Malnutrition classification of children based on Z scores [20].
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6135",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Kinematics",title:"Kinematics",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The present work contains a selection of research that is focused on the development of the kinematics; in this way, we can find the evolution of the kinematics in recent years, like applications in navigation systems, parallel robots, manipulators, and mobile robots. This work also includes new methods for the analysis in different applications, which are important in the proposal of new paradigms. Modeling is presented in applications oriented to a better understanding of biosystems; on the other hand, we also have applications of intelligent systems that enrich and complement the analysis of movement and position. Definitely, we hope that the present research work enriches and contributes with ideas and elements of interest for each of our readers.",isbn:"978-953-51-3688-0",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3687-3",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4040-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68259",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"kinematics",numberOfPages:264,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"64adad9c40c91ce89d9056f769b6cf52",bookSignature:"Efren Gorrostieta Hurtado",publishedDate:"December 20th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6135.jpg",numberOfDownloads:11450,numberOfWosCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitations:11,numberOfDimensionsCitations:13,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:28,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 3rd 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 24th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 21st 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 19th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 18th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"38850",title:"Dr.",name:"Efren",middleName:null,surname:"Gorrostieta Hurtado",slug:"efren-gorrostieta-hurtado",fullName:"Efren Gorrostieta Hurtado",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/38850/images/system/38850.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eng Efren Gorrostieta is a Professor at the Engineering Faculty of the Autonomous University of Queretaro, Mexico. He studied Electronics Engineering, received a master of Science in Control and Automation and a PhD in Mechatronics. He was a co-founder of the Mechatronics Mexican Association, President of the IEEE Querétaro Section and the Chair of the IEEE Queretaro Computational Intelligence Chapter; he has given lectures in Control Systems and Robotics at different universities and has been a chair, reviewer and editor in several national/international congresses related to robotics, automation, and artificial intelligence. He has several publications in conferences and journals in the field.",institutionString:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1286",title:"Biomechanics",slug:"biomechanics"}],chapters:[{id:"57452",title:"Kinematic Performance Measures and Optimization of Parallel Kinematics Manipulators: A Brief Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71406",slug:"kinematic-performance-measures-and-optimization-of-parallel-kinematics-manipulators-a-brief-review",totalDownloads:1076,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Abdur Rosyid, Bashar El-Khasawneh and Anas Alazzam",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57452",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57452",authors:[{id:"209597",title:"Dr.",name:"Bashar",surname:"El-Khasawneh",slug:"bashar-el-khasawneh",fullName:"Bashar El-Khasawneh"},{id:"217882",title:"Mr.",name:"Abdur",surname:"Rosyid",slug:"abdur-rosyid",fullName:"Abdur Rosyid"},{id:"217884",title:"Dr.",name:"Anas",surname:"Alazzam",slug:"anas-alazzam",fullName:"Anas Alazzam"}],corrections:null},{id:"57937",title:"The Inertia Value Transformation in Maritime Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71445",slug:"the-inertia-value-transformation-in-maritime-applications",totalDownloads:904,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Holger Korte, Sven Stuppe, Jan-Hendrik Wesuls and Tsutomu\nTakagi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57937",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57937",authors:[{id:"209578",title:"Prof.",name:"Holger",surname:"Korte",slug:"holger-korte",fullName:"Holger Korte"},{id:"209580",title:"Mr.",name:"Sven",surname:"Stuppe",slug:"sven-stuppe",fullName:"Sven Stuppe"},{id:"209581",title:"Mr.",name:"Jan-Hendrik",surname:"Wesuls",slug:"jan-hendrik-wesuls",fullName:"Jan-Hendrik Wesuls"},{id:"209584",title:"Prof.",name:"Tsutomu",surname:"Takagi",slug:"tsutomu-takagi",fullName:"Tsutomu Takagi"}],corrections:null},{id:"57975",title:"Path Planning in the Local-Level Frame for Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71895",slug:"path-planning-in-the-local-level-frame-for-small-unmanned-aircraft-systems",totalDownloads:807,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Laith R. Sahawneh and Randal W. Beard",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57975",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57975",authors:[{id:"208288",title:"Dr.",name:"Laith",surname:"Sahawneh",slug:"laith-sahawneh",fullName:"Laith Sahawneh"},{id:"209613",title:"Prof.",name:"Randal",surname:"Beard",slug:"randal-beard",fullName:"Randal Beard"}],corrections:null},{id:"57610",title:"Forward and Inverse Kinematics Using Pseudoinverse and Transposition Method for Robotic Arm DOBOT",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71417",slug:"forward-and-inverse-kinematics-using-pseudoinverse-and-transposition-method-for-robotic-arm-dobot",totalDownloads:1582,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,signatures:"Ondrej Hock and Jozef Šedo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57610",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57610",authors:[{id:"208453",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Ondrej",surname:"Hock",slug:"ondrej-hock",fullName:"Ondrej Hock"},{id:"209566",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Jozef",surname:"Šedo",slug:"jozef-sedo",fullName:"Jozef Šedo"}],corrections:null},{id:"57491",title:"How to Expand the Workspace of Parallel Robots",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71407",slug:"how-to-expand-the-workspace-of-parallel-robots",totalDownloads:896,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Takashi Harada",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57491",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57491",authors:[{id:"57026",title:"Dr.",name:"Takashi",surname:"Harada",slug:"takashi-harada",fullName:"Takashi Harada"}],corrections:null},{id:"57578",title:"Kinematic and Biodynamic Model of the Long Jump Technique",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71418",slug:"kinematic-and-biodynamic-model-of-the-long-jump-technique",totalDownloads:1238,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Milan Čoh, Milan Žvan and Otmar Kugovnik",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57578",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57578",authors:[{id:"208530",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Milan",surname:"Čoh",slug:"milan-coh",fullName:"Milan Čoh"}],corrections:null},{id:"57435",title:"Kinematic Model for Project Scheduling with Constrained Resources Under Uncertainties",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71421",slug:"kinematic-model-for-project-scheduling-with-constrained-resources-under-uncertainties",totalDownloads:647,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Giuliani Paulineli Garbi and Francisco José Grandinetti",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57435",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57435",authors:[{id:"208870",title:"Dr.",name:"Giuliani",surname:"Garbi",slug:"giuliani-garbi",fullName:"Giuliani Garbi"},{id:"221823",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco José",surname:"Grandinett",slug:"francisco-jose-grandinett",fullName:"Francisco José Grandinett"}],corrections:null},{id:"57221",title:"WMR Kinematic Control Using Underactuated Mechanisms for Goal Direction and Evasion",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70811",slug:"wmr-kinematic-control-using-underactuated-mechanisms-for-goal-direction-and-evasion",totalDownloads:854,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Jorge U. Reyes-Muñoz, Edgar A. Martínez-García, Ricardo\nRodríguez-Jorge and Rafael Torres-Córdoba",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57221",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57221",authors:[{id:"84958",title:"Dr.",name:"Edgar",surname:"Martínez García",slug:"edgar-martinez-garcia",fullName:"Edgar Martínez García"},{id:"185786",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafael",surname:"Torres-Córdoba",slug:"rafael-torres-cordoba",fullName:"Rafael Torres-Córdoba"},{id:"209638",title:"BSc.",name:"Jorge",surname:"Reyes",slug:"jorge-reyes",fullName:"Jorge Reyes"},{id:"209642",title:"Dr.",name:"Ricardo",surname:"Rodriguez-Jorge",slug:"ricardo-rodriguez-jorge",fullName:"Ricardo Rodriguez-Jorge"}],corrections:null},{id:"57479",title:"A New Methodology for Kinematic Parameter Identification in Laser Trackers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71444",slug:"a-new-methodology-for-kinematic-parameter-identification-in-laser-trackers",totalDownloads:757,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Ana Cristina Majarena, Javier Conte, Jorge Santolaria and Raquel\nAcero",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57479",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57479",authors:[{id:"5350",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",surname:"Santolaria",slug:"jorge-santolaria",fullName:"Jorge Santolaria"},{id:"153147",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Cristina",surname:"Majarena Bello",slug:"ana-cristina-majarena-bello",fullName:"Ana Cristina Majarena Bello"},{id:"209623",title:"Mr.",name:"Javier",surname:"Conte",slug:"javier-conte",fullName:"Javier Conte"},{id:"209624",title:"Dr.",name:"Raquel",surname:"Acero",slug:"raquel-acero",fullName:"Raquel Acero"}],corrections:null},{id:"57413",title:"Optimization of Single-Sided Lapping Kinematics Based on Statistical Analysis of Abrasive Particles Trajectories",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71415",slug:"optimization-of-single-sided-lapping-kinematics-based-on-statistical-analysis-of-abrasive-particles-",totalDownloads:850,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Adam Barylski and Norbert Piotrowski",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57413",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57413",authors:[{id:"208566",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Norbert",surname:"Piotrowski",slug:"norbert-piotrowski",fullName:"Norbert Piotrowski"},{id:"209144",title:"Prof.",name:"Adam",surname:"Barylski",slug:"adam-barylski",fullName:"Adam Barylski"}],corrections:null},{id:"57605",title:"Optimization Approach for Inverse Kinematic Solution",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71409",slug:"optimization-approach-for-inverse-kinematic-solution",totalDownloads:1027,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Panchanand Jha and Bibhuti Bhusan Biswal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57605",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57605",authors:[{id:"209316",title:"Dr.",name:"Panchanand",surname:"Jha",slug:"panchanand-jha",fullName:"Panchanand Jha"},{id:"209681",title:"Dr.",name:"Bibhuti Bhusan",surname:"Biswal",slug:"bibhuti-bhusan-biswal",fullName:"Bibhuti Bhusan Biswal"}],corrections:null},{id:"57571",title:"A Random Multi-Trajectory Generation Method for Online Emergency Threat Management (Analysis and Application in Path Planning Algorithm)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71410",slug:"a-random-multi-trajectory-generation-method-for-online-emergency-threat-management-analysis-and-appl",totalDownloads:820,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Liang Yang, Yuqing He, Jizhong Xiao, Bing Li and Zhaoming Liu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57571",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57571",authors:[{id:"5730",title:"Prof.",name:"Jizhong",surname:"Xiao",slug:"jizhong-xiao",fullName:"Jizhong Xiao"},{id:"209399",title:"Dr.",name:"Liang",surname:"Yang",slug:"liang-yang",fullName:"Liang Yang"},{id:"209747",title:"Prof.",name:"Bing",surname:"Li",slug:"bing-li",fullName:"Bing Li"},{id:"209748",title:"Mr.",name:"Zhaoming",surname:"Liu",slug:"zhaoming-liu",fullName:"Zhaoming Liu"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5263",title:"Robot Control",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b6ee44b867a4e27c8e3bae6016c4f698",slug:"robot-control",bookSignature:"Efren Gorrostieta Hurtado",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5263.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"38850",title:"Dr.",name:"Efren",surname:"Gorrostieta Hurtado",slug:"efren-gorrostieta-hurtado",fullName:"Efren Gorrostieta Hurtado"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7227",title:"Applications of Mobile Robots",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b4993517c29aed9abd474e362370e28a",slug:"applications-of-mobile-robots",bookSignature:"Efren Gorrostieta Hurtado",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7227.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"38850",title:"Dr.",name:"Efren",surname:"Gorrostieta Hurtado",slug:"efren-gorrostieta-hurtado",fullName:"Efren Gorrostieta Hurtado"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"67322",slug:"corrigendum-to-sexual-dysfunction-in-patients-with-systemic-sclerosis",title:"Corrigendum to: Sexual Dysfunction in Patients with Systemic Sclerosis",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/67322.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67322",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67322",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/67322",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/67322",chapter:{id:"66966",slug:"sexual-dysfunction-in-patients-with-systemic-sclerosis",signatures:"Barbora Heřmánková",dateSubmitted:"July 16th 2018",dateReviewed:"April 5th 2019",datePrePublished:"May 3rd 2019",datePublished:null,book:{id:"8269",title:"New Insights into Systemic Sclerosis",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"New Insights into Systemic Sclerosis",slug:"new-insights-into-systemic-sclerosis",publishedDate:"September 18th 2019",bookSignature:"Michal Tomcik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8269.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"193284",title:"Dr.",name:"Michal",middleName:null,surname:"Tomcik",slug:"michal-tomcik",fullName:"Michal Tomcik"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null}},chapter:{id:"66966",slug:"sexual-dysfunction-in-patients-with-systemic-sclerosis",signatures:"Barbora Heřmánková",dateSubmitted:"July 16th 2018",dateReviewed:"April 5th 2019",datePrePublished:"May 3rd 2019",datePublished:null,book:{id:"8269",title:"New Insights into Systemic Sclerosis",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"New Insights into Systemic Sclerosis",slug:"new-insights-into-systemic-sclerosis",publishedDate:"September 18th 2019",bookSignature:"Michal Tomcik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8269.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"193284",title:"Dr.",name:"Michal",middleName:null,surname:"Tomcik",slug:"michal-tomcik",fullName:"Michal Tomcik"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null},book:{id:"8269",title:"New Insights into Systemic Sclerosis",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"New Insights into Systemic Sclerosis",slug:"new-insights-into-systemic-sclerosis",publishedDate:"September 18th 2019",bookSignature:"Michal Tomcik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8269.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"193284",title:"Dr.",name:"Michal",middleName:null,surname:"Tomcik",slug:"michal-tomcik",fullName:"Michal Tomcik"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"9833",leadTitle:null,title:"Pharmacoepidemiology and Drug Safety",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book will be a self-contained collection of scholarly papers targeting an audience of practicing researchers, academics, PhD students and other scientists. The contents of the book will be written by multiple authors and edited by experts in the field.",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a517ca4362c1a1ab66459dbb6c846fdb",bookSignature:"",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9833.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:132,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 6th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 27th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 26th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 14th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 13th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:1,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"19",title:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",slug:"pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science"}],chapters:[{id:"74576",title:"Drug-Induced Delirium among Older People",slug:"drug-induced-delirium-among-older-people",totalDownloads:132,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"53118",title:"Oral Mucosal Melanosis",doi:"10.5772/65567",slug:"oral-mucosal-melanosis",body:'\nThere are both melanin-producing and amelanotic melanocytes in the oral stratified squamous epithelium, and the degree of melanin pigmentation of the oral mucosa is genetically determined. Dark-skinned persons more often have physiological oral mucosal melanin hyperpigmentation than do light-skinned persons. Regardless of race/ethnicity, the number and the distribution of melanocytes are very much the same within each oral anatomical region but vary from region to region. Even when there is no obvious pigmentation, oral mucosal melanocytes are always present and produce some melanin but the amount produced is determined by their melanogenic activity [1–4].
\nThe vascularity, the blood haemoglobin concentration, the degree of keratinization of the epithelium, and the type and amount of melanin pigment present are variable determinants of the colour of the oral mucosa. The degree of melanin pigmentation per se is determined by the number and distribution of melanocytes in the basal cell layer of the oral epithelium of each anatomical region, by their melanogenic activity, by the degree of arborisation of the dendritic processes of the melanocytes, and by the number, size, and distribution of melanosomes in the ‘melanocyte-keratinocyte unit’ [4–6].
\nMost of the information on the physiology of oral mucosal melanocytes is derived from research on epidermal melanocytes. Oral mucosal and epidermal melanocytes are histologically and ultrastructurally similar, but under physiological conditions, it seems that the former are intrinsically less metabolically active. However, in response to chemical or physical environmental triggers, to certain drugs and hormones, to inflammation, and in association with certain systemic diseases or neoplastic processes, the metabolism of oral melanocytes may increase with consequent increase in biosynthesis of melanin [4, 6]. The intracellular and the microenviromental molecular signalling pathways that drive the development of oral mucosal melanin pigmentation remain largely unknown [7].
\nBrown/black eumelanin and yellow/red pheomelanin are pigmented polymers synthesized in unique organelles called melanosomes within melanocytes. Melanin has the capacity to scavenge reactive oxygen species and to neutralize microorganisms and their harmful products. Melanocytes also contribute to the homeostasis of skin and oral mucosa by acting as neuroendocrine cells secreting neuropeptides and as antigen presenting cells and phagocytes [4, 6, 8, 9].
\nUpregulation of melanin biosynthesis or increase in the number either of normal or of atypical oral mucosal melanocytes may bring about oral mucosal melanin hyperpigmentation. Physiological and pathological oral mucosal melanin hyperpigmentations may be similar in appearance, and sometimes may be difficult to differentiate even on the basis of history and microscopical features. Pathological oral mucosal melanin hyperpigmentations include those related to tobacco smoke, to certain systemic diseases or syndromes, to inflammatory processes, to certain drugs, and to developmental, benign, or malignant changes in melanocytes [4, 6, 10–13].
\nEngaging in any clinical or histopathological study on oral mucosal melanin hyperpigmentation is complex. Many subjects with oral mucosal melanin hyperpigmentation, whether physiological or pathological in origin, are usually unaware of it so cannot give information about its duration or progression. Oral mucosal melanin hyperpigmentation secondary to disease and physiological oral mucosal melanin hyperpigmentation may be clinically and histopathologically similar, and in some cases, it is almost impossible to determine whether oral mucosal melanin hyperpigmentation is physiological or is induced by smoking, by drugs, or by both.
\nNot all biological, physical, or chemical factors that may promote melanogenesis are known, neither are all the factors that may influence the size, distribution, or intensity of areas of oral pigmentation. Further research is needed to elucidate these issues; and into the roles that melanocytes and melanin play in the maintenance of homeostasis of the oral mucosa, as well as into the roles physiological or benign oral mucosal melanin hyperpigmentations may play as precursors of premalignant and malignant oral melanotic lesions.
\nI\x3c!--
Melanocytes originate from neural crest precursor cells, which during embryogenesis migrate from the neural crest to their ultimate destination in the basal cell layer of the epidermis and of the epithelium of mucous membranes where they differentiate into mature melanin-producing melanocytes with complex network of dendritic processes [14]. However, some neural crest cells in their process of migration to the epithelium may become arrested in the lamina propria/dermis, remaining there in an immature state. These arrested immature melanocytes also sometimes termed naevomelanocytes, can become active, forming nests of cells giving rise to dermal/intra lamina propria naevi, and rarely to melanomata at those sites [15].
\nIt is not clear whether the replacement of melanocytes of the basal cell layer of the oral epithelium lost to physiological processes of apoptosis or senescence, or to mechanical, thermal, or chemical injury is the result of cell division of ‘mature’ melanocytes in the basal cell layer of the oral epithelium which still retain their capacity of replication, or a result of migration from their local niche reservoirs of melanocyte stem/progenitor cells and their subsequent proliferation [6].
\nThe mechanism by which the population of melanocytes of the oral epithelium is maintained in a steady state is unknown [7]. While melanocyte stem/progenitor cells and their reservoir niche have been identified in the skin, in the oral mucosa they have not been found [6, 15]. Tissue-specific melanocyte stem/progenitor cells are, however, relatively undifferentiated, divide infrequently, and have the capacity for self-renewal thus maintaining the genetic information necessary for regeneration of the population of melanin-producing melanocytes [16].
\nThe ratio of melanocytes to keratinocytes in the basal cell layer of the oral epithelium, measured linearly, ranges from 1:10 to 1:15 [17]. However, this ratio varies at different oral mucosal sites of the same persons, but is similar in the same oral sites of different persons, regardless of their race/ethnicity [18, 19]. Melanocytes in the basal cell layer of the epithelium are connected to and communicate with their immediate neighbouring keratinocytes by means of tight junctions and gap junctions. Expression of E-cadherin cell adhesion molecules suppresses melanocyte proliferation, but on the other hand, expression of N-cadherin triggered by trauma or metabolic changes in the microenvironment promotes proliferation and migration of melanocytes, which can then aggregate in nests [4, 6].
\nIt has been suggested that keratinocytes, through the release of biological mediators, proopiomelanocortin (POMC)-derived peptides, basic fibroblast growth factor, and endothelins, regulate proliferation and differentiation of melanocytes and stimulate melanogenesis through receptor-mediated signalling pathways [20].
\nMelanin is produced in melanosomes within the melanocytes in the basal cell layer of the oral epithelium. Mature melanin-containing melanosomes are transported from a perinuclear position in the cytoplasm of the melanocytes into and along microtubules towards the end of the dendritic processes, borne by the motor proteins kinesin and dynein. At the tip of the arborising dendritic processes, the melanosomes are transferred to neighbouring keratinocytes [4, 6, 21, 22]. It appears that each melanocyte is in contact with about 35 neighbouring keratinocytes in the basal and suprabasal cell layers of the epithelium, each forming a ‘melanocyte-keratinocyte unit’ [4, 6, 7].
Melanin influences the colour of the skin, oral mucosa, hair, and eyes. Melanin can also inactivate reactive oxygen species and free radicals, can sequestrate redox-active metals and organic toxic compounds, can neutralize bacteria-derived enzymes and toxins, and can downregulate inflammatory processes [4, 6, 7].
\nIn the process of ascending through the cell layers of the epithelium to the surface desquamating layer, melanosomes lost from keratinocytes that form part of the melanocyte-keratinocyte unit disintegrate, releasing melanin ‘dust’ into the microenvironment. As melanin has strong binding properties, it can act as a physical barrier to both microorganisms invading the skin or mucous membrane and to other environmental stressors [4, 6, 7].
\nAlthough melanin itself provides protection against reactive oxygen species (ROS) and toxic free radicals, paradoxically, the biosynthesis of melanin itself generates ROS that may cause DNA damage; and quinones and semiquinones, which are intermediates of melanin biosynthesis, are mutagenic with the capacity to cause cytogenetic instability. Therefore, loss of the integrity of melanosome membranes with leakage of these intrinsic toxic agents has the potential to cause self-injury to the melanocytes [6].
\nApart from the beneficial effects and detrimental side effects of melanin production, melanocytes can also protect against microbial infections by acting as antigen-presenting cells producing cytokines, phagocytosing microorganisms, and degrading both phagocytosed bacteria and bacteria in the microenvironment by means of melanosomal lysosomal enzymes [4, 6, 7].
\nMelanocytes can also function as neuroendocrine cells by producing acetylcholine, catecholamines, and POMC-derived peptides, which have the capacity to mediate local immunoinflammatory and antimicrobial responses and to modulate the biological behaviour of oral tissues [4]. Melanocytes function as stress sensors, as immunocytes, and as neuroendocrine cells, thus playing several important roles in maintaining tissue homeostasis [23–25].
\nThe functional activity of epithelial melanocytes is regulated by the reciprocal interaction of melanocytes in the basal cell layer of the epithelium with the underlying lamina-proprial connective tissue and by several other biological agents. These include the POMC-derived peptides released by neighbouring keratinocytes and the neuropeptide calcitonin gene-related peptide, substance P, and neuropeptide Y released from intramucosal free nerve endings, which are in close contact with melanocytes in the basal cell layer of the epithelium. Adrenergic and cholinergic agents, growth factors, inflammatory mediators, and other autocrine and endocrine stimuli also contribute to the regulation of the functional activity of melanocytes [6].
Premelanosomes contain all the proteins and enzymes required for their maturation to the fully functional specialised membrane-bound organelles called melanosomes, which are the sites of biosynthesis of melanin [26, 27]. The fully functional melanosomes contain all the proteins and enzymes required for biosynthesis of melanin, and the structural matrix proteins form an internal scaffold both to support the architecture of the melanosomes and to serve as a nidus for melanin deposition [22].
\nThe melanosomes in melanocytes residing in the basal cell layer of the epithelium can synthetise two chemically distinct types of melanin: brown/black eumelanin and red/yellow pheomelanin, both of which are derivatives of the amino acid tyrosine through the intermediate step of conversion of dopa to dopamine [4]. Both eumelanin and pheomelanin can be produced in the same melanocyte, but by different melanosomes. Eumelanosomes and pheomelanosomes differ in shape and in their patterns of internal melanin deposition. Eumelanosomes are elliptical and characterized by longitudinal deposition of the pigment; and pheomelanosomes are spherical, characterized by granular deposition of the melanin [4]. The ratio of eumelanin to pheomelanin is genetically determined by a number of factors including the degree of base-line functional activity of the enzymes and proteins driving the ‘mixed melanogenesis’, by the melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) genetic polymorphism, and by the amount of the tyrosine in the melanosome [6].
\nThe following agents are important in melanin biosynthesis. Tyrosinase drives the complex conversion of tyrosine to melanin. p protein is involved in stabilizing the melanosomal protein complex, in regulating the melanosomal pH, and in transporting the requisite proteins to the melanosomes. Tyrosinase-related protein 1 stabilizes the enzyme tyrosinase and is involved in melanosome maturation, and tyrosinase-related protein 2 modulates the quantity and quality of the melanin produced. The membrane-associated transport protein (MATP) functions as its name implies [5, 28].
Upregulation of melanin biosynthesis may be triggered by external stimuli, such as radiation, tobacco smoke, certain drugs, and endogenous paracrine and endocrine agents. POMC-derived peptides including adrenocorticotropin (ACTH), alpha melanocyte stimulating hormone (α-MSH), β-MSH and β-endorphins, MC1R, adrenergic and cholinergic agents, and growth factors, cytokines, or nitric oxide (NO) secreted in the local microenvironment are all involved in the regulation of melanogenesis [6].
\nPOMC-derived peptides, particularly α-MSH, stimulate MC1R of melanocytes, releasing the intracellular second messenger cAMP, which in turn induces a cascade of intracellular molecular events, ultimately activating the microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF). This is the master regulator of genes driving the process of melanogenesis. Thus, the α-MSH/MC1R/cAMP/MITF molecular signalling pathway is fundamental to melanin biosynthesis and to a great extent determines the type and amount of the melanin produced [4, 6]. The MC1R gene is highly polymorphic; the most common MC1R variant promotes eumelanin production, but other germline variants are associated with increased pheomelanin and decreased eumelanin biosynthesis [6].
\nβ-endorphin, the POMC-derived opioid peptide, has the capacity to upregulate melanogenesis and melanin distribution by promoting maturation of melanocytes and arborisation of their dendritic processes, thus increasing the efficacy of the transfer and distribution of melanosomes to neighbouring keratinocytes [23, 29].
\nNon-neural adrenergic and cholinergic signalling pathways are expressed by melanocytes. Activation of adrenalin/β2-adrenoreceptor/cAMP/MITF and of noradrenalin/α1-adrenoreceptor/cAMP/MITF also induces melanin biosynthesis and arborisation of melanocytic dendrites. Activation of nicotine receptors on oral melanocytes by acetylcholine or by nicotine may bring about melanin hyperpigmentation [4, 6, 30].
\nInflammatory mediators can induce production of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and NO, which in turn have the capacity to promote maturation and increase transport of melanosomes, to upregulate the expression of the tyrosinase gene, and to increase the complexity of the network of melanocytic dendrites. PGE2 and NO together promote melanogenesis and melanin deposition [4, 6, 31, 32].
\nTo the best of our knowledge, the role that the melanocortin, adrenergic, and cholinergic systems play in relation to melanogenesis in the oral mucosa has not been demonstrated, and current knowledge of these systems is from research on epidermal melanin.
Oral mucosal melanin hyperpigmentation is common and may be physiological (racial) or pathological [4, 6]. In either case, the pattern of distribution and the intensity of the pigmentation are variable. The pigmentation may be the result of an increase in the number of melanocytes in the basal cell layer of the oral epithelium, or of increased melanin biosynthesis by the melanocytes. Sometimes pathological hyperpigmentation may be brought about by hyperplasia or increased melanogenesis of atypical melanocytes [33]. Melanogenically active melanocytes/nevomelanocytes in the lamina propria also have the capacity to cause oral mucosal melanin hyperpigmentation [34]. Occasionally histopathological examination of a biopsy specimen from a pigmented lesion is needed to rule out a malignancy.
\nPhysiological oral mucosal melanin hyperpigmentation manifests clinically as asymptomatic, single or multiple, well-demarcated or ill-defined patchy or uniform macules which range in colour from light to dark brown or black, and are of variable size and configuration. It may affect any part of the oral mucosa, but most frequently the gingiva, where it is usually bilaterally symmetrical, does not transgress the mucogingival junction, and does not involve the marginal gingiv (Figure 1) [4, 6]. Physiological gingival melanin hyperpigmentation is often more pronounced in the anterior than in the posterior part of the mouth, and the buccal/labial surfaces are more intensely pigmented than the lingual/palatal [35].
Generalized black-brown physiological melanin hyperpigmentation of the maxillary and mandibular gingiva, not transgressing the mucogingival junction. The patient’s main concern was her carious incisors.
Physiological oral mucosal melanin hyperpigmentation is very common in Blacks, in general is more frequent in darker-skinned than in lighter-skinned persons regardless of their race/ethnicity, and is most probably caused by genetically determined metabolic hyperactivity of oral melanocytes. It affects males and females equally and usually develops during the first three decades of life. Many persons with oral mucosal melanin hyperpigmentation are unaware of its presence [7]. According to some publications, the extent and the intensity of physiological oral mucosal melanin hyperpigmentation increase with age probably owing to the cumulative effects of endogenous and extrinsic melanogenic stimuli, such as inflammatory processes, drugs, tobacco smoke, and recurrent minor functional injuries [4, 6, 11, 13].
\nIn physiological oral mucosal melanin hyperpigmentation there is no increase in the number of melanocytes, but there is increased melanin in melanocytes in the basal cell layer of the oral epithelium, in the ‘melanocyte-keratinocyte units’, and in the lamina propria within melanophages. Occasionally, extracellular particles of pigment may be observed. These microscopical features are very similar to those observed in idiopathic melanotic macules, in melanosis related to smoking tobacco or inflammation, in melanosis induced by certain medications, and in HIV melanosis [11, 36]. Therefore, a thorough medical history may be helpful for differential diagnosis, but the differentiation of physiological oral mucosal melanin hyperpigmentation from single or multiple melanotic macules based on medical history and on clinical and histological grounds may be impossible as they share the same clinical and microscopical features and both may develop at a young age. It is also almost impossible to determine whether the oral mucosal melanin hyperpigmentation in an HIV-seropositive smoker who is on multiple drug therapy is owing to the medication, to the HIV infection, to the use of tobacco, or to the interaction between these factors.
\nPhysiological melanin hyperpigmentation does not require treatment, but if for cosmetic reasons it has to be removed, laser or cryotherapy or surgical excision are often successful. However, recurrence is not uncommon most probably because treatment does not always completely eliminate the genetically programmed hyperactive melanocytes in the epithelial field surrounding the hyperpigmentation [4].
Under circumstances that are not well defined, certain inflammatory cytokines and mediators have the capacity to promote the production of α-MSH by oral melanocytes and keratinocytes and to upregulate the expression of MC1R of melanocytes resulting in increased biosynthesis of melanin. Independently of this α-MSH/MC1R pathway, PGE2 can promote tyrosinase activity and arborisation of melanocytic dendrites. Thus, melanin hyperpigmentation may develop at chronically inflamed oral mucosal sites, as in association with repetitive local trauma or injury or with immunoinflammatory pathological conditions, such as oral lichen planus and oral lichenoid reactions [37].
\nSuch inflammation-associated oral mucosal melanin hyperpigmentation occurs most commonly in darker skinned persons and usually manifests as single or multiple brown-black patches, which may persist for a long time after the resolution of the inflammatory process [6, 11, 37]. These inflammation-associated hyperpigmented patches are of no clinical significance, their biological significance is unknown, and treatment is not required.
Tobacco\x3c!--
As in differentiating some other cases of oral mucosal melanin hyperpigmentations one from another, on clinical and histological grounds alone it is impossible to make a positive diagnosis of tobacco-related melanosis.
Oral melanin hyperpigmentation is common in HIV-seropositive subjects. It may develop secondarily to HIV-induced cytokine dysregulation, to medications used in the treatment of HIV infection or HIV-associated diseases (zidovudine, clofazimine and ketoconazole), or to adrenocortical deficiency, which is not infrequent in HIV-seropositive subjects with a low CD4+ T cell counts [6, 10].
\nIt is unknown whether structural proteins of HIV can stimulate melanocyte activity directly to upregulate their melanin biosynthesis. It is possible that HIV-associated mucosal hyperpigmentation may fortuitously represent a local protective immune reaction against subclinical oral infections and concomitant inflammatory processes. Indeed, it has been suggested that certain cytokines that are upregulated during HIV infection have the capacity to induce the production of α-MSH by oral melanocytes and keratinocytes and to mediate the upregulation of expression of MC1R by melanocytes, resulting in increased melanin production. In some HIV-seropositive subjects, this may trigger oral mucosal melanin hyperpigmentation [6, 14].
\nIf it occurs, HIV-associated oral mucosal melanin hyperpigmentation usually develops within 2 years of contracting HIV or within a few months of starting antiretroviral treatment with the drug zidovudine. Typically, it manifests clinically either as solitary or multiple dark melanotic macules (Figure 2a, b) or as diffuse brownish or brown-black areas of melanin hyperpigmentation (Figure 3). This may involve any part of the oral mucosa but most frequently the buccal mucosa, affecting females and males equally [6, 14].
(a) Multiple pigmented maculae of the maxillary labial attached gingiva in a 32-year-old HIV-seropositive female with a CD4+ T cell count of 425 cells/mm3. (b) Multiple pigmented maculae of the dorsum of the tongue in a 42-year-old HIV-seropositive female on HAART with a CD4+ T cell count of 176 cells/mm3.
Irregular, diffuse, mottled hyperpigmentation of the buccal mucosa in a 40-year-old HIV-seropositive male with a CD4+ T cell count of 240 cells/mm3.
Apart from zidovudine used in the treatment of HIV infection, antimalarials, oestrogen, ketoconazole, clofazimine, and imatinib may mediate the development of oral mucosal melanin hyperpigmentation [12, 38]. There will usually be a gradual diminution of the hyperpigmentation after the medication is discontinued [6].
\nThe mechanisms by which certain medications bring about oral mucosal melanin hyperpigmentation include upregulation of tyrosinase activity, deposition of complexes of the drug with pre-existing melanin in the mucosa, or induction of local inflammatory reactions with the triggering of melanin production [11, 38].
\nHistopathologically, medication-induced melanin pigmentation is characterised by the presence of melanin within the lamina propria either as free granules or within melanophages, but without melanocytic hyperplasia. Melanosis of basal cells can commonly be observed [11, 38].
Oral mucosal melanin hyperpigmentation is often observed in the systemic conditions such as Peutz-Jegher syndrome, McCune-Albright syndrome, Laugier-Hunziker syndrome, Addison disease, and neurofibromatosis. The clinical appearance is one of the brown to black spots or macules, with a histopathological increase in melanin in the basal cell layer of the oral epithelium and melanin incontinence in the upper portion of the lamina propria, but without an increase in the number of melanocytes [11, 39, 40].
An oral melanotic macule, by conventional definition is a focal, well-defined, uniformly coloured oral mucosal hyperpigmentation, less than 1 cm in diameter, of unknown aetiology. The colour of the macule may range from light to dark brown. Any part of the oral mucosa may be affected, but particularly the buccal mucosa, and although they are usually solitary, there are sometimes several oral melanotic macules. The average age at diagnosis is 43 years, and it is observed more commonly in females than in males [11, 13, 36, 40]. Any recently developed oral melanotic maculae that are irregularly pigmented or have recently increased in size should be viewed with suspicion and microscopically examined to exclude melanoma; and melanotic maculae of the maxillary gingiva or the palatal mucosa which are the most common sites of melanoma should be viewed with even greater suspicion [34, 41].
Oral melanoacanthoma, mainly seen on the buccal mucosa of young Black women, is an uncommon, asymptomatic, brown to black melanotic lesion, reactive in origin, usually flat or slightly elevated with a smooth surface. It usually increases rapidly in size to several centimetres and is characterised by acanthosis and spongiosis of the affected epithelium with dendritic melanocytes dispersed throughout the thickness of the epithelium, with a mild inflammatory cell infiltrate in the superficial lamina propria [11, 13, 34]. As the appearance of oral melanoacanthoma is not diagnostic, diagnosis must be established histopathologically.
Broadly, the term oral naevus refers to a congenital or acquired melanotic pigmentation of the oral mucosa brought about by abnormal excessive accumulation of melanocytes/naevomelanocytes at the junction of the epithelium and the lamina propria or in the lamina propria [34]. The sequence of biological events leading to the development of oral naevomelanocytic naevi is largely unknown. It is suggested that oral naevomelanocytes, like oral melanocytes, are derived from neural crest precursor cells, which during embryogenesis migrate to a final destination in the basal cell layer of the oral epithelium. However, it is not clear which one of several mechanisms are implicated in the development of melanocytic naevi. Naevomelanocytes may originate from melanocyte precursors that have acquired some genetic alterations during development, consequently preventing them from differentiation into mature functioning melanocytes in the basal cell layer of the oral epithelium; they may originate from mature melanocytes residing in the basal cell layer of the epithelium that have undergone some cytogenetic alterations culminating in their dedifferentiation into naevomelanocytes or they may originate from stem/progenitor melanocytes that have undergone cytogenetic alteration in the process of replacing mature melanocytes in the epithelium lost to mechanical, thermal, or chemical injury or as a result of apoptotic processes. A further possible mechanism is that naevomelanocytes originate from neural crest cells destined to become melanocytes in the oral epithelium, but for reasons unknown remain entrapped in the submucosa. Naevomelanocytic naevi may thus be manifestations of a developmental malformation or of hyperplasia of melanocytes [34, 42].
\nAs many naevomelanocytes in cutaneous naevi show activating mutations in the BRAF or in the NRAS intracellular signalling pathways which mediate cell proliferation and differentia-tion [11, 34, 42], naevi are considered by many to be benign naevomelanocytic neoplasias. Histopathologically, naevomelanocytic naevi are characterised by several directly contacting naevomelanocytes in clusters confined to the junction of the epithelium and the lamina propria (junctional naevi), to both junctional zone and to the superficial lamina propria (compound naevi), or only to the subepithelial connective tissue (intra-lamina proprial naevi). The naevomelanocytes within all three types of naevi are devoid of melanosome-transferring dendritic processes, so that the colour of these naevomelanocytic naevi derives entirely from the melanosome content of the melanocytes themselves. Most oral mucosal melanocytic naevi are acquired rather than congenital and are of the intra-lamina proprial type [11, 13, 34, 36, 43].
\nAcquired oral mucosal melanocytic naevi are uncommon, occur more frequently in females than in males, and are observed mainly on the hard palate, gingiva, and buccal mucosa. The mean age at diagnosis is 35 years. They are small, well-defined asymptomatic macules or papules, usually brown to black in colour (Figure 4), but sometimes may be bluish-grey [11, 13, 36, 40].
A 20-year-old male had this melanotic lesion of the lower labial mucosa, self-reportedly since birth. It was probably a congenital naevus but the patient refused biopsy. Note also the physiological gingival melanosis.
The blue naevus is a less common oral mucosal naevus. The clinical appearance is of small blue macules or papules almost always on the palates of children or young adults (Figure 5) [34] and is characterised histopathologically by spindle-shaped melanin-producing naevomelanocytes arranged in fascicles parallel to the overlying epithelium, deep within the lamina propria [11, 13, 34].
A blue naevus (arrow) on the soft palate in a 35-year-old male. Patient was unaware of its presence, and it was observed on routine oral examination. Histopathological examination confirmed the clinical diagnosis of blue naevus.
Oral mucosal melanoma is an uncommon malignancy accounting for only about 0.5% of all oral cancers. It is rapidly growing and usually asymptomatic, so it is often diagnosed only when the melanomatous lesions are already advanced and there has been metastatic spread to the regional lymph nodes. Under these circumstances, the prognosis is poor with a mean 5-year survival rate of 15–20% [15, 44]. Large clinical size, microscopical evidence of deeply invasive front, a high mitotic rate of the melanoma cells, lymph node metastasis, and vascular or neural invasion and spread are all indicators of poor prognosis [45, 46].
\nThe palate and the gingiva are the oral mucosal sites most frequently affected. Up to one-third of oral mucosal melanomata arise from pre-existing benign oral mucosal hyperpigmentations [15, 47–49] and the remaining two-thirds arise de-novo [15, 44, 50, 51].
\nOral mucosal melanoma differs from cutaneous melanoma in its profile of cytogenetic alterations, its more aggressive clinical course and the fact that it is not associated with any known carcinogenic agents or extrinsic risk factors [15]. The oral lesions are usually irregularly shaped melanotic macules, papules, plaques, or a combination of these forms, and their pigmentation is non-uniform, with mottled shades of grey, dark blue, dark brown, or black (Figure 6a–c) [15, 44].
A 56-year-old black female with histologically confirmed melanoma of the hard palate and maxillary gingiva (a–c) of 3-year duration. It developed from a pigmented ‘patch’ of the buccal gingiva (reproduced with permission from Tlholoe et al. [15]).
The melanoma precursor most probably originates from a stem/progenitor cell that has undergone cytogenetic alterations and consequently expresses dysregulated developmental signalling pathways and transcription factors, ultimately acquiring a malignant phenotype. However, it is also possible that melanoma precursor cells originate from mature melanocytes in the basal cell layer of the epithelium that have undergone dedifferentiation following cytogenetic alterations or from immature melanocytes/naevomelanocytes arrested in the submucosa during migration from the neural crest which for reasons unknown have acquired a malignant phenotype [15].
\nThe acquired genetic alterations confer upon the initially transformed atypical melanocytes and later upon the melanoma cells that evolved, a selective advantage over their neighbouring normal cells in terms of fitness and proliferation. Melanoma cells then have the capacity to undergo clonal expansion to invade and destroy local tissues, to metastasize to regional lymph nodes, and to spread to the lungs, bone, liver, brain, or skin [15, 52–54].
\nMelanoma cells arising from the immature melanocytes that have become arrested in the lamina propria of the oral mucosa proliferate, forming nodular aggregates in the lamina propria/submucosa with or without breaching the subepithelial basement membrane. Oral mucosal melanoma arising from melanocytes residing in the basal cell layer of the oral epithelium, on the other hand, give rise to three transient histopathological patterns: an epithelial in-situ pattern characterised by radial growth within the oral epithelium; an invasive pattern characterized by nodular aggregates of infiltrating epithelial melanoma cells within the lamina propria; and a combined form in which both junctional and nodular patterns occur [15, 55, 56]. Ultimately if not treated, all three patterns will become deeply invasive and metastatic.
\nAlthough the pathogenesis of oral mucosal melanoma is incompletely understood as yet, melanin, intermediates of melanin synthesis, and MC1R genetic polymorphism play roles in the pathogenesis of some cases of oral mucosal melanoma [57, 58]. Certain MC1R variants reduce the capacity for repair to damaged DNA [5], while the process of melanin biosynthesis, particularly of pheomelanin, may itself generate reactive oxygen species and other by-products that may be cytotoxic, genotoxic, or mutagenic causing DNA damage [4, 6].
\nIt has been demonstrated that in some cases of oral mucosal melanoma, there is loss of the integrity of the melanosomal membrane with leakage into the cytoplasm and nucleoplasm of the melanocytes, of toxic melanin particles, intermediates of melanogenesis and reactive oxygen species, with consequent DNA damage and increase in the risk of genetic mutations [59]. Furthermore, when leaked into the extracellular microenvironment, the intermediate metabolites of melanogenesis, which are also immunosuppressive, may promote evasion of immune responses by the initially transformed melanocyte precursors and their offspring melanoma cells, increasing the risk of melanomagenesis and melanoma growth [60].
\nSome oral mucosal melanomata are amelanotic, but most are heavily to very heavily melanin-pigmented. It is unknown whether the abnormally increased biosynthesis of melanin is the outcome of an early biopathological process in the development of oral mucosal melanoma, playing a role in the initial transformational events of melanocytes, or whether it is a manifestation of a malignant phenotype arising subsequently to the malignant transformation of normal melanocytes. As stated above, it has been reported that up to one-third of oral mucosal melanoma arise within fields of benign melanin hyperpigmentation [15, 47–49]. If this is true, then it is likely that either the upregulated process of melanin biosynthesis, the increased amount of melanin in the melanocytes, or both, occurring in the fields of benign oral melanin hyperpigmentation, constitute risk factors for transformation into oral mucosal melanomata.
\nThus, in a nutshell, it is possible that the initial DNA damage that predisposes melanocytes to malignant transformation and cytogenetic alterations that later promote actual malignant transformation of the initially transformed melanocytes may be driven by dysregulation in melanin biosynthesis and by the increased cellular content of melanin [10].
Malnutrition is a universal public health problem in both children and adults globally [1]. It is not only a public health concern but it is an impediment to global poverty eradication, productivity and economic growth. By eliminating malnutrition, it is estimated that 32% of the global disease burden would be removed [2]. As a widespread serious problem affecting children in developing countries, progress towards tackling the different forms of malnutrition remains relatively slow [3]. Malnutrition occurs due to an imbalance in the body, whereby the nutrients required by the body and the amount used by the body do not balance [1]. There are several forms of malnutrition and these include two broad categories namely undernutrition and over nutrition. Undernutrition manifests as wasting or low weight for height (acute malnutrition), stunting or low height for age (chronic malnutrition), underweight or low weight for age, and mineral and vitamin deficiencies or excessiveness. Over nutrition includes overweight, obesity and diet-related non-communicable diseases (NCDs) such as diabetes mellitus, heart disease, some forms of cancer and stroke [1]. Malnutrition is an important global issue currently, as it affects all people despite the geography, socio-economic status, sex and gender, overlapping households, communities and countries. Anyone can experience malnutrition but the most vulnerable groups affected are children, adolescents, women, as well as people who are immune-compromised, or facing the challenges of poverty [3].
\nAccording to the World Health Organization (WHO), 462 million adults are underweight, while 1.9 billion adults are overweight and/or obese. In children under 5 years of age, 155 million are stunted, 52 million are wasted, 17 million are severely wasted and 41 million are overweight and/or obese [1]. The manifestation of malnutrition is multifold, but the paths to addressing prevention are key and include exclusive breastfeeding for the first 2 years of life, diverse and nutritious foods during childhood, healthy environments, access to basic services such as water, hygiene, health and sanitation, as well as pregnant and lactating women having proper maternal nutrition before, during and after the respective phases (levels and trends) [3].
\nIt is vital that malnutrition is addressed in children as malnutrition manifestations and symptoms begin to appear in the first 2 years of life [4]. Coinciding with the mental development and growth periods in children, protein energy malnutrition (PEM) is said to be a problem at ages 6 months to 2 years. Thus, this age period is considered a window period during which it is essential to prevent and/or manage acute and chronic malnutrition manifestations [4, 5, 6]. Child and maternal malnutrition together have contributed to 3.5 million annual deaths. Furthermore, children less than 5 years of age have a disease burden of 35% [7]. In 2008, 8.8 million global deaths in children less than 5 years old were due to underweight, of which 93% occurred in Africa and Asia. Approximately one in every seven children faces mortality before their fifth birthday in sub Saharan Africa (SSA) due to malnutrition [8].
\nYoung malnourished children are affected by compromised immune systems by succumbing to infectious diseases and are prone to cognitive development delays, damaging long term psychological and intellectual development effects, as well as mental and physical development that is compromised due to stunting [7, 9, 10, 11]. A malnutrition cycle exists in populations experiencing chronic undernutrition and in this cycle, the nutritional requirements are not met in pregnant women. Thus, infants born to these mothers are of low birth weight, are unable to reach their full growth potential and may therefore be stunted, susceptible to infections, illness, and mortality early in life. The cycle is aggravated when low birth weight females grow into malnourished children and adults, and are therefore more likely to give birth to infants of low birth weight as well [9]. Malnutrition is not just a health issue but also affects the global burden of malnutrition socially, economically, developmentally and medically, affecting individuals, their families and communities with serious and long lasting consequences [1].
\nStudies in Sudan, Ethiopia, Bangladesh, and Haiti have indicated that the causes of malnutrition are multi-faceted, with both environmental and dietary factors contributing to malnutrition risk in young children [12]. Diet and disease have been identified as primary immediate determinants; with household food security, access to health facilities, healthy environment, and childcare practices influenced by socio-economic conditions [13]. Mother’s antenatal visit and body mass index were also identified as risk factors for malnutrition [14]. In children under 3 years of age some of the main factors included poor nutrition, feeding practices, education and occupation of parent/caregiver, residence, household income, nutrition knowledge of mother [15]. These studies have suggested that nutrition education for the mother is important, as it is a resource that mothers can utilize for better care of their children. It can also provide the necessary skills required for childcare, improvement of her feeding practices, enable her to make choices and have preference of health facilities available, increase her nutritional needs awareness, and give her the chance of changing her beliefs regarding medicine and disease [16]. Some of the nutritional interventions that have had some success in addressing malnutrition include exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 months of life, vitamin A supplementation, deworming, zinc treatment and rehydration salts for diarrhea, food fortification, and folic acid/iron for lactating and pregnant women, improvement of access to piped water and hygiene [17]. These interventions have positively influenced the development, growth and survival of children [18]. Malnutrition is not a uniform condition and therefore groups and areas that experience high risk of malnutrition must be identified and targeted interventions available to assist [17].
\nTo determine both over and undernutrition, assessment of the nutritional status is important. This identifies those individuals who are vulnerable and at risk, and how to guide a response [19]. In determining the nutritional status of a child, it must be referenced in comparison to a healthy child [20]. Most of the anthropometric indices are used with reference tables such as that of the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) and the currently widely recommended and used 2006 WHO child growth standards [21]. In expressing anthropometric indices relative to a reference population, the measurements are developed using the median and standard deviations of the reference populations, which are known as Z scores [22, 23, 24]. The Z score classification system interprets weight for age (W/A), weight for height (W/H) and height for age (H/A). Z scores describe a child’s mid upper arm circumference (MUAC)/weight/height in comparison to the median and the mid upper arm circumference (MUAC)/weight/height of the child relative to the reference population [25]. The anthropometric value is expressed by the two score system as “a number of standard deviations or Z scores below or above the reference mean or median value” [26]. Thus, the Z score is calculated as follows:
\nAs previously mentioned malnutrition consists of both over and undernutrition (Table 1).
\nUndernutrition does not only affect the health of individuals but impacts greatly on the growth of the economy and productivity, as well as the eradication of poverty. To support their growth and development, infants and young children have increased nutritional needs and therefore are most affected by undernutrition [27, 28]. Prolonged malnourished status in children can lead to the development of motor function and physical growth delays, lack of social skills, and low infection resistance, thus making them susceptible to common ailments and infections [28, 29]. Additionally, due to frequent infection, susceptible children become engaged in a negative cycle whereby infections lead to growth delays and their learning abilities are hindered, and infections in malnourished children may lead to childhood mortality [30].
\nUndernutrition is subdivided into two categories that include micronutrient malnutrition and growth failure. To differentiate between acute or chronic malnutrition, the nutritional status of an individual is assessed by using anthropometry [27]. According to Zere and McIntyre [31], anthropometry is advantageous over biochemical evaluation, as it is less invasive and cost effective; hence, in addressing child survival nutritional status anthropometry is one of the favored predictors [32]. To assess the growth status of children the most common indices used in anthropometry include low weight for height or wasting, stunting or low height for age, underweight or a low weight for age and waist/arm circumference.
\nIn PEM the condition is characterized by the individual being susceptible to infection due to long-term consumption of protein and energy that is insufficient to meet the body’s needs. While the body may first attempt to utilize the nutrients to meet the energy demands, if there is insufficient intake of energy then the consumed protein is used to meet the energy demands and does not address the functions of the protein in the body, hence leading to PEM. While PEM requires the measuring of growth parameters such as height and weight as it is not immediately obvious, in severe PEM children present with marasmus and kwashiorkor [33, 34]. Marasmus is characterized by a lack of protein and energy in the diet, while an inadequate intake of protein causes kwashiorkor. Marasmus or severe wasting (below −3SD) presents with a MUAC less than 115 mm in children under age five. Children with marasmus present with an “old man” appearance and are very thin [33]. In kwashiorkor, a child does not necessarily appear as undernourished but there is the presence of oedema. The children present with hair that is discolored and skin that is shiny and very tight. The weight for height is greater than or equal to −2SD. In marasmic-kwashiorkor bilateral oedema is present, with a weight for height less than −2SD [33, 34, 35].
\nA common presentation of PEM in children is underweight. Underweight is seen as children having a weight for age with a Z score of −2SD, with severe underweight at −3SD [36, 37]. Since proteins and/or energy are insufficient in a diet, there is weight loss or failure to gain weight. This can be accompanied by a decline in linear height [38]. While the children may present with normal body proportions such as weight to height ratios, they will be undersized and underweight [39]. Through regular monitoring of growth indices such as height and weight, underweight can be identified at an early stage [26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39]. In 2013, 99 million children less than 5 years of age were underweight. Of this figure, one third of the children were from Africa and two-thirds present in Asia. An estimated 14.6% of newborns were with low birth weight in 2015, and approximately nine out of 10 of the newborns were from low and middle income countries (LMICs). Approximately 45% of deaths in LMICs in children under age five is due to underweight. In adolescent girls the underweight prevalence increased from 5.5% in 2000 to 5.7% in 2016 [40].
\nStunting is a major public health concern that begins in intrauterine life although children are only classified as stunted at approximately age 2 years. The detrimental effects of stunting include intrauterine growth retardation, as well as inadequate nutrition required for growth and development of children [41]. High frequency of infection and decreased disease resistance such as diarrhea and pneumonia are influenced by stunting. Childhood stunting may also lead to increased mortality, poor recovery from disease and is also an obesity risk factor in adulthood [41, 42]. Stunting causes growth impairment during childhood that is associated with increased cardio-metabolic disease and obesity risk and cognitive development delay in adulthood [43]. This creates both short and long term effects that indicate the importance of stunting being identified and monitored in early life [42].
\nIn children the initial 1000 days of life are an important window period for intervention implementation and tracking for the improvement of child growth and development [7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44]. Often stunting is correlated with poor socio-economic status, as well as environmental conditions surveys in South Africa (SA) have identified an increased stunting prevalence in black people compared to their Indian or white counterparts [31]. Some surveys looked at a wider age range of children (0–14 years) and higher stunting prevalence was found in children living informal settlements within urban and rural areas [36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45].
\nIn stunting or low height for age the Z score is below 2 standard deviations [21]. It is prevalent usually in infants and children younger than 5 years [36], who are susceptible to infection and have an insufficient intake of nutrients over the long term. Low height for age is seen as the failure of an individual to reach full linear growth and if stunting occurs before age two then irreversible poor cognitive and motor developments may occur [41]. Severe stunting is indicated by a height for age that is lesser than the median by 85% to represent a standard deviation of −3SD [46]. In 2013 in children under 5 years of age, 161 million were identified as stunted globally. The trend of global decrease were evident from the period 2000–2013, during which figures declined from 199 million to 161 million (33–25%). However, one third of stunted children were still found in Africa [47]. During 2000–2018 the number and proportion of stunted children under age five rose by 6.5 million in Central and Western Africa and by 1.4 million in Southern and Eastern Africa. Thus, the stunting burden continues to escalate in Africa, creating serious human capital development complications [40].
\nIn the last five decades overweight and obesity appears to be reaching epidemic levels in both developing and developed countries [48, 49]. Eclipsing infectious disease and under-nutrition as a significant mortality and ill-health contributor, overweight and obesity have presented as the most prevalent global nutritional problem over the last two decades. Globally an estimated 1 billion adults are overweight, with 300 million of them being obese [49]. An estimated 155 million obese children contribute to this epidemic [50]. Obese children tend to become obese adults. Obesity-related health problems occur in early years of life and progress into adulthood [51]. Several chronic disease conditions in later life are associated with childhood obesity. These chronic diseases include diabetes, stroke, high blood pressure, cancers and heart disease [52]. Despite the increased prevalence of overweight and obesity in children, research evaluating treatment in these age groups is minimal. Middle-income countries such as South Africa (SA), Brazil and China have increased overweight and obesity rates across all age groups and economic levels [49]. However, over the last few years overweight has increased in every continent. It has been postulated that the number of overweight children under age five will rise from over 40 million to approximately 43 million by 2025 [53]. As of 2018, approximately half of the overweight under five children were in Asia, with a quarter in Africa. Between 2000 and 2018 in Africa, the number of overweight under five children rose by just under 44%. In children and adolescents aged 5–19 years old, the proportion of overweight in 2000 rose from one in 10 (10.3%) to just under one in five (18.4%) in 2016 [40].
\nSome developing countries such as SA are currently facing a nutrition transition with the dual burden of over and undernutrition. This nutrition transition is the replacement of traditional home cooked balanced diet meals by energy-dense foods, as well as sedentary lifestyles due to technology and urbanization. A review study highlighted the dual burden in SA in children aged 0–20 years. The prevalence of wasting and stunting was higher in younger male children and predominant in rural areas, whereas overweight/obesity prevalence was highest in females and children in urban settings. It is important for tracking of over and undernutrition in children at a district level that can also be used to prioritize, monitor and evaluate government policies regarding malnutrition [54]. More recent years have seen the double burden of malnutrition being accompanied by a triple burden of malnutrition, affecting families, communities and countries. In countries such as India and Egypt, the problem is increasing and therefore highlights the urgent need to consider child malnutrition in the greater familial and household contexts [40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55]. A study in Ghana addressed the concurrent occurrence of obesity and stunting in children aged under 5 years, providing data for the first time on such an occurrence. The study reported a stunting prevalence of 27.5%, overweight prevalence of 2.4% and an overall concurrent stunting and overweight prevalence of 1.2% [56]. A study in South Africa, with children aged 6–12 years old, reported that 9.1% were stunted, while 14.9% were overweight/obese [57]. This highlights the need for urgent targeted interventions in children to address this double burden to prevent these malnutrition issues as they transition into adulthood.
\nIn wasting or low weight for height the Z score is below 2 standard deviations [21]. Wasting is reflective of a body mass that is low in comparison to the age and may be due to disease or starvation. Weight loss and retardation of growth occur due to inadequate intake of food and long term it leads to wasting and becomes more severe with emaciation [58]. A child falls behind another child who is growing actively when his/her own growth is affected acutely [38], and the body height and weight become less than ideal for the age of the child [59]. Severe wasting occurs when the weight for height is less than the median by 70% to represent a standard deviation of −3SD [46]. According to the national Department of Health (DoH) height measurements in all children should be conducted at least every 3 months [60]. In measuring overall growth to compare growth standards, both height and weight measurements are essential. Globally, in 2013, in children less than 5 years of age, 51 million were wasted and 17 million severely wasted. Global wasting prevalence in 2013 approximated 8%, of which 3% accounted for severe wasting. A postulated third of wasted children were present in Africa and an estimate of the children severely wasted in Africa followed the same trend [61]. As of 2018–2019 52 million children are wasted, with an estimated 16.6 suffering from severe wasting in 2018 [62]. Children left untreated with severe acute malnutrition (SAM) are at least 12 times more likely to die than healthy children [63]. South Asia is the global wasting epicenter as 15.2% of children under five are wasted. Together with other hotspots such as Oceania, Southeast Asia and SSA, improvements regarding wasting are minimal [64] (Table 2).
\n\nClassification | \nZ score values | \n
---|---|
Adequately nourished | \n−2 < Z-score < +1 | \n
Moderately malnourished | \n−3 < Z-score < −2 | \n
Severely malnourished | \nZ-score < −3 | \n
Malnutrition classification of children based on Z scores [20].
Country | \nYear of last survey | \nWasting | \nOverweight | \nStunting | \nUnderweight | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Angola | \n2015–2016 | \n4.9 | \n3.4 | \n37.6 | \n19.0 | \n
Benin | \n2017–2018 | \n5.0 | \n1.9 | \n32.2 | \n16.8 | \n
Botswana | \n2007–2008 | \n7.2 | \n11.2 | \n31.4 | \n11.2 | \n
Burkina Faso | \n2017 | \n8.6 | \n1.7 | \n21.1 | \n16.2 | \n
Burundi | \n2016–2017 | \n5.1 | \n1.4 | \n55.9 | \n29.3 | \n
Cabo Verde | \n1994 | \n6.9 | \n— | \n21.4 | \n11.8 | \n
Cameroon | \n2014 | \n5.2 | \n6.7 | \n31.7 | \n14.8 | \n
Central African Republic | \n2012 | \n7.6 | \n1.9 | \n39.6 | \n24.6 | \n
Chad | \n2014–2015 | \n13.3 | \n2.8 | \n39.8 | \n29.4 | \n
Comoros | \n2012 | \n11.3 | \n10.6 | \n31.1 | \n16.9 | \n
The Congo | \n2014–2015 | \n8.2 | \n5.9 | \n21.2 | \n12.3 | \n
Cote d’Ivoire | \n2016 | \n6.1 | \n1.5 | \n21.6 | \n12.8 | \n
Democratic Republic of Congo | \n2013–2014 | \n8.1 | \n4.4 | \n42.7 | \n23.4 | \n
Djibouti | \n2012 | \n21.6 | \n8.1 | \n33.5 | \n29.9 | \n
Equatorial Guinea | \n2011 | \n3.1 | \n9.7 | \n26.2 | \n5.6 | \n
Eritrea | \n2010 | \n15.3 | \n2.0 | \n52.0 | \n39.4 | \n
Eswatini (former Swaziland) | \n2014 | \n2.0 | \n9.0 | \n25.5 | \n5.8 | \n
Ethiopia | \n2016 | \n10.0 | \n2.9 | \n38.4 | \n23.6 | \n
Gabon | \n2012 | \n3.4 | \n7.7 | \n17.0 | \n6.4 | \n
The Gambia | \n2013 | \n11.0 | \n3.2 | \n24.6 | \n16.5 | \n
Ghana | \n2014 | \n4.7 | \n2.6 | \n18.8 | \n11.2 | \n
Guinea | \n2016 | \n8.1 | \n4.0 | \n32.4 | \n18.3 | \n
Guinea—Bissau | \n2014 | \n6.0 | \n2.3 | \n27.6 | \n17.0 | \n
Kenya | \n2014 | \n4.2 | \n4.1 | \n26.2 | \n11.2 | \n
Lesotho | \n2014 | \n2.8 | \n7.5 | \n33.4 | \n10.5 | \n
Liberia | \n2013 | \n5.6 | \n3.2 | \n32.1 | \n15.3 | \n
Madagascar | \n2012–2013 | \n7.9 | \n1.1 | \n48.9 | \n32.9 | \n
Malawi | \n2015–2016 | \n2.8 | \n4.6 | \n37.4 | \n11.8 | \n
Mali | \n2015 | \n13.5 | \n1.9 | \n30.4 | \n25.0 | \n
Mauritania | \n2015 | \n14.8 | \n1.3 | \n27.9 | \n24.9 | \n
Mauritius | \n1995 | \n15.7 | \n6.5 | \n13.6 | \n13.0 | \n
Mozambique | \n2011 | \n6.1 | \n7.8 | \n42.9 | \n15.6 | \n
Namibia | \n2013 | \n7.1 | \n4.0 | \n22.7 | \n13.2 | \n
Niger | \n2016 | \n10.1 | \n1.1 | \n40.6 | \n31.4 | \n
Nigeria | \n2016–2017 | \n10.8 | \n1.5 | \n43.6 | \n31.5 | \n
Rwanda | \n2014–2015 | \n2.3 | \n7.9 | \n38.2 | \n9.6 | \n
Sao Tome and Principe | \n2014 | \n4.0 | \n2.4 | \n17.2 | \n8.8 | \n
Senegal | \n2017 | \n9.0 | \n0.9 | \n16.5 | \n14.4 | \n
Seychelles | \n2012 | \n4.3 | \n10.2 | \n7.9 | \n3.6 | \n
Sierra Leone | \n2013 | \n9.5 | \n8.8 | \n37.8 | \n18.2 | \n
Somalia | \n2009 | \n15.0 | \n3.0 | \n25.3 | \n23.0 | \n
South Africa | \n2016 | \n2.5 | \n13.3 | \n27.4 | \n5.9 | \n
South Sudan | \n2010 | \n24.3 | \n5.8 | \n31.3 | \n29.1 | \n
Togo | \n2013–2014 | \n6.6 | \n2.0 | \n27.6 | \n16.1 | \n
Uganda | \n2016 | \n3.5 | \n3.7 | \n28.9 | \n10.4 | \n
United Republic of Tanzania | \n2015–16 | \n4.5 | \n3.7 | \n34.5 | \n13.7 | \n
Zambia | \n2013–14 | \n6.2 | \n6.2 | \n40.0 | \n14.9 | \n
Zimbabwe | \n2015 | \n3.3 | \n5.6 | \n27.1 | \n8.5 | \n
Joint malnutrition country estimates of anthropometric indicators in children aged 0–59 months [65].
As a developing or middle-income country, SA is still undergoing major transitions socially, economically and in the population’s health. The country is currently facing a quadruple disease burden, with non-communicable diseases linked to diet and lifestyle; the burden of Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS); infectious diseases and poverty linked to under nutrition; and deaths due to injuries [66]. As a developing country SA is in a nutrition transition where both over and undernutrition coexist [67]. The first 2 years of life are a vulnerable time frame as it is during this period that malnutrition begins. According to Faber and Wenhold [68], chronic malnutrition or stunting is more prevalent in children in SA compared to wasting. Since the post-apartheid era in 1994, SA has faced great challenges in addressing the nutritional status of infants, young children and adults [69]. However, large-scale nationwide surveys were conducted to trace the progress, failures and successes in addressing malnutrition. In 1994 the South African Vitamin A Consultative Group (SAVACG) conducted a national survey on the nutritional status of children aged 6–71 months [70]. Anthropometric results revealed that approximately 10% or 660,000 children were underweight, with one in every four children (1.5 million) affected by stunting. Severe wasting was only recorded in 0.4% of children. KwaZulu-Natal (KZN), Eastern Cape and Northern Province revealed the greatest prevalence of malnutrition [70]. In 1999 the National Food Consumption Survey (NFCS) was conducted in children aged 1–9 years [71], collecting a larger set of data in comparison to the SAVACG survey. The NFCS reported 10% underweight in children, with 20% affected by stunting and 17.1% as overweight and/or obese. The NFCS secondary analysis, focusing on children aged 1–5 years, reported underweight at 6.8%, stunting at 20.1%, overweight at 20.6% and obesity at 9.5% [69]. In 2005, the National Food Consumption Survey-Fortification Baseline (NFCS-FB) reported that of children aged 1–9 years old, 20% were affected by stunting, 9.3% were underweight, wasting was found in 4.5%, and 14% were overweight or obese [72]. The South African National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (SANHANES) conducted in 2012 reported that in children aged 0–14 years stunting prevalence was 15.4%, with 3.8% having severe stunting. Wasting was reported at 2.9%, with severe wasting at 0.8%. Underweight was reported at 5.8%, with severe underweight at 1.1%. Regarding over nutrition, SANHANES identified 18.1% of children as overweight and 4.6% as obese [36]. The prevalence of overweight and obesity was significantly greater in females (25% and 40.1%) compared to males (19.6% and 11.6%) respectively. Underweight was significantly higher in males (13.1%) in comparison to females (4.0%) [36]. Thus, it is evident that SA is facing the malnutrition epidemic at a young age and context-specific and targeted interventions are required to prevent child malnutrition before it progresses into adulthood.
\nDuring 2012–2013, WHO member states recognized the seriousness of malnutrition and its effect on global health [3]. Thus, at the United Nation’s General Assembly in 2016, the United Nations Decade of Action on Nutrition 2016–2025 was announced. This set a time frame for all forms of malnutrition to be addressed and for diet-related and nutrition targets to be met by 2025. This also set the time frame for the Sustainable Development Goals (SGDs) to be achieved before 2030, particularly SDG 2 that aims to improve nutrition, achieve food security and end hunger, as well as SDG 3 that aims to ensure healthy living and promote well-being for all [1]. To tackle the malnutrition epidemic food fortification is important to ensure that children with good weight do not risk becoming overweight or obese [73]. All malnutrition indicators must be included in interventions, and more importantly treated together rather than stand-alone issues [74]. As part of the health system strengthening and with the goal of combatting malnutrition, existing policies on child malnutrition must be evaluated. The coexistence of stunting and overweight/obesity remains a challenge in LMICs that requires multi-sectoral action. During infancy and early childhood optimal nutrition is vital to ensure that, development and rapid growth demands are met. In the efforts to tackle the nutrition disparities, the first 1000 days of life are an important window period, presenting the opportunity to prevent both stunting and overweight/obesity [75]. Interventions must be inclusive of both linear growth and appropriate weight, beginning in early life and preferably during this important window period. To further tackle the double and triple burdens of malnutrition, early screening and identification of at risk children, including those already with malnutrition, is essential at healthcare facilities [76]. Thus, a more holistic, context-specific approach is required, whereby interventions not only take into consideration the risk factors, but also consider the inclusion of nutritionists and educating mothers on self and childcare regarding nutrition [77]. Furthermore, child malnutrition research and interventions must be up-scaled from community level to provincial and national levels so that it informs policy on the intervention strategies that can address the burden of child malnutrition. This is vital as children left untreated transition into malnourished adulthood, increasing the healthcare costs and needs, weakening the healthcare systems, and perpetuating the vicious malnutrition cycle.
\nAs this section deals with legal issues pertaining to the rights of individual Authors and IntechOpen, for the avoidance of doubt, each category of publication is dealt with separately. Consequently, much of the information, for example definition of terms used, is repeated to ensure that there can be no misunderstanding of the policies that apply to each category.
",metaTitle:"Copyright Policy",metaDescription:"Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish and distribute publications.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/copyright-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
\\n\\nIntechOpen only publishes manuscripts for which it has publishing rights. This is governed by a publication agreement between the Author and IntechOpen. This agreement is accepted by the Author when the manuscript is submitted and deals with both the rights of the publisher and Author, as well as any obligations concerning a particular manuscript. However, in accepting this agreement, Authors continue to retain significant rights to use and share their publications.
\\n\\nHOW COPYRIGHT WORKS WITH OPEN ACCESS LICENSES?
\\n\\nAgreement samples are listed here for the convenience of prospective Authors:
\\n\\n\\n\\nDEFINITIONS
\\n\\nThe following definitions apply in this Copyright Policy:
\\n\\nAuthor - in order to be identified as an Author, three criteria must be met: (i) Substantial contribution to the conception or design of the Work, or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the Work; (ii) Participation in drafting or revising the Work; (iii) Approval of the final version of the Work to be published.
\\n\\nWork - a Chapter, including Conference Papers, and any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of or accompanying the Chapter/Conference Paper.
\\n\\nMonograph/Compacts - a full manuscript usually written by a single Author, including any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials.
\\n\\nCompilation - a collection of Works distributed in a Book that IntechOpen has selected, and for which the coordination of the preparation, arrangement and publication has been the responsibility of IntechOpen. Any Work included is accepted in its entirety in unmodified form and is published with one or more other contributions, each constituting a separate and independent Work, but which together are assembled into a collective whole.
\\n\\nIntechOpen - Registered publisher with office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ - UNITED KINGDOM
\\n\\nIntechOpen platform - IntechOpen website www.intechopen.com whose main purpose is to host Monographs in the format of Book Chapters, Long Form Monographs, Compacts, Conference Proceedings and Videos.
\\n\\nVideo Lecture – an audiovisual recording of a lecture or a speech given by a Lecturer, recorded, edited, owned and published by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nTERMS
\\n\\nAll Works published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License, a license which allows for the broadest possible reuse of published material.
\\n\\nCopyright on the individual Works belongs to the specific Author, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen. The Creative Common license is granted to all others to:
\\n\\nAnd for any purpose, provided the following conditions are met:
\\n\\nAll Works are published under the CC BY 3.0 license. However, please note that book Chapters may fall under a different CC license, depending on their publication date as indicated in the table below:
\\n\\n\\n\\n
LICENSE | \\n\\t\\t\\tUSED FROM - | \\n\\t\\t\\tUP TO - | \\n\\t\\t
\\n\\t\\t\\t Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t\\t\\n\\t\\t\\t 1 July 2005 (2005-07-01) \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t\\t\\n\\t\\t\\t 3 October 2011 (2011-10-03) \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t
Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported (CC BY 3.0) | \\n\\t\\t\\t\\n\\t\\t\\t 5 October 2011 (2011-10-05) \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t\\tCurrently | \\n\\t\\t
The CC BY 3.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
\\n\\nContent reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nReposting & sharing:
\\n\\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nRepublishing – More about Attribution Policy can be found here.
\\n\\nThe same principles apply to Works published under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license, with the caveats that (1) the content may not be used for commercial purposes, and (2) derivative works building on this content must be distributed under the same license. The restrictions contained in these license terms may, however, be waived by the copyright holder(s). Users wishing to circumvent any of the license terms are required to obtain explicit permission to do so from the copyright holder(s).
\\n\\nDISCLAIMER: Neither the CC BY 3.0 license, nor any other license IntechOpen currently uses or has used before, applies to figures and tables reproduced from other works, as they may be subject to different terms of reuse. In such cases, if the copyright holder is not noted in the source of a figure or table, it is the responsibility of the User to investigate and determine the exact copyright status of any information utilised. Users requiring assistance in that regard are welcome to send an inquiry to permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nAll rights to Books and all other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nThe copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to separate copyright from those that exist in the included Works.
\\n\\nAll Long Form Monographs/Compacts are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others.
\\n\\nCopyright to the individual Works (Chapters) belongs to their specific Authors, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen and the Creative Common license granted to all others to:
\\n\\nUnder the following terms:
\\n\\nThere must be an Attribution, giving appropriate credit, provision of a link to the license, and indication if any changes were made.
\\n\\nNonCommercial - The use of the material for commercial purposes is prohibited. Commercial rights are reserved to IntechOpen or its licensees.
\\n\\nNo additional restrictions that apply legal terms or technological measures that restrict others from doing anything the license permits are allowed.
\\n\\nThe CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as it is not used for commercial purposes. The source Work must be cited and its Authors acknowledged in the following manner:
\\n\\nContent reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nReposting & sharing:
\\n\\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nAll Book cover design elements, as well as Video image graphics are subject to copyright by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nEvery reproduction of a front cover image must be accompanied by an appropriate Copyright Notice displayed adjacent to the image. The exact Copyright Notice depends on who the Author of a particular cover image is. Users wishing to reproduce cover images should contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nAll Video Lectures under IntechOpen's production are subject to copyright and are property of IntechOpen, unless defined otherwise, and are licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license. This grants all others the right to:
\\n\\nShare — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
\\n\\nUnder the following terms:
\\n\\nUsers wishing to repost and share the Video Lectures are welcome to do so as long as they acknowledge the source in the following manner:
\\n\\n© {year} IntechOpen. Published under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nUsers wishing to reuse, modify, or adapt the Video Lectures in a way not permitted by the license are welcome to contact us at permissions@intechopen.com to discuss waiving particular license terms.
\\n\\nAll software used on the IntechOpen platform, any used during the publishing process, and the copyright in the code constituting such software, is the property of IntechOpen or its software suppliers. As such, it may not be downloaded or copied without permission.
\\n\\nUnless otherwise indicated, all IntechOpen websites are the property of IntechOpen.
\\n\\nAll content included on IntechOpen Websites not forming part of contributed materials (such as text, images, logos, graphics, design elements, videos, sounds, pictures, trademarks, etc.), are subject to copyright and are property of, or licensed to, IntechOpen. Any other use, including the reproduction, modification, distribution, transmission, republication, display, or performance of the content on this site is strictly prohibited.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-08
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
\n\nIntechOpen only publishes manuscripts for which it has publishing rights. This is governed by a publication agreement between the Author and IntechOpen. This agreement is accepted by the Author when the manuscript is submitted and deals with both the rights of the publisher and Author, as well as any obligations concerning a particular manuscript. However, in accepting this agreement, Authors continue to retain significant rights to use and share their publications.
\n\nHOW COPYRIGHT WORKS WITH OPEN ACCESS LICENSES?
\n\nAgreement samples are listed here for the convenience of prospective Authors:
\n\n\n\nDEFINITIONS
\n\nThe following definitions apply in this Copyright Policy:
\n\nAuthor - in order to be identified as an Author, three criteria must be met: (i) Substantial contribution to the conception or design of the Work, or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the Work; (ii) Participation in drafting or revising the Work; (iii) Approval of the final version of the Work to be published.
\n\nWork - a Chapter, including Conference Papers, and any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of or accompanying the Chapter/Conference Paper.
\n\nMonograph/Compacts - a full manuscript usually written by a single Author, including any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials.
\n\nCompilation - a collection of Works distributed in a Book that IntechOpen has selected, and for which the coordination of the preparation, arrangement and publication has been the responsibility of IntechOpen. Any Work included is accepted in its entirety in unmodified form and is published with one or more other contributions, each constituting a separate and independent Work, but which together are assembled into a collective whole.
\n\nIntechOpen - Registered publisher with office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ - UNITED KINGDOM
\n\nIntechOpen platform - IntechOpen website www.intechopen.com whose main purpose is to host Monographs in the format of Book Chapters, Long Form Monographs, Compacts, Conference Proceedings and Videos.
\n\nVideo Lecture – an audiovisual recording of a lecture or a speech given by a Lecturer, recorded, edited, owned and published by IntechOpen.
\n\nTERMS
\n\nAll Works published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License, a license which allows for the broadest possible reuse of published material.
\n\nCopyright on the individual Works belongs to the specific Author, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen. The Creative Common license is granted to all others to:
\n\nAnd for any purpose, provided the following conditions are met:
\n\nAll Works are published under the CC BY 3.0 license. However, please note that book Chapters may fall under a different CC license, depending on their publication date as indicated in the table below:
\n\n\n\n
LICENSE | \n\t\t\tUSED FROM - | \n\t\t\tUP TO - | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t 1 July 2005 (2005-07-01) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t 3 October 2011 (2011-10-03) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported (CC BY 3.0) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t 5 October 2011 (2011-10-05) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCurrently | \n\t\t
The CC BY 3.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
\n\nContent reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nReposting & sharing:
\n\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nRepublishing – More about Attribution Policy can be found here.
\n\nThe same principles apply to Works published under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license, with the caveats that (1) the content may not be used for commercial purposes, and (2) derivative works building on this content must be distributed under the same license. The restrictions contained in these license terms may, however, be waived by the copyright holder(s). Users wishing to circumvent any of the license terms are required to obtain explicit permission to do so from the copyright holder(s).
\n\nDISCLAIMER: Neither the CC BY 3.0 license, nor any other license IntechOpen currently uses or has used before, applies to figures and tables reproduced from other works, as they may be subject to different terms of reuse. In such cases, if the copyright holder is not noted in the source of a figure or table, it is the responsibility of the User to investigate and determine the exact copyright status of any information utilised. Users requiring assistance in that regard are welcome to send an inquiry to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll rights to Books and all other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen.
\n\nThe copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to separate copyright from those that exist in the included Works.
\n\nAll Long Form Monographs/Compacts are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others.
\n\nCopyright to the individual Works (Chapters) belongs to their specific Authors, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen and the Creative Common license granted to all others to:
\n\nUnder the following terms:
\n\nThere must be an Attribution, giving appropriate credit, provision of a link to the license, and indication if any changes were made.
\n\nNonCommercial - The use of the material for commercial purposes is prohibited. Commercial rights are reserved to IntechOpen or its licensees.
\n\nNo additional restrictions that apply legal terms or technological measures that restrict others from doing anything the license permits are allowed.
\n\nThe CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as it is not used for commercial purposes. The source Work must be cited and its Authors acknowledged in the following manner:
\n\nContent reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nReposting & sharing:
\n\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nAll Book cover design elements, as well as Video image graphics are subject to copyright by IntechOpen.
\n\nEvery reproduction of a front cover image must be accompanied by an appropriate Copyright Notice displayed adjacent to the image. The exact Copyright Notice depends on who the Author of a particular cover image is. Users wishing to reproduce cover images should contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll Video Lectures under IntechOpen's production are subject to copyright and are property of IntechOpen, unless defined otherwise, and are licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license. This grants all others the right to:
\n\nShare — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
\n\nUnder the following terms:
\n\nUsers wishing to repost and share the Video Lectures are welcome to do so as long as they acknowledge the source in the following manner:
\n\n© {year} IntechOpen. Published under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nUsers wishing to reuse, modify, or adapt the Video Lectures in a way not permitted by the license are welcome to contact us at permissions@intechopen.com to discuss waiving particular license terms.
\n\nAll software used on the IntechOpen platform, any used during the publishing process, and the copyright in the code constituting such software, is the property of IntechOpen or its software suppliers. As such, it may not be downloaded or copied without permission.
\n\nUnless otherwise indicated, all IntechOpen websites are the property of IntechOpen.
\n\nAll content included on IntechOpen Websites not forming part of contributed materials (such as text, images, logos, graphics, design elements, videos, sounds, pictures, trademarks, etc.), are subject to copyright and are property of, or licensed to, IntechOpen. Any other use, including the reproduction, modification, distribution, transmission, republication, display, or performance of the content on this site is strictly prohibited.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-08
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5774},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5239},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1721},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10411},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15810}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118377},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"1",sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10231",title:"Proton Therapy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f4a9009287953c8d1d89f0fa9b7597b0",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10231.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10652",title:"Visual Object Tracking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"96f3ee634a7ba49fa195e50475412af4",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10653",title:"Optimization Algorithms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"753812dbb9a6f6b57645431063114f6c",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10653.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10655",title:"Motion Planning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"809b5e290cf2dade9e7e0a5ae0ef3df0",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10655.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10657",title:"Service Robots",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5f81b9eea6eb3f9af984031b7af35588",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10657.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10662",title:"Pedagogy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c858e1c6fb878d3b895acbacec624576",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10662.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10673",title:"The Psychology of Trust",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"1f6cac41fd145f718ac0866264499cc8",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10673.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10675",title:"Hydrostatics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c86c2fa9f835d4ad5e7efd8b01921866",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10675.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10677",title:"Topology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"85eac84b173d785f989522397616124e",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10677.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10678",title:"Biostatistics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f63db439474a574454a66894db8b394c",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10678.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10679",title:"Mass Production",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2dae91102099b1a07be1a36a68852829",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10679.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10689",title:"Risk Management in Construction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e3805b3d2fceb9d33e1fa805687cd296",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10689.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:26},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:81},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5249},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9669",title:"Recent Advances in Rice Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12b06cc73e89af1e104399321cc16a75",slug:"recent-advances-in-rice-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur- Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-Ur-",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-Ur- Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"166",title:"Statistics",slug:"mathematics-statistics",parent:{title:"Mathematics",slug:"mathematics"},numberOfBooks:10,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:148,numberOfWosCitations:86,numberOfCrossrefCitations:93,numberOfDimensionsCitations:161,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"mathematics-statistics",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"9218",title:"Bayesian Inference on Complicated Data",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5cf83c23db5b0ae47192d34ec8091162",slug:"bayesian-inference-on-complicated-data",bookSignature:"Niansheng Tang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9218.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"221831",title:"Prof.",name:"Niansheng",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",slug:"niansheng-tang",fullName:"Niansheng Tang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7680",title:"Statistical Methodologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9ba6b053350f5e59925bce32b1d692d",slug:"statistical-methodologies",bookSignature:"Jan Peter Hessling",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7680.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"20815",title:"Dr.",name:"Jan Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Hessling",slug:"jan-peter-hessling",fullName:"Jan Peter Hessling"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7372",title:"Bayesian Networks",subtitle:"Advances and Novel Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee81401d110a5f6bca2997a28e8d169b",slug:"bayesian-networks-advances-and-novel-applications",bookSignature:"Douglas McNair",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7372.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"219757",title:"Dr.",name:"Douglas",middleName:null,surname:"McNair",slug:"douglas-mcnair",fullName:"Douglas McNair"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8362",title:"Time Series Analysis",subtitle:"Data, Methods, and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7e98dd03d921c19cc2324e91845d5160",slug:"time-series-analysis-data-methods-and-applications",bookSignature:"Chun-Kit Ngan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8362.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"227503",title:"Dr.",name:"Chun-Kit",middleName:null,surname:"Ngan",slug:"chun-kit-ngan",fullName:"Chun-Kit Ngan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6703",title:"Statistics",subtitle:"Growing Data Sets and Growing Demand for Statistics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f67636870f28cdf080018abaddd953d2",slug:"statistics-growing-data-sets-and-growing-demand-for-statistics",bookSignature:"Türkmen Göksel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6703.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190299",title:"Dr.",name:"Türkmen",middleName:null,surname:"Göksel",slug:"turkmen-goksel",fullName:"Türkmen Göksel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5856",title:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"950e8a681056d4b6bdc024121529d1ce",slug:"statistical-approaches-with-emphasis-on-design-of-experiments-applied-to-chemical-processes",bookSignature:"Valter Silva",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5856.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"187136",title:"Dr.",name:"Valter",middleName:null,surname:"Silva",slug:"valter-silva",fullName:"Valter Silva"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5964",title:"Bayesian Inference",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b05b9b63cb02573c7e0cc5e877e35c61",slug:"bayesian-inference",bookSignature:"Javier Prieto Tejedor",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5964.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"177972",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier Prieto",middleName:null,surname:"Tejedor",slug:"javier-prieto-tejedor",fullName:"Javier Prieto Tejedor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5446",title:"Advances in Statistical Methodologies and Their Application to Real Problems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"93e5e8e7a09c351b3e0377d6ac6ccc35",slug:"advances-in-statistical-methodologies-and-their-application-to-real-problems",bookSignature:"Tsukasa Hokimoto",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5446.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"69561",title:"Dr.",name:"Tsukasa",middleName:null,surname:"Hokimoto",slug:"tsukasa-hokimoto",fullName:"Tsukasa Hokimoto"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3812",title:"Dynamic Programming and Bayesian Inference",subtitle:"Concepts and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f507023ddf3414519592ec0f0d6b25e3",slug:"dynamic-programming-and-bayesian-inference-concepts-and-applications",bookSignature:"Mohammad Saber Fallah Nezhad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3812.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"150393",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Saber Fallah",middleName:null,surname:"Nezhad",slug:"mohammad-saber-fallah-nezhad",fullName:"Mohammad Saber Fallah Nezhad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2155",title:"Bayesian Networks",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c08ecbb5580e47a9c16cdaec48c2adc",slug:"bayesian-networks",bookSignature:"Wichian Premchaiswadi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2155.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"10820",title:"Dr.",name:"Wichian",middleName:null,surname:"Premchaiswadi",slug:"wichian-premchaiswadi",fullName:"Wichian Premchaiswadi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:10,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"59209",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73690",title:"Utilization of Response Surface Methodology in Optimization of Extraction of Plant Materials",slug:"utilization-of-response-surface-methodology-in-optimization-of-extraction-of-plant-materials",totalDownloads:3648,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:28,book:{slug:"statistical-approaches-with-emphasis-on-design-of-experiments-applied-to-chemical-processes",title:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes",fullTitle:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes"},signatures:"Alev Yüksel Aydar",authors:[{id:"218870",title:"Dr.",name:"Alev Yüksel",middleName:null,surname:"Aydar",slug:"alev-yuksel-aydar",fullName:"Alev Yüksel Aydar"}]},{id:"56460",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69501",title:"Application of Taguchi-Based Design of Experiments for Industrial Chemical Processes",slug:"application-of-taguchi-based-design-of-experiments-for-industrial-chemical-processes",totalDownloads:2134,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:21,book:{slug:"statistical-approaches-with-emphasis-on-design-of-experiments-applied-to-chemical-processes",title:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes",fullTitle:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes"},signatures:"Rahul Davis and Pretesh John",authors:[{id:"199438",title:"Mr.",name:"Rahul",middleName:null,surname:"Davis",slug:"rahul-davis",fullName:"Rahul Davis"}]},{id:"64216",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81170",title:"CNN Approaches for Time Series Classification",slug:"cnn-approaches-for-time-series-classification",totalDownloads:2607,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:12,book:{slug:"time-series-analysis-data-methods-and-applications",title:"Time Series Analysis",fullTitle:"Time Series Analysis - Data, Methods, and Applications"},signatures:"Lamyaa Sadouk",authors:[{id:"257943",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Lamyaa",middleName:null,surname:"Sadouk",slug:"lamyaa-sadouk",fullName:"Lamyaa Sadouk"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"59209",title:"Utilization of Response Surface Methodology in Optimization of Extraction of Plant Materials",slug:"utilization-of-response-surface-methodology-in-optimization-of-extraction-of-plant-materials",totalDownloads:3659,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:28,book:{slug:"statistical-approaches-with-emphasis-on-design-of-experiments-applied-to-chemical-processes",title:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes",fullTitle:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes"},signatures:"Alev Yüksel Aydar",authors:[{id:"218870",title:"Dr.",name:"Alev Yüksel",middleName:null,surname:"Aydar",slug:"alev-yuksel-aydar",fullName:"Alev Yüksel Aydar"}]},{id:"56460",title:"Application of Taguchi-Based Design of Experiments for Industrial Chemical Processes",slug:"application-of-taguchi-based-design-of-experiments-for-industrial-chemical-processes",totalDownloads:2142,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:21,book:{slug:"statistical-approaches-with-emphasis-on-design-of-experiments-applied-to-chemical-processes",title:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes",fullTitle:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes"},signatures:"Rahul Davis and Pretesh John",authors:[{id:"199438",title:"Mr.",name:"Rahul",middleName:null,surname:"Davis",slug:"rahul-davis",fullName:"Rahul Davis"}]},{id:"56653",title:"Bayesian Hypothesis Testing: An Alternative to Null Hypothesis Significance Testing (NHST) in Psychology and Social Sciences",slug:"bayesian-hypothesis-testing-an-alternative-to-null-hypothesis-significance-testing-nhst-in-psycholog",totalDownloads:2607,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:8,book:{slug:"bayesian-inference",title:"Bayesian Inference",fullTitle:"Bayesian Inference"},signatures:"Alonso Ortega and Gorka Navarrete",authors:[{id:"203438",title:"Dr.",name:"Alonso",middleName:null,surname:"Ortega",slug:"alonso-ortega",fullName:"Alonso Ortega"},{id:"208842",title:"Dr.",name:"Gorka",middleName:null,surname:"Navarrete",slug:"gorka-navarrete",fullName:"Gorka Navarrete"}]},{id:"61268",title:"The Application of Discrete Choice Models in Transport",slug:"the-application-of-discrete-choice-models-in-transport",totalDownloads:995,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"statistics-growing-data-sets-and-growing-demand-for-statistics",title:"Statistics",fullTitle:"Statistics - Growing Data Sets and Growing Demand for Statistics"},signatures:"Foued Aloulou",authors:null},{id:"71603",title:"A Brief Tour of Bayesian Sampling Methods",slug:"a-brief-tour-of-bayesian-sampling-methods",totalDownloads:376,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"bayesian-inference-on-complicated-data",title:"Bayesian Inference on Complicated Data",fullTitle:"Bayesian Inference on Complicated Data"},signatures:"Michelle Y. Wang and Trevor Park",authors:null},{id:"56066",title:"Development of Falling Film Heat Transfer Coefficient for Industrial Chemical Processes Evaporator Design",slug:"development-of-falling-film-heat-transfer-coefficient-for-industrial-chemical-processes-evaporator-d",totalDownloads:1400,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"statistical-approaches-with-emphasis-on-design-of-experiments-applied-to-chemical-processes",title:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes",fullTitle:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes"},signatures:"Muhammad Wakil Shahzad, Muhammad Burhan and Kim Choon\nNg",authors:[{id:"174208",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Wakil",middleName:null,surname:"Shahzad",slug:"muhammad-wakil-shahzad",fullName:"Muhammad Wakil Shahzad"}]},{id:"35660",title:"Making a Predictive Diagnostic Model for Rangeland Management by Implementing a State and Transition Model Within a Bayesian Belief Network (Case Study: Ghom- Iran)",slug:"making-a-predictive-diagnostic-model-for-rangeland-management-by-implementing-a-state-and-transition",totalDownloads:1992,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"bayesian-networks",title:"Bayesian Networks",fullTitle:"Bayesian Networks"},signatures:"Hossein Bashari",authors:[{id:"10124",title:"Dr.",name:"Hossein",middleName:null,surname:"Bashari",slug:"hossein-bashari",fullName:"Hossein Bashari"}]},{id:"64216",title:"CNN Approaches for Time Series Classification",slug:"cnn-approaches-for-time-series-classification",totalDownloads:2611,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:12,book:{slug:"time-series-analysis-data-methods-and-applications",title:"Time Series Analysis",fullTitle:"Time Series Analysis - Data, Methods, and Applications"},signatures:"Lamyaa Sadouk",authors:[{id:"257943",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Lamyaa",middleName:null,surname:"Sadouk",slug:"lamyaa-sadouk",fullName:"Lamyaa Sadouk"}]},{id:"54071",title:"Validation of Instrument Measuring Continuous Variable in Medicine",slug:"validation-of-instrument-measuring-continuous-variable-in-medicine",totalDownloads:1402,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"advances-in-statistical-methodologies-and-their-application-to-real-problems",title:"Advances in Statistical Methodologies and Their Application to Real Problems",fullTitle:"Advances in Statistical Methodologies and Their Application to Real Problems"},signatures:"Rafdzah Zaki",authors:[{id:"190238",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafdzah",middleName:null,surname:"Zaki",slug:"rafdzah-zaki",fullName:"Rafdzah Zaki"}]},{id:"68138",title:"Bayesian Graphical Model Application for Monetary Policy and Macroeconomic Performance in Nigeria",slug:"bayesian-graphical-model-application-for-monetary-policy-and-macroeconomic-performance-in-nigeria",totalDownloads:490,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"bayesian-networks-advances-and-novel-applications",title:"Bayesian Networks",fullTitle:"Bayesian Networks - Advances and Novel Applications"},signatures:"David Oluseun Olayungbo",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"mathematics-statistics",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/203359/minori-ishii",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"203359",slug:"minori-ishii"},fullPath:"/profiles/203359/minori-ishii",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()