CO2/N2 mixtures on activated carbon was studied. The adsorption dynamics was investigated at different operating temperatures (30–90°C). The results show that the low-cost activated carbon can be prepared from olive trees as potential carbonaceous material serving as porous media for CO2 capture. Based on the experimental results, it is concluded that the CO2 adsorption onto the olive tree activated carbon follows the physisorption behavior, whereby the CO2 adsorption capacity decreases with respect to increasing temperature. Based on the equilibrium models of isotherm used herein to fit the experimental data of adsorption, the Langmuir model was the best fit with experimental data over the whole temperature range, due to the highest estimated adsorption capacity and determination coefficient (r2) closeness to unity, thus implying a perfect fit to the experimental data. Besides, thermodynamic analysis proves that the CO2 adsorption is a spontaneous process at low temperature, physisorption, and intra-particle diffusion and exothermic in nature. Also, the negative values of the entropy of the adsorption manifest the restricted randomness of the adsorbate molecules on the surfaces of adsorbent. CO2 adsorption capacity has been reduced slightly when NO appears, but the process of adsorption has been faster as a result of competition on carbon-active sites.
\nOlive trees are dominant and easily available in the Mediterranean countries generally and especially Libya, and because charcoal is prepared from olive trees, it is cheap in Libya. According to the obtained result, this study concludes that AC prepared from olive trees can be considered as adequate for designing a fixed bed cycle to separate carbon dioxide from flue gases and serve as a benchmark while searching for inexpensive and superior activated carbon production in future studies that concerned of capturing CO2 from flue gases of the industrial sectors (such as cement plants and power stations) that are prevailing in Libya.
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",metaTitle:"Advantages of Publishing with IntechOpen",metaDescription:"We have more than a decade of experience in Open Access publishing. \n\n ",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"We have more than a decade of experience in Open Access publishing. The advantages of publishing with IntechOpen include:
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\n\nOur reputation – Everything we publish goes through a two-stage peer review process. We’re proud to count Nobel laureates among our esteemed authors. We meet European Commission standards for funding, and the research we’ve published has been funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the Wellcome Trust, among others. IntechOpen is a member of all relevant trade associations (including the STM Association and the Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers) and has a selection of books indexed in Web of Science's Book Citation Index.
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