Saturation temperature of each component and equilibrium temperature of immiscible mixtures at 0.1 MPa
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5236",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"High Energy and Short Pulse Lasers",title:"High Energy and Short Pulse Lasers",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book gives the readers an introduction to experimental and theoretical knowledge acquired by large-scale laser laboratories that are dealing with extra–high peak power and ultrashort laser pulses for research of terawatt (TW), petawatt (PW), or near-future exawatt (EW) laser interactions, for soft X-ray sources, for acceleration of particles, or for generation of hot dense thermal plasma for the laser fusion. 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Ibrahim, Tahl Zimmerman and Rabin Gyawali",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8174.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"107905",title:"Prof.",name:"Salam",surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"salam-ibrahim",fullName:"Salam Ibrahim"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"50131",title:"Boiling of Immiscible Mixtures for Cooling of Electronics",doi:"10.5772/62341",slug:"boiling-of-immiscible-mixtures-for-cooling-of-electronics",body:'\nFor the systems of air conditioning and refrigeration, non-azeotropic miscible mixtures are often used as the working fluids alternative to the discontinued ones. However, these fluids have a well-known unavoidable disadvantage of heat transfer deterioration resulting from the increased interfacial temperature due to the existence of mass diffusion resistance. At the same time, for the non-azeotropic miscible mixtures, there is an unknown effect of Marangoni force exerted mainly by the concentration difference along the liquid-vapor interface as a result of the preferential evaporation of more-volatile component. In aqueous solutions of alcohol with a large carbon number, the surface tension is increased with increasing temperature depending on the range of concentration and the level of temperature. In such a condition, Marangoni force due to the concentration gradient is enhanced by also the temperature gradient along the interface, especially near the three-phase interline extended at the base of bubbles. The enhancement of critical heat flux (CHF) was shown by Vochten-Petre [1] and Van Stralen [2] based on the experiments using a wire heater. Abe [3] verified the drastic increase of maximum heat transportation for heat pipes using "self-rewetting mixtures". Sakai et al. [4] confirmed the small enhancement of heat transfer in the ranges of very low alcohol concentration in water, while no appreciable increase in CHF for a flat heating surface facing upwards. As a consequence, non-azeotropic mixtures have no advantage from the view point of the improvement of heat transfer.
\nInnovative cooling systems which meet the requirement for the increased heat generation density from electronic devices are urgently required. To enhance the values of CHF for the cooling of a large area at high heat flux larger than 200 W/cm2 as shown in Figure 1, the present authors confirmed the validity of the devised structure which reduces the effective heating length by the liquid supply directly to the downstream of the heating duct from the transverse direction. An example of the structure is illustrated in Figure 2 [5,6]. However, such structure is rather complicated. On the other hand, to ensure the high reliability for a long-term operation, microstructures on the "enhanced surface" cannot be accepted depending on their application. The present authors noticed the superior heat transfer characteristics in nucleate boiling of immiscible mixtures even on a smooth surface (Kobayashi et al. [7], Ohnishi et al. [8], Kita et al. [9]), which are summarized as follows.
\nThe value of critical heat flux is increased by the self-sustained subcooling of less-volatile liquid as a result of the excessive compression by the high partial vapor pressure of more-volatile component.
The operation at a pressure higher than the atmospheric is possible keeping low liquid temperature to prevent the mixing of incondensable air which seriously deteriorates the heat transfer in the condensation process, i.e., a final heat dissipation process, due to the existence of mass diffusion resistance.
The surface temperature is decreased during the free convection or nucleate boiling of less-volatile liquid, which is caused by the substantial heat transfer enhancement by the existence of vapor bubbles generated form the more-volatile component.
The excessive overshooting of the surface temperature at the initiation of boiling can be reduced by the selection of more-volatile component and the optimization of its distribution on the heating surface, which is required, e.g., for the cooling of automobile power controllers with a large fluctuation of thermal load.
Difference in the size and heat flux level of semiconductors as a target of cooling.
Devised structure of cold plate for the cooling by flow boiling in a narrow channel [5,6].
A large number of reports on nucleate boiling of oil mixtures exist. Filipczak et al. [10] used emulsions of oil and water, where the distribution of two liquids and vapor was investigated at different levels of heat flux. The heat transfer coefficients for high oil concentration were quite smaller than those for pure water, because the free convection of oil dominates the heat transfer to water-oil mixture. At the initial stage of nucleate boiling, foaming was observed before the formation of emulsion. Roesle and Kulacki [11] studied nucleate boiling of FC72/water and pentane/water on a horizontal wire. The discontinuous phase of more-volatile components FC72 and pentane were dispersed in a continuous phase of water, where the concentrations of more-volatile component were varied as 0.2–1.0% and 0.5–2.0%, respectively. Nucleate boiling of dispersed component or of dispersed and continuous components was observed depending on the level of heat flux. The heat transfer was enhanced by nucleate boiling of dispersed liquid if its volume fraction was larger than 1%. Bulanov and Gasanov [12] studied the heat transfer to four emulsions, n-pentane/glycerin, diethyl ether/water, R113/water and water/oil, where more-volatile liquids were dispersed in the continuous phase of less-volatile liquids. The reduction of surface superheat at the boiling initiation was observed compared to that for pure less-volatile liquids.
\nOn the other hand, the number of investigations on immiscible mixtures which form stratified layers of component liquids before the heating is quite limited. There are old studies by Bonilla and Eisenbuerg [13], Bragg and Westwater [14], Sump and Westwater [15]. Bragg and Westwater [14] classified heat transfer modes for individual layers of liquids. The interpretation of data, however, was not described in detail. Gorenflo et al. [16] studied boiling of water/1-butanol on a horizontal tube, where the liquid mixture becomes soluble or partially soluble depending on its concentration, and levels of temperature and pressure. From the experiments performed under various combinations of concentration and pressure, they reported that the nucleate boiling heat transfer is not largely depending on the solubility.
\nImmiscible mixtures employed here consist of insoluble component liquids and their phenomena during nucleate boiling have a unique feature characterized by self-sustaining subcooling of liquids. An example of phase equilibrium diagrams for FC72/water at the total pressure of 0.1 MPa is shown in Figure 3. The concentration where the two curves merge, which is corresponding to the azeotropic point frequently observed in miscible mixtures, is the concentration of vapor phase independent of the liquid composition for immiscible mixtures. The concentrations Y1 and 1−Y1 (=Y2) on the dew point curves for lower and higher concentrations of more-volatile component in liquid phase are calculated by the following equations, respectively (e.g., Prigogine and Defay [17]).
where Y1: mole fraction of more-volatile component in vapor on dew point curve [−], T: dew point temperature [K], Tsat: saturation temperature [K] for a given total pressure, hfg: latent heat of vaporization [kJ/kg] and R: gas constant [kJ/kg·K]. The equations are easily derived from the Clausius-Clapeyron equation and the ideal gas relation applied approximately to vapor phase.
\nPhase equilibrium diagram of FC72/water mixture.
The conditions of liquid phase are represented in Figure 4, where two saturated vapor pressure curves with a red line for a more-volatile component and a blue line for a less-volatile one are drawn. Since immiscible mixtures have the total pressure Ptotal as the sum of saturated vapor pressures corresponding to the equilibrium temperature Te, the equilibrium state of the mixture is represented by a black point in the figure and the relation Psat,1(Te) + Psat,2(Te) = Ptotal holds true. Immiscible liquids are separated because of the difference in their densities, and one component liquid contacts or tends to contact the surface located at the bottom. The equilibrium temperature of immiscible mixtures is realized by the evaporation of both components. The degree of subcooling becomes the difference between the saturation temperature of each component corresponding to the total pressure and the equilibrium temperature of the mixture. If either of two components is not evaporated enough or not satisfy the saturation state corresponding to the equilibrium temperature but the vapor of one component is superheated, the liquid state of the other component is deviated from the equilibrium state represented in the figure. The equilibrium temperature of mixtures tested here and the degree of subcooling for each component liquid are shown in Tables 1 and 2, respectively. The subcooling of less-volatile liquid excessively compressed by the high vapor pressure of more-volatile component becomes very high, while the subcooling of more-volatile liquid is very low.
\nVapor pressure curves of components for immiscible mixtures.
More-volatile component (Tsat,1) | \nLess-volatile component (Tsat,2) | \nMixtures Te | \n
---|---|---|
FC72 (55.9°C) | \nWater (100°C) | \n51.6°C | \n
Novec7200 (78.4°C) | \nWater (100°C) | \n66.4°C | \n
Saturation temperature of each component and equilibrium temperature of immiscible mixtures at 0.1 MPa
Mixtures | \nSubcooling | \n|
---|---|---|
More-volatile component ΔTsub,1 | \nLess-volatile component ΔTsub,2 | \n|
FC72/Water | \n4.3 K | \n48.4 K | \n
Novec7200/Water | \n12.0 K | \n33.6 K | \n
Degree of subcooling for component liquids at 0.1 MPa
The outline of the apparatus is shown in Figure 5. A flat heating surface of 40 mm in diameter made of copper is located horizontally facing upwards. The upper surface of cylindrical copper heating block is operated as the heating surface surrounded by a thin fin cut out in one unit body to prevent the preferential nucleation at the periphery. Nineteen cartridge heaters are inserted in the heating block and the maximum amount of heat generation is 5700 W. Eight thermocouples are inserted in the center and side of copper heating block at four different depths of 1, 7, 13 and 19 mm below the heating surface to estimate the heat flux and heating surface temperature. Fluid temperatures are measured by three thermocouples at 2, 80 and 160 mm above the heating surface in the boiling vessel, where the liquid level is located between the second and third thermocouples.
\nOutline of pool boiling experimental apparatus.
The experiments are performed at 0.1 MPa changing volume ratio of the components. Immiscible mixtures of FC72/water and Novec7200/water are used as test fluids, where FC72 and Novec7200 are more-volatile components with higher density and water is less-volatile one with lower density. The conditions for the volume ratio of component liquids are represented by Figure 6 [9], where H1 is the height of the more-volatile liquid from the heating surface and H2 is for the less-volatile liquid. The total height is kept at 100 mm, i.e., H1 + H2 = 100mm, and tested compositions are listed in Table 3.
\nCondition representing volume ratio of immiscible liquids [9].
1. More-volatile c. / 2. Less-volatile c. | \nHeight of liquid [H1 mm /H2 mm] | \n
---|---|
FC72/Water | \n[0/100], [5/95], [10/90], [50/50] | \n
Novec7200/Water | \n[0/100], [5/95], [10/90] | \n
Tested composition of liquids
Heat flux versus heating surface temperature for FC72/water.
Experimental results are shown in Figures 7 and 8 for FC72/water and Novec7200/water, respectively. Figure 7 represents the relation between heat flux q and heating surface temperature Tw for FC72/water, where representative heat transfer characteristics of immiscible liquids are known. Independent of volume ratios, the heating surface temperatures for mixtures are located between those for pure liquids. The curve for [50 mm/50 mm] almost coincides with that for the saturated boiling of FC72. For [10 mm/90 mm], a temperature jump similar to burnout phenomena occurs, which is referred to as the "intermediate heat flux burnout" by the present authors. For [5 mm/95 mm] and [0 mm/100 mm], the surface temperature increases with heat flux, where the heat transfer mode changes from natural convection to nucleate boiling of water under high subcooled conditions. For [5 mm/95 mm], the reduction of surface temperature from that of saturated nucleate boiling of water is clearly observed at high heat flux due to the heat transfer enhancement resulting from the generation of bubbles composed mainly by FC72 vapor. For [0 mm/100 mm], the value of CHF increases from 1.35 MW/m2 of saturated water to 3.04 MW/m2 of FC72/water mixtures at 0.1 MPa. The marked increase of CHF resulted from the high subcooling of water as much as 48.4 K due to the excessive compression by FC72 vapor. Similar results are obtained also for Novec7200/water despite of the quantitative difference in the effect of liquid height between the two mixtures tested here. In Figure 9, the values of CHF are compared with those of subcooled boiling of pure water estimated by Ivey-Morris correlation [18]. For [0 mm/100 mm], the experimental CHF values are close to the predicted ones, while the discrepancy is increased as the liquid height of more-volatile component increases. This is because boiling of the more-volatile component promotes the coalescence of bubbles and the dryout occurs at lower heat fluxes.
\n\nHeat flux versus heating surface temperature for Novec7200/water.
The comparison of CHF data with predicted values for subcooled boiling of less-volatile liquid.
The phenomena of limited jump of heating surface temperature referred here to as the intermediate heat flux burnout occurs if the thickness of the more-volatile liquid with higher density attached to the horizontal heating surface is small as observed for FC72/water [10 mm/90 mm] at q = 2.0 × 105 W/m2 in Figure 7 and Novec7200/water [5 mm/95 mm] at q = 2.3 × 105 W/m2 in Figure 8.
\nAfter the jump of the surface temperature, the heat transfer mode is changed from the nucleate boiling of more-volatile liquid to the natural convection or nucleate boiling of less-volatile liquid at higher heat fluxes. It is very important that the generation of bubbles or vapor slugs of more-volatile component continues also in this region enhancing the heat transfer to the less-volatile liquid. The intermediate heat flux burnout is observed when Taylor instability occurs by the growth of a coalesced bubble with more-volatile component after its lateral coalescence below the bulk of less-volatile liquid with lower density.
\nThe value of minimum bubble diameter dmin penetrating across the liquid-liquid interface is evaluated from the minimum volume of a bubble Vmin, assuming the sphere bubble shape (Greene et al. [19], Onishi et al. [20]).
where σ: interfacial tension [m/s], g: gravitational acceleration [m/s2], ρL2 : density of upper liquid, i.e., less-volatile liquid with lower density [kg/m3], ρV1: density of lower vapor, i.e., vapor mainly of more-volatile component [kg/m3]. The correlation implies that the penetration criteria is determined by two conflicting forces of the buoyancy acting upwards on a bubble and of the interfacial tension to suppress the bubble penetration. Table 4 listed the most dangerous wavelength of Taylor instability λd, minimum bubble penetration diameter dmin and bubble departure diameter db under pool boiling conditions evaluated at 0.1 MPa.
\nMore-volatile component | \nFC72 | \nNovec7200 | \n
---|---|---|
Less-volatile component | \nWater | \nWater | \n
Most dangerous wavelength λd [mm] | \n28.9 | \n28.4 | \n
Minimum penetration diameter dmin [mm] | \n4.2 | \n3.9 | \n
Bubble departure diameter db[mm] | \n0.36 | \n0.43 | \n
Wavelength for Taylor instability and minimum bubble diameter for more-volatile component to penetrate into upper less-volatile liquid at 0.1 MPa
Bubbles of more-volatile component grow by the evaporation or lateral coalescence in the vicinity of liquid-liquid interface and become sizes beyond dmin. The enlarged bubbles penetrate into the less-volatile liquid layer accompanying the entrainment of more-volatile liquid as shown in Figure 10. Under this condition, bubbles of more-volatile component do not grow to the size of the wavelength λd, and no mixing of liquids occurs in the vicinity of heating surface. The penetration of generated bubbles thorough the liquid-liquid interface delays their coalescence. However, at a certain value of heat flux, the rate of bubble generation exceeds the elimination of bubbles by the penetration, and the lateral bubble coalescence occurs under the liquid-liquid interface. The diameter of flattened bubble radius exceeds the wave length of Taylor instability λd, and the less-volatile liquid descends and starts to contact the heating surface. The large subcooling of less-volatile liquid is enough to suppress the excessive jump of heating surface temperature.
\nExpected behaviors of bubble in the vicinity of liquid-liquid interface.
There is another type of intermediate heat flux burnout confirmed by the present authors, where the heating surface temperature gradually deviates from that for nucleate boiling of pure more-volatile liquid [9]. In such a case, bubbles can coalesce easily below the liquid-liquid interface because of thicker thickness of its layer and exceed the value of most dangerous wave length at lower heat flux. As a consequence, the less-volatile liquid starts to contact partially the heating surface, and the contribution of the heat transfer to the less-volatile liquid gradually increased as the increase of heat flux keeping the steady-state conditions at each heat flux level. Similar phenomenon occurs in the cases of smaller wavelength of Taylor instability or of partially soluble combination of liquids depending on the selection of component liquids. It is clear that the physical and/or chemical mixing of component liquids is a key factor to determine the heat transfer characteristics at low heat flux.
\n\nFigures 11 and 12 show the outline of test section and test loop [21]. Test loop is composed of test section, condenser, liquid-vapor separation tank, circulating pump, pre-heater. Immiscible liquids are stratified in liquid-vapor separation tank, and both flow rates are controlled by valves. The test section is composed of a heated section of stainless tube spirally coiled by sheath heaters on the outer surface and a transparent unheated section of Pyrex glass for the observation of liquid-liquid and liquid-vapor interfaces. The inner diameter of both tubes is 7 mm and heated length is 310 mm. Six thermocouples are inserted in the top and bottom tube walls at the upstream, midstream and downstream locations. The experiments are conducted for the combination of FC72 and water, i.e. more-volatile component with higher density and less-volatile one with lower density whose saturation temperatures as pure components are 55.7 and 100°C, respectively, at 0.1 MPa.
\nOutline of test section [21].
Test loop [21].
Various flow patterns such as stratified flow, FC72 slug flow, emulsion-like flow, "wavy stratified + FC72 droplet flow", "FC72 churn + FC72 droplet flow" and "FC72 slug + FC72 droplet flow" are observed depending on the combinations of flow rates for both components under unheated conditions, and they are summarized as a liquid-liquid flow pattern map in Figures 13 and 14 [21].It is known by the preliminary experiments that the heat transfer characteristics at low heat fluxes are strongly influenced by the liquid-liquid behaviors under unheated conditions.
\nTypical flow patterns of FC72/water [21].
Flow pattern map for FC72/water. [21]
Outlet fluid temperature versus heat flux.
Liquid-vapor behaviors for flow boiling of FC72/Water
To evaluate the local heat transfer coefficients, the distribution of mixture temperature along the tube axis is needed. Outlet mixture temperature can be reproduced by the heat balance equations which introduce a parameter ξ representing the ratio of heat supplied to more-volatile component FC72 to the total. Figure 15 shows the outlet mixture temperature versus heat flux. The solid lines and broken lines are calculated and experimental outlet temperatures, respectively. The parameter ξ depends only on the flow rate ratio and not on the heat flux. This could be possible if the liquid-liquid flow pattern is not strongly dependent on the bubble generation at low heat flux as shown in Table 5. The error of the prediction is less than ±1.0K.
\n\nFigures 16 and 17 show heat transfer coefficient and wall temperature versus heat flux at midstream averaged by the top and the bottom values. Heat transfer coefficient is higher and wall temperature is lower than pure water for immiscible liquid because the convection of water is enhanced by the generation of FC72 bubbles.
\nHeat transfer coefficient versus heat flux at midstream.
Wall temperature versus heat flux at midstream.
To clarify the boiling heat transfer characteristics of immiscible mixtures, experiments of pool boiling and flow boiling in a tube were conducted, and the following results were obtained.
By optimizing the volume ratio of immiscible mixtures in pool boiling using a flat heating surface facing upwards, the drastic increase of CHF and/or the decrease of heating surface temperature from those of pure less-volatile component become possible.
The above characteristics resulted from the self-sustaining high subcooling of less-volatile liquid and the substantial heat transfer enhancement caused by the preferential evaporation of more-volatile liquid.
In flow boiling, outlet fluid temperature is well reproduced by heat balance equations, which introduced a parameter representing the ratio of heat supplied to more-volatile component to the total.
In flow boiling, at low and moderate heat fluxes, the convection of less-volatile liquid is enhanced by boiling of more-volatile liquid, and the enhancement is largest corresponding to the flow pattern of emulsion-like flow at low flow rate of more-volatile component classified under the unheated conditions.
For the cooling systems in an enclosure, the distribution of liquid layers for both immiscible components becomes a key to determine the heat transfer characteristics due to nucleate boiling. For a vertical heating surface or a heating surface operated under the reduced gravity conditions, some methods to transfer the heat to the more-volatile liquid with larger density are needed to obtain the superior cooling characteristics.
\nhfg latent heat of vaporization, J/kg
H height of liquid, mm
j superficial velocity, m/s
P pressure, N/m2
Ptotal total pressure, N/m2
q heat flux, W/m2
R bubble radius or gas constant, m or J/kg⋅K
T temperature, °C or K
Te equilibrium temperature, °C
Tsat saturation temperature, K
Tw surface temperature, °C
V volumetric flow rate, L/min
X mole fraction in liquid, -
x vapor quality, -
Y mole fraction in vapor, -
Greek symbols
\nα heat transfer coefficient, W/m2⋅K
ΔTsub degree of subcooling, K
ξ ratio of heat supplied to more-volatile component to the total, -
Subscripts
\n1 more-volatile component
2 less-volatile component
ave average
M midstream
out outlet
sat saturated
Urban green areas have important various functions contributing to the quality of human health. Well-kept lawns enhance the esthetic value of the entire city and are involved in phytoremediation, leading to an improvement in the quality of the air and soil [1, 2, 3, 4]. Perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) is an important and widespread perennial cool-season grass cultivated in temperate climates, originating in Europe, temperate Asia, and North Africa [5]. Perennial ryegrass is commonly used in home lawns, sport fields, and parks with rapid growth and establishing rate, and other elements for ecosystem service due to its massive root system, superior regeneration, and tillering ability. It is also widely used as nutritive forage and pasture grass for animals around the world [6, 7, 8]. Moreover, numerous perennial ryegrass genotypes and hybrids are now released by commercial utilities [9, 10].
In fields, the growth and development process of plants needs to counteract various environmental stresses such as salinity, drought, cold, heat, and heavy metal [11, 12, 13]. Harsh environmental conditions may result in growth inhibition, cell structure damage, and metabolic dysfunction [14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20]. Moreover, stresses will further be intensified for the potential impact of climate change in future. Thus, maintaining proper growth of turfgrass with minimal inputs under abiotic stress conditions is a great challenge for turfgrass industry. This challenge could be addressed through improving the stress tolerance of turfgrass [14, 21]. Understanding morphological and physiological mechanisms of turfgrass adaptation to various abiotic stresses is a key step for the development of stress-tolerant ability and cost-effective and efficient management practices [13]. Morphophysiological mechanisms of turfgrass in abiotic stresses tolerance involve phenotypic changes, multiple physiological and biochemical response, and complex metabolic processes, such as water and nutrient relations, carbohydrate metabolism, protein metabolism, hormone metabolism, as well as antioxidant defenses [22, 23]. Current studies on morphophysiological mechanism controlling turfgrass adaptations to various growth conditions have provided important information for production of abiotic stress-tolerant germplasms and the further understanding of regulation mechanism of turfgrass response to abiotic stresses [13, 24, 25]. However, the mechanisms of the adaptive responses are integrated but are not necessarily the same [14]; thus, studies on how perennial ryegrass adapts to stress conditions will become more important with the increasing pressure of utilizing both ecological and economical strategies in the turf management. Furthermore, insights into mechanisms of stress resistance in perennial ryegrass will aid in identifying important characteristics for selecting the criteria of improving stress tolerance and will ultimately lead to better selection of new cultivars adapted to adverse environments. This chapter, therefore, focuses on an extensive overview of the current understanding of changes in physiology and growth/development of perennial ryegrass under various abiotic stresses. In addition, strategies for improving the stress tolerance of perennial ryegrass are also presented. This review can contribute to the better understanding of the mechanisms of perennial ryegrass response to environmental stresses and can provide valuable information for improving resistance characteristics of perennial ryegrass by breeding. Moreover, enhancing our understanding of physiological effects of abiotic stresses can provide guidelines for the practical management strategies of the maintenance of high-quality turf under limited resource availability.
Abiotic stresses are major environmental conditions that reduce plant growth, productivity, and quality. Plants have evolved mechanisms to perceive these environmental challenges, transmit the stress signals within cells as well as between cells and tissues, and make appropriate adjustments in their growth and development for survive and reproduce [26, 27, 28, 29]. The morphological and physiological changes of perennial ryegrass under abiotic stress will be discussed in this chapter.
Growth and development processes are inhibited when plant is exposed to drought stress [30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36]. Morphological adjustments, such as biomass allocation and leave changes, have been proposed as the key mechanisms used by turfgrass to enhance survival under drought [37]. There is a series of morphology changes in perennial ryegrass under drought stress. Drought stress reduced the turf quality (TQ), number of live tillers and dry-matter yield [38, 39, 40]. Moreover, drought significantly enhanced root to shoot ratio (R/S) in perennial ryegrass to an less extents, depending on the intensity, the reason may be that perennial ryegrass in drought stress develop a large R/S to maintain water and nutrient uptake [39]. The leaves of perennial ryegrass under drought stress were also dramatically different from that of nonstressed perennial ryegrass, for example, under drought stress, the diurnal variation in the rate of leaf extension was smaller but the leaves tended to grow faster at night compared to normal irrigation controls; however, water stress ultimately reduced the rate of leaf extension and leaf area in perennial ryegrass [40]. Furthermore, the leaves’ epidermis of perennial ryegrass under drought reduced the stomatal size and increased the numbers per unit leaf area. Drought also resulted deeper ridging on leaf ad-axial surface, smaller epidermal cells and bigger ridge angle [40]. Under drought stress, leave stomata of perennial ryegrass began to close to reduce their evapotranspiration rate (ET), at leaf water potentials below—13 bars [40].
Drought stress causes significant physiological changes, including photosynthesis, osmotic adjustment substances, proteins, and antioxidant metabolism, in perennial ryegrass. For instance, the content of leaf total nitrogen and leaf relative water content (RWC) were tested to decrease, on the contrary, antioxidant activity including ascorbate peroxidase (APX), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione reductase (GR), glutathione S-transferase (GST), amino acids such as aspartic acid, threonine, serine, glutamic acid, abscisic acid (ABA) concentration, and proline content increased under drought stress [41]. Photosynthesis is the primary process controlling plant growth and adaption to drought stress [42]. The canopy photosynthesis of perennial ryegrass at saturating light intensity was reduced by about half in the stressed field swards and by more than 80% in the stressed simulated swards [38]. Drought stress inhibits photosynthesis, which may be the result of low CO2 availability caused by stomatal closure and/or the inhibition of photochemical reactions and carbon assimilation metabolism [43]. In addition to the photosynthesis, starchis also considered as a buffer for imbalance between acquisition by photosynthesis and C-sink activities such as growth and respiration resulted from drought, also stress due to the excessive use of inorganic fertilizer [44]. However, use of green manure also has risk of xenobiotic contamination [45, 46, 47], and the soluble sugars, including sucrose, fructose and glucose, are involved in multiple physiological functions such as respiration, turgor maintenance, signaling and defense. Under drought conditions, starch of perennial ryegrass significantly decreased in shoots, but did not change in roots, which indicated that perennial ryegrass in drought condition preferentially allocates carbon not only to root growth, but also to root storage, while soluble sugars were enhanced in both shoots and roots. Accumulation of soluble sugars has been widely reported for plants upon water stress as a means to provide osmotic protection [39], which suggested that increasing of soluble sugars was benefit to plants to maintain growth and active metabolic activities under water deficit.
It is generally accepted that there is a noticeable genotypic variation in perennial ryegrass for drought stress responses. The research showed that one self-pollinating genotype “S10” showed higher RWC, shoot dry weight (SDW), proline, ABA, nitrogen and amino acid contents, and antioxidant enzymes activities in comparison with two commercial genotypes of “Vigor” and “Speedy” [41]. Proteins involved in carbon and energy metabolism, photosynthesis, tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA) cycle, redox, and transport categories were upregulated in the two commercial genotypes of “Vigo” and “Speedy,” while the protein profile of the “S10” changed slightly under drought stress, and the reason may be that self-pollination in the genetic background of the “S10” genotype may have a lower variation in response to drought stress conditions [41]. Additionally, other research indicated that tetraploid perennial ryegrass exhibited a greater biomass under severe drought, whereas diploids had a greater biomass under the current rainfall [48, 49]. Moreover, tetraploid perennial ryegrass populations were able to develop more shoot and root dry matter than diploid populations in following the application of drought stress [50].
The above researches showed that drought stress caused significantly physiological and morphological changes in perennial ryegrass (Table 1) [55, 56]. Thus, the growth of perennial ryegrass is severely restricted by soil water deficits [57]. Increasing drought tolerance of perennial ryegrass via strategies is importance for both water conservation and maintaining growth in water limiting environments. For example, the grass-Epichloë endophytic improved water utilization and drought tolerance in perennial ryegrass [58]. Moreover, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) + Epichloë treatments increased phosphorus (P) uptake, net photosynthetic rate (Pn), root activity, soluble sugar concentration, peroxidase (POD) activity, and decreased malonyldialdehyde (MDA) concentration in perennial ryegrass under drought stress, the reason may be that Plant-AMF-Epichloë symbiosis alleviated the damage caused by drought stress by promoting P uptake, photosynthesis, and the accumulation of osmoregulatory substances [59]. Additionally, application of plant growth regulators (PGRs) have been reported to be a promising way of reducing drought stress impacts [60]. The study manifested that trinexapac ethyl (TE) treatment increased chlorophyll content, proline content, the RWC, soluble sugar content, antioxidant enzymes activities, decreased MDA and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) contents in perennial ryegrass under drought stress, while Paclobutrazol (PAC)- and ABA-treated perennial ryegrasses were all effective in mitigating physiological damages resulting from drought stress [52]. Furthermore, overexpression of some drought-related genes has been shown to effectively improve drought tolerance of plants [61]. According to Patel et al. [53], overexpression of LpHUB1 gene conferred drought tolerance in perennial ryegrass.
Morphological responses | Physiological responses | Strategies |
---|---|---|
• Decreased turf quality • Enhanced R/S • Decreased leaf area • Reduce the number of live tillers • Had smaller stomata and epidermal cells • Had bigger ridge angle • Controlled stomatal opening [38, 39, 40] | • Decline biomass • Decline photosynthetic rate • Increased osmotic adjustment substances • Increased antioxidant activity • Increased amino acid content [39, 41, 51] | • Application of plant growth regulators (PGRs) • Selected drought resistance cultivars from different cultivars • Using endophytes • Using transgenic technology [52, 53, 54] |
Morphophysiological response of perennial ryegrass under drought stress.
Perennial ryegrass can grow throughout the year, and the major constraint on growth is temperature [51, 62]. Perennial ryegrass has an optimal growth temperature of about 20°C, and it is sensitive to high (30–40°C) and low (−20 to 0°C) temperatures [63, 64]. Common perennial ryegrass germinates quickly and can be used as a temporary ground cover while the slower growing bluegrass plants take hold in cool temperate region. In warm climates, it is used as an overseed to maintain winter green in the lawn after the warm season grasses go dormant. However, populations of perennial ryegrass will not survive the summer heat. Severe heat stress (40/35°C day/night) caused significant physiological damages, including declining in TQ , RWC, CAT activity, and enhancing in electrolyte leakage (EL) of leaves and MDA content, in perennial ryegrass [65]. Moreover, heat stress decreased plant height (HT), leaf fresh weight (LFW) and leaf fresh dry (LFD), and increased cytokinin and auxin at 35/30°C (day/night) of temperature [66]. Moreover, low temperature is one of the main factors that limit the persistence of perennial ryegrass-dominated grasslands in northern regions. Cold stress decreased TQ , regrowth, dry weight, and tiller density in perennial ryegrass when the winters were mild with short (2–6 weeks) periods of lower than −10°C temperatures and no permanent snow cover [67]. Furthermore, cold stress decreased RWC and increase EL in leaves and roots when perennial ryegrass was exposed to −15 or −25°C [68]. To resolve these problems and maintain high visual quality of perennial ryegrass through the year, it is important to found new cultivars to adapt to temperature stress. Variations of heat- or cold- resistance were also found among different perennial ryegrass cultivars. Thus, selection cold- or heat-tolerant cultivars during perennial ryegrass genotypes can be an effective method for temperature tolerance improvement in perennial ryegrass. The research tested the heat tolerance of 58 cultivars collected from seed companies and research centers in U.S.A., New Zealand, and Europe, the result showed that distinct heat tolerance was found among the cultivars at all the temperature regimes, and the least and most tolerant cultivars were “JPR005” and “JPR178,” respectively [69]. The other research indicated that changes of morphology and physiology were different for heat-tolerant accession “PI265351” and sensitive accession “PI225825” [66]. Similarly, the heat-tolerant populations of perennial grass showed significantly lower degree damage in efficiency of photosystem II and cell membrane stability than the sensitive ones at different levels of stress [70]. Additionally, the study showed that 21 accessions sampled from a larger set of 300 accessions with known winter hardiness, the result showed that the degree of semi-lethal temperature in 21 ryegrass varieties varies from −10.31 to −13.95°C, with 3 accessions possessing significantly greater freezing tolerance than the most freeze-tolerant check “NK200” [71]. Moreover, tetraploid genotypes of perennial ryegrass demonstrated higher tolerance to cold stress conditions, better spring growth, and regrowth after cuts, and higher dry matter yield compared to diploid genotypes [67].
The studies indicate that temperature stress caused the morphological and physiological damage in plant, and the response of genotypes to temperature stress was different [72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80]. Therefore, founding some strategies which could improve cold- or heat-tolerant of perennial ryegrass is important. It was also reported that 24-epibrassinolide promoted carbohydrates accumulation in crowns of perennial ryegrass during cold acclimation by regulation of gene expression and enzyme activities, and which resulted in increased frost tolerance [81]. Moreover, drought preconditioning increased in crown fructans, proline, and total soluble protein content for “Buccaneer” and “Sunkissed” during cold acclimation, which suggested a synergistic effect between drought exposure and low temperature, and drought preconditioning resulted in an improvement in freezing tolerance of perennial ryegrass [82]. Additionally, previous studies have shown that the enzyme activity level and gene expression of antioxidants are associated with cold and heat tolerance in a cool-season perennial grass species [83, 84]. For instance, LpHOX21 was positively associated with heat tolerance of perennial ryegrass [85]. Similarly, P450 gene (LpCYP72A161) showed remarkable upregulation in perennial ryegrass under heat and cold treatment. Therefore, transferring key genes into perennial ryegrass will be beneficial to improve heat or freezing tolerance [86].
Salinity stress has become a more significant problem in turfgrass management in many areas [13]. Responses of plants to salinity stress occur mainly through two distinct phases over time: osmotic-changing and ion specific phases [87, 88, 89]. Like other turfgrasses, salt stress caused morphology, physiology, molecular changes in growth and development of perennial ryegrass, such as TQ LFW, LED, and RWC of perennial ryegrass decreasing after exposure to salinity [89, 90]. The alterations of morphological characteristics of turfgrass under salt stress are derived from the changes of physiological traits such as cell membrane stability [14]. It was reported that MDA content and EL enhanced by NaCl concentration in perennial ryegrass [54]. Simultaneously, superoxide radical (O2−), H2O2, and singlet oxygen (O2) concentration increased observably in perennial ryegrass after salt stress treatment [54, 91]. To scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS), salt-stressed leaves of perennial ryegrass exhibited greater activities of SOD, APX, and CAT at the initial stage of salt stress, but lower levels of enzyme with the extension of salt stress [89]. Salt stress also negatively affected on the total chlorophyll (Chl), Chl a and Chl b, in perennial ryegrass [89], which showed that salt stress induced Chl decomposition in leaves. Moreover, a further research of PSII changes in perennial ryegrass discovered that quantum yields, efficiencies, and energy fluxes were impacted after salt stress treatment [92, 93]. Additionally, a vast amount of Na+ accumulated in plants could induce ionic imbalance in the cells. It was reported that Na+ concentration accumulated rapidly and other ion concentrations including K+, Ca2+ and Mg2+ were decreased in response to salt stress in perennial ryegrass [89].
Salt stress causes dramatically changes in morphology and physiology of perennial ryegrass as showed above and summaries in Figure 1. However, these responses varied greatly among different genotypes. The research compared the salt tolerance in 10 accessions of perennial ryegrass, and determined that “PI275660” and “BrightStar” showed the best tolerance to salt stress, while “PI231595” and “PI251141” were the most sensitive accessions [5]. The other research reported that the effect on parameters of photosynthetic efficiency in perennial ryegrass “Roadrunner” was less than that in “Nira” under salt stress condition [6]. Moreover, the highest salt tolerance accessions were from the European group, wild accessions and exhibited more variation in functional traits and salt tolerance than commercial cultivars [90]. Some other strategies can also improve the salt-tolerance in perennial ryegrass. Salt-tolerant transgenic perennial ryegrass could be obtained by Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation of the vacuolar Na+/H+ antiporter gene [94]. Additionally, exogenous cytokinin applications alleviated salt-induced leaf senescence in perennial ryegrass [8]. Furthermore, salt tolerance of perennial ryegrass can increase by a novel bacterium strain from the rhizosphere of a desert shrub Haloxylon ammodendron induced [95].
Morphophysiological response and strategies for salt stress in perennial ryegrass.
The continuing industrialization has led to extensive environmental problems worldwide [96, 97, 98]. Heavy metals produced from industry are released to soil. Thus, high accumulation of heavy metal in soil can induce environmental stress on plants [14]. Research on the response of perennial ryegrass to heavy metal stress has also progressed in recent years. It has been proved that heavy metals can induce damage and affect metabolic processes in perennial ryegrass [98, 99, 100]. For example, perennial ryegrass had characters in yield reduction and visible symptoms of phytotoxicity under cadmium (Cd) and zinc (Zn) stress [98]. Moreover, the cellular membrane system was damaged because of elevated MDA and EL contents when perennial ryegrass was exposed to salt condition [101]. According to studies, a dramatic inhibition of root and shoot growth was detected in perennial ryegrass after heavy metals treatment [101, 102, 103]. Moreover, the composition of the leaves of perennial ryegrass, including apparently opposite effects on the calcium (Ca), potassium (K) and P levels, was changed under the aluminum (Al) stress [104]. Additionally, ROS bursts occurred in perennial ryegrass under heavy mental stress conditions. For instance, H2O2 and O2− were significantly accumulated in perennial ryegrass under Cd stress [105]. Hence, the protection mechanisms in perennial ryegrass such as the antioxidant system were triggered under heavy stress, resulting in the increase of SOD, CAT, and POD activities and their corresponding genes [106]. Moreover, content of fructan, sugar, and starch showed an increasing trend in perennial ryegrass after heavy metal stress [98]. However, certain concentrations of heavy metal were beneficial for the growth of perennial ryegrass [107]. Heavy metal stresses not only induce physiological damage, but also inhibit germination and growth of perennial ryegrass [108].
To improve the heavy metal stress tolerance of perennial ryegrass, several investigations were conducted in recent years. It was reported that signal messengers such as nitricoxide (NO) and glycine betaine (GB) play crucial roles in alleviating Cd and Cu-induced damages in perennial ryegrass [109, 110]. Moreover, the exogenous P was testified to improve the Cd tolerance of perennial ryegrass, the reason may be that exogenous P facilitates chelation-mediated Cd detoxification processes [105]. Similarly, a high dose of P amendment alleviated Mn-toxicity in Mn-sensitive genotype in perennial ryegrass [102]. Furthermore, the addition of biochar to a contaminated mine soil improved the nutrient status of this mine soil and contributed to a better establishment of perennial ryegrass [100]. Additionally, AMF enhance both absorption and stabilization of Cd by perennial ryegrass in a Cd-contaminated acidic soil [96], and ethylene diamine tetra acetate (EDTA) enhanced phytoremediation of heavy metals from municipal waste compost and sludge soil by perennial ryegrass [99, 111, 112].
Significant progress has been made in the understanding of morphological and physiological mechanisms associated with perennial ryegrass tolerance to drought, salinity, temperature, and heavy mental stresses. Harsh stress conditions inhibit the growth and development and decrease TQ , root length, and dry weight in perennial ryegrass. Moreover, physiological response to abiotic stress in perennial ryegrass displays changes of the cell membrane, photosystem, metabolites, and antioxidant system. The contents of MDA and EL are increased, while Chl content and photosynthesis are decreased under stress conditions. To regulate the osmotic potential of the cell after stress treatment, some metabolites such as proline, soluble sugars, and proteins accumulate. Meanwhile, antioxidant enzymes’ activities increase in perennial ryegrass for scavenging ROS. Perennial ryegrass has protective responses against unfavorable conditions, but there is a threshold to these physiological changes. To understand the response to abiotic stress and resistance attributes in perennial ryegrass will be beneficial to breeding in future.
For improving the stress tolerance of perennial ryegrass, some practical strategies are exploited currently, such as application of phytohormones, endophytes, and chemical compounds. Further research on increasing perennial ryegrass stress tolerance should pay more attention to transgenic technology to identify effective genes for modifying stress-tolerance ability.
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