Chemical composition of fly ash from the combustion of bituminous, sub-bituminous and lignite coal [2].
\r\n\t
\r\n\tThis knowledge gap is due in part to the lack of a preclinical small animal model which can faithfully recapitulate EBV infection and immune control and would allow testing of EBV specific vaccine candidates. With the advent of mice with reconstituted human immune system compartments (HIS mice) during the past decade, this is changing. The complex interplay between host and virus has made it difficult to elaborate useful vaccine strategies to protect against the EBV-associated diseases (including chronic diseases like MS) or to find efficient drugs specifically targeting EBV malignancies.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tOne challenge is that the EBV expresses very different proteins during its lytic and its latent phases. To address this, vaccine candidates have been designed to include proteins from both phases. As EBV is associated with nearly 200,000 new malignancies each year worldwide, an EBV vaccine to prevent these diseases is needed. Parallel to this needs one could propose priorities for future research: (i) Identification of surrogate markers that predict the development of EBV-related malignancies. (ii) Definition of a goal for an EBV vaccine and criteria for licensure (iii), investigation of the potential usefulness of targeting certain lytic proteins in the context of drug discovery.
This chapter aims to review prior literature on tax practitioner and provide insights into tax practitioner behavior that affects taxpayer compliance. For the last four decades, tax compliance has been a subject matter of considerable interest to many researchers from a variety of academic disciplines including accounting, economics, history, law, psychology, political science, and sociology [1]. A great deal of studies has already contributed to the tax literature discovering factors that shape taxpayer compliance behavior. However, most of them focus on taxpayer’s behavioral responses to the tax system and fiscal policy.
Taxation is a highly structured process of institutionalized entities like taxpayers, tax practitioners, tax administration, and up to government and tax lawmakers [2]. Besides, tax compliance is a complex phenomenon in the actors in the field, and their interactions have a great impact on individual taxpayers’ behavior [3]. Hence, lack of research on important entities can undermine our understanding of tax compliance behavior that is intimately intertwined [4].
In the real world, professional tax practices are highly relevant to determine taxpayer compliance. Tax practitioner can exert considerable influence on taxpayers in the tax compliance process by either helping them to enforce or exploit the tax law [5]. Many taxpayers, being helpless of overwhelming volumes and mysterious jargons in the tax laws, resort to the assistance from tax professionals who are well-informed of the complex tax rules. Moreover, having limited resources to run their business, taxpayers often defer to tax practitioners for the important decisions about their own tax matters. Therefore, it is essential to understand what makes the practitioners compliant and how they achieve compliance in taxpayer compliance process. However, scientific studies on tax practice in relation to taxpayer compliance are scarce. Furthermore, there is not a widely accepted definition of tax practitioner compliance.
The main objective of the chapter is to provide tax scholars, tax practitioners, and tax authorities with a better understanding of tax practitioner compliance in connection with taxpayers’ choice of their tax position. Toward this end, I glean useful knowledge from research findings and synthesize them in order to clarify the meaning of tax compliance in relation to taxpayer and tax practitioner and their interactions. Herein, I refer to tax practitioners as private sector tax professionals who help taxpayers to prepare their tax returns and/or provide advice on tax matters including accountants, paid preparers, lawyers, etc.
Tax practitioner behavior is of great concern to taxpayers, as well as tax authorities. Shafer and Simmons [6] maintain tax advisors have abandoned concern for the public interests in favor of commercialism. The dilemma mainly arises from their dual role as a client advocate and gatekeeper safeguarding the fairness of the tax system. In other words, an aspect of tax practitioner compliance relates to the conflict of client advocacy and professional responsibilities [7]. Mason and Garrett Levy [8], p. 127, defines client advocacy as “a state of mind in which one feels one’s primary loyalty belongs to the taxpayer. It is exhibited by a desire to represent the taxpayer zealously within the bounds of the law and by a desire to be a fighter on behalf of the taxpayer.”
For example, a noncompliant practitioner is willing to accept overly aggressive or, in its extreme, a fraudulent tax reporting if the probability of detection and punishment is perceived to be relatively low. However, an important question still remains unresolved. Should tax practitioner aggressiveness in terms of recommending tax treatment be deemed noncompliant without any consideration whatsoever? Is tax practitioner compliance achieved if the practitioner takes too conservative a tax position in favor of the government which, arguably, represents public interests?
This chapter attempts to discover the key to understand the puzzling concept of tax practitioner compliance by illuminating the role of tax practitioners in the self-assessment system (“SAS”) in regard to income tax return reporting positions. Since most of prior studies predominantly investigate tax compliance in the frame of individual taxpayers’ evasion decision under detection risk, the term tax compliance and taxpayer compliance are often used interchangeably. For the purpose of the article, however, tax compliance should be carefully distinguished from taxpayer compliance. I presume that the tax compliance refers to ex-ante process, rather than ex-post consequence of the declaration of tax liabilities, in which all the actors in the field are involved to maintain. In a similar vein, Boll [9] argues that tax compliance is a socio-material assemblage, and complying is a distributed action among actors in the tax system.
Taxpayer noncompliance refers to any failure to meet tax obligations, and it does not necessarily require intention to pay less tax than the law demands. It may result from deliberate underreporting, inadvertent misreporting, or nonfiling of tax return. The tax gap, which is a popular measure of noncompliance in an aggregate level, is defined as the difference between actual tax collected and the potential tax collection under full compliance [10]. It consists of nonfiling, underreporting, and underpayment of tax [11], which represent filing noncompliance, reporting noncompliance, and payment noncompliance, respectively.
Tax evasion and tax avoidance consist in deliberate act of noncompliance. While tax evasion refers to intentional underpayment of taxes by deliberate nondisclosure of taxable resources [12], tax avoidance is widely considered a legal way of reducing tax dues. Tax avoidance, however, is often against the spirit of the laws, thereby has a chance to be challenged by tax authorities, which eventually falls under the category of noncompliance.
The majority of scientific studies on tax compliance address the problem of individuals’ tax evasion decision in the form of underreporting taxable income or overclaiming unwarranted deductions. In particular, most of them are concerned with SAS, in which taxpayers are given opportunities to underreport, and their initial tax liabilities are determined by self-declaration, while the true income will not be observable by tax authorities unless a tax audit is conducted. Thus, tax noncompliance, in the narrowest sense, refers to taxpayers’ dishonesty in their tax reporting.
However, it should be noted that, from the viewpoint of taxpayers, noncompliance problem lies not only in undercompliance but also in overcompliance: noncompliance can result not only from underreporting or underpayment but also from overreporting or overpayment. Inadvertent noncompliance may result from the errors and mistakes of taxpayers or tax practitioners. Nevertheless, the researchers and policymakers have paid little attention to the problem of overcompliance. It may be that taxpayers are assumed to be rational enough to deal with tax matters, and thus, discovering of underreporting should be deemed the consequence of their intentional misconduct. On the basis of rationality assumptions, any mistakes may be seen as not due to incompetence but to a lack of commitment to declare a correct tax return [13].
Tax laws are increasingly voluminous, and the law provisions are sometimes terribly complicated to be fully understood. It takes a lot of time and effort to meet the tax obligations, and even if they pay much attention enough to avoid inadvertent errors and mistakes, tax liabilities are often subject to uncertainty from varying interpretations of ambiguous tax situations. For a further understanding, the following section discusses the issues of tax law complexity and ambiguity.
In practice, many taxpayers are faced with the complexity of tax laws and the uncertainty of enforcement. In most developed countries, tax law is complex, and it requires a very high reading age to be correctly understood [14]. Taxation cost (taxes and compliance cost) is perceived to be much more painful loss for small business taxpayers because they lack sufficient resources to manage their business [15].
If tax laws are vague and complicated, it may be difficult to fully comply with the law even with no intention to evade. Owing to the complex nature, ordinary taxpayers cannot cope well with tax requirements. Sakurai and Braithwaite [16] showed that the most important reason that their survey respondents gave for using tax service was that the desire to avoid the risk of potential tax penalties resulting from inaccurate tax returns. The professional tax knowledge that prevents the taxpayer from unintentional overpayment as well as underpayment can be purchased from the tax practitioners. Thus, an aspect of tax practitioner compliance can be better construed in connection with professional competence that ensures correct tax reporting.
McKerchar [17] maintains that tax complexity is a double edge sword for practitioners: on one side, it induces taxpayers into the arms of practitioners facilitating the market for tax service; but sometimes, it is too much a burden even for them to juggle. Although compliance duties can be addressed more correctly by the tax practitioner, the assistance of the tax practitioner cannot eliminate the risk of inadvertent noncompliance due to the complexity inherent in the law.
Carnes and Cuccia [18] argue that complexity is a source of unintentional noncompliance, and it may represent opportunities for intentional noncompliance as well. More often, tax practitioners can only reduce the uncertainty by assessing the likelihood a tax treatment will be sustained on its merits [19]. That said, inadvertent noncompliance is in part attributable to tax law ambiguity. A tax situation is ambiguous if its proper tax treatment is not ex-ante deterministic. Aggressive tax treatment involves a reasonable probability that the reporting position will not be upheld in a tax audit [20]. Aggressive tax practitioners are more likely to interpret the ambiguous tax situation to the benefit of their clients.
Studies on tax practitioner behavior attempt to discover the conditions in which tax advisors would recommend more aggressive reporting position [21]. A number of studies have been conducted investigating factors that impact tax practitioners’ willingness to accept aggressive reporting positions; among them are attitude toward risk [22], the threat of penalties [23], and client’s risk preference [24]. In particular, Prospect theory [25] may also serve as a theoretical basis to explain tax practitioner’s behavior. According to the Prospect theory, people exhibit risk seeking tendency in a loss situation, while being risk averse in a gain situation. Newberry et al. [26] found that CAPs were more likely to sign a tax return containing a large and ambiguous deduction to retain an existing client than to gain new one.
However, tax practitioner studies tend to avoid compliance or noncompliance, directly focusing instead on aggressiveness [27]. Phillips and Sansing [28] underline that conservative and aggressive are ex-ante labels that characterize a reporting position when the law is ambiguous. They go on emphasizing that taxpayer compliance is an ex-post and hypothetical concept, because in the real world, many of the reporting positions will not be evaluated by tax inspectors. Put differently, contrary to taxpayers’ common beliefs, in many cases, tax compliance is not deterministic in spite of tax practitioners being involved, but it is stochastic depending on the enforcement activities of the tax administration.
There are a variety of motives in hiring tax practitioners. As it is, the role of tax practitioners in tax compliance process can be best understood considering the multifaceted aspects of tax service. Frecknall-Hughes and Moizer [29] argue that the work of tax practitioners in its broadest way can be divided into two kinds: tax compliance and tax planning/avoidance advice; the formal relates to resolve uncertainty in which tax position can be correctly settled, and the latter is associated with ambiguous tax situations in which legitimate tax position is not deterministic. Stephenson [30] discovered four separate constructs underlying the demands for tax practice: legal compliance, time savings, money savings, and protection from the tax authority.
Many taxpayers tend to claim accuracy as their main objective in tax preparation [31]. In that case, the quality of tax service is to ensure the tax returns do not contain inadvertent errors or omissions. It is somewhat evident that taxpayers hire tax practitioners to save time and effort required to achieve compliance. They will delegate tax return preparation to the practitioner, if the opportunity cost of self-reporting exceeds the service fee. Tax practitioners are also expected by their clients to reduce the chances of audit and penalty, thereby lowering monetary and psychic costs associated with audits that would otherwise have occurred [32]. Tax practitioners may provide professional assurance of compliance by verifying and assessing acceptable tax positions in the SAS [33].
Every tax legislation, however, contains “gray” areas that produce ambiguous tax situations. Tax practitioners cannot get rid of entire uncertainty, but they can only gauge the likelihood the position not being upheld by the tax court. The tax position is subject to some uncertainty and hence may step into a process of negotiation with the tax authorities [29]. Indeed, Frecknall-Hughes and Kirchler [34] came up with negotiation theory as a conceptual framework for understanding the nature of tax practice. They argue that the tax advisor/preparer and the tax inspector (who are the employee of revenue authority) are negotiators who act respectively on behalf of a client and the tax authority. While laypersons may see the task of trials and tax audits as revealing the truth about the matter, many practitioners approach their job as being able to negotiate the best settlement for their clients [35].
Some tax practitioners promote unacceptable tax minimization arrangements, assisting their clients in devising strategies to exploit legal ambiguities [36]. They are inclined to view testing the outer limits of the tax law as a natural and acceptable feature [37]. In recent decades, their role has become more complicated and sophisticated with the special tax knowledge required to facilitate tax avoidance [38]. For example, Sikka and Hampton [39] criticize that accountancy firms have sold tax avoidance schemes to corporations and wealthy individuals, which they refer to as tax solutions or tax strategies.
Nevertheless, it is important to distinguish legally permissible tax planning from potentially unacceptable tax scheme. Adapting motivational postures theory [40], Kang [41] coined two terms indicating differentiated features of tax avoidance: deferential avoidance and defiant avoidance, while deferential avoiders stand firm within the boundaries of the law, defiant avoiders try to push the boundaries of the law’s intent by self-serving in terms of law interpretation.
The role of tax practitioners has been viewed as representative of both taxpayers and the government [42]. One might argue that they have to act as advocates for their clients and to serve as intermediaries in the tax system. Tax practitioners should be concerned not only with their client’s interest but also with general publics in conducting their practices. Indeed, OECD [43] published a report highlighting the importance of trilateral relationships among tax authorities, taxpayers, and tax intermediaries in promoting taxpayer compliance. In a nutshell, tax practitioners have a legitimate and efficient function as intermediaries or “knowledge brokers” between taxpayers and revenue authorities [44]. They can provide a useful line of communication between tax inspectors and taxpayers. Furthermore, tax professionals can provide a check-and-balance function that prevents tax authorities’ possible extortion or tax inspectors’ harassment on the part of taxpayers, thereby safeguarding the equity of a tax system [7].
There are a variety of expectations for tax practitioner work, and sometimes an “expectation gap” arises from the misperception of each other’s expectation. Expectations gap refers to the difference between client expectations and the professional’s perceptions of those expectations and vice versa [20]. Christensen [45] argues that tax preparers’ perceptions of what clients expect from tax service differ significantly from clients’ expectations. Tax preparers may rationalize it is their clients who demand aggressive tax reporting. Schisler [24] maintains that many taxpayers insist on aggressive tax advice. In contrast, according to Tan [46], taxpayers favor conservative tax advice if the taxpayers’ main objective is filing an accurate tax return. This issue is worthwhile to be explored in more depth in the following section.
Research on the interaction between taxpayers and tax practitioners exists much less than is required, providing the immense amount of time and money spent on tax compliance [20]. Kaplan et al. [5] emphasize the role of tax practitioners in tax compliance by demonstrating that if a tax practitioner provides aggressive tax advice, the taxpayer is likely to take the aggressive tax position that might not be upheld in a tax audit. On the contrary, Hite and McGill [47] argue that taxpayers tended to disagree with aggressive advice and to agree instead with conservative advice. Or, there is also evidence that conservative taxpayers defer to the opinion of aggressive tax practitioners [48]. Not surprisingly, there are taxpayers who will still accept whatever types of advice their practitioners recommend.
For the tax practitioner, clients’ risk preferences could influence the willingness of practitioners to recommend aggressive positions [49]. Cloyd [50], Cuccia et al. [51], and Schisler [24] indicate tax practitioners’ tendency to recommend more aggressive positions when taxpayers are more aggressive (risk seeking). Notably, Duncan et al. [52] found the opposite evidence showing the more risk-averse the taxpayer, the more aggressive the tax practitioner, and the more aggressive the taxpayer, the more conservative tax position recommended by the practitioner. Furthermore, Bobek et al. [53] examined how the role of client advocacy influenced tax professionals’ decision processes and outcomes and provided empirical results revealing that client characteristics influence tax professionals’ advocacy attitudes. These findings suggest that taxpayers and tax practitioners’ decisions are interdependent, and studies on their interaction dynamics could be a promising approach to find new insights into tax compliance.
Wurth and Braithwaite [54] underline that practitioners are responsive to influences from many sources—clients, tax authorities, professional associations, governments, international bodies, and the organizations and cultures. For example, Doyle et al. [55] investigated the moral reasoning of tax practitioners in social contexts and in tax contexts, and they found tax practitioners’ significantly lower level moral reasoning than nonpractitioners in tax contexts. The study implies that client advocacy may deter tax practitioners’ moral reasoning. Reckers et al. [23] pointed out that less important taxpayers are more likely to receive more conservative advice from the tax practitioners. On the contrary, Bandy et al. [56] asserted that economic importance of the taxpayer had little effect on tax practitioners’ willingness to be aggressive in terms of providing advice or signing aggressive tax return. Spilker et al. [57] provide evidence that tax practitioners interpret ambiguity in the tax law differently in planning than in compliance stage because they are more vulnerable to problematic tax advice that might result in litigations and reputational loss.
In connection with taxpayer compliance, Practitioner-Client role model developed by Tan [58] recognizes two parties’ expectations, and behavioral dynamics can emphasize that how taxpayers and tax practitioners interact with each others are likely to affect each other’s tax decisions. Similarly, The Wheel of Social Alignments put forth by Braithwaite and Wenzel [59] synthesizes the drivers of tax compliance regarding tax practitioners as alternative authorities to tax officials.
Some taxpayers exhibit their preference of conservative advice over aggressive one. However, Sakurai and Braithwaite [60] show that some taxpayers prefer “no risk no fuss” type. As with their diverse motivational postures [40], it is natural of taxpayers to exhibit diversity in their preference over tax advice as well as tax position. It is therefore in communicating with their clients, tax practitioners should educate, persuade, and encourage taxpayers to acknowledge the responsibility for their decisions in order to reduce expectation gap [61]. In many cases, ineffective communication is attributable to the failure to achieve compliance procedures accompanied by unintended consequences. The absence of clear communication and the failure to make reasonable enquiries when information or documentation provided by a client appears to be inaccurate or incomplete [62] tend to engender the disappointment in their tax service experienced.
Tax practitioner self-seeking behavior together with compliance cost can afford unique opportunities to explore taxpayer decision. Tax law complexity increases the cost of compliance, and compliance costs are widely regarded as high. For the part of taxpayers, it may seem unfair to hire a tax professional in order to understand the laws. Taxpayers may expect their compliance cost to be offset by the tax service. If they deem the service fee as a mere expense accompanied by no additional benefit, they will be likely to be more aggressive in order to restore equitable condition. For instance, Jackson et al. [63] well demonstrated how taxpayers and tax practitioners decisions are interrelated. Drawing on mental accounting theory, they postulate mental aggregation of preparation cost with taxes, and tax professionals may place their clients in positive prepayment positions. The concept of mental accounting derived from research on prospect theory describes the set of cognitive operations used by individuals to organize, evaluate, and keep track of financial activities [64]. Then, they provide evidence that tax return preparation fees are larger for taxpayers who receive tax refunds than for taxpayers who owe additional taxes. It is argued that compliance costs paid to the tax preparer and the expected tax refund occur in the same mental account. Thus, taxpayers who have a favorable mental representation of tax return preparation fees may be willing to pay for higher costs incurred by tax practitioners.
In this chapter, I attempt to distinguish tax practitioner compliance from taxpayer compliance for a better understanding of tax compliance process. And I maintain that tax practitioner behavior can be assessed in the light of tax compliance, bringing about new perspective on tax compliance literature. As the extent and nature of tax practice are highly relevant to tax compliance, it is worthwhile to investigate the meaning of tax compliance in relation to tax practitioner compliance behavior.
As in taxpayer compliance, tax practitioner compliance can be either inadvertent or intentional. Tax practitioner noncompliance results the lack of professional competence and objectivity. Nevertheless, it is somehow inevitable for them to make mistakes due in part to the inherent uncertainty and ambiguity of the tax legislation. In order for them to ensure compliance, the tax practitioners continue to develop their professional skills; they must stay knowledgeable about current tax issues that have impact, positively or negatively, on their clients. Furthermore, the tax practitioner should be responsive to the environment in terms of both what clients want as well as what tax laws allow. However, their ethical judgment based on professional proficiency should not be affected by client pressure.
In return for their prestige, professions have certain obligations to their clients, colleagues, and the society [65]. For the meaning of tax compliance must include both compliance with the letter of the law and a respectful attitude toward the spirit of the law and fiscal policy [66], tax practitioner compliance may as well be construed in their decisions as well as underlying attitudes toward clients, colleagues, and the tax system. As a service provider, the tax practitioner must strive to reduce inconsistencies between expectations and experiences. As a member of the professions, the tax practitioner refrains from abusive tax schemes that can stimulate institutional corruptions. As a professional, the tax practitioner should safeguard the integrity of the tax system. In short, the tax practitioners should be carefully place themselves between tax authority and their clients as watch dogs to maintain the integrity of the tax system.
Tax practitioners’ noncompliance, in its extreme, occurs when they ignore clients’ legitimate right to reduce tax dues, but in its other extreme, tax practitioner noncompliance ensues from their acceptance or collusion of tax evasion. It is therefore necessary for tax authorities to acknowledge that tax practitioners play a role of effective interventions to improve taxpayer compliance. Above all, the practitioners are the ones to prevent taxpayers from taking overly aggressive or/and illegal tax positions. Furthermore, business taxpayers and their tax practitioners can be highly interdependent for tax practitioners can become business confidants [67].
There are many areas of research that have been understudied. Among them lies the conflict of interest between taxpayers and tax practitioner. Although the tax practitioner is hired by the taxpayer, they may act in accordance to their own interest rather than to the benefit of clients. This type of problem mostly arises from the information asymmetry between the taxpayer and the tax practitioner. Some practitioners may take advantage of private information to their own merit. The conflict of interest between taxpayers and tax practitioners that is worthwhile to be explored to establish a complete body of tax compliance literature.
Coal accounts for up to 29% of energy production worldwide, generating millions of tons of incombustible residue known as coal fly ash (CFA) in the process [1]. The colour of CFA varies from tan to grey to black depending on the amount of unburnt carbon. It consists of fine spherical particles that may be either hollow or solid and have surface areas as high as 1000 m2 kg−1 [2].
The chemical properties of CFA are primarily influenced by the type of coal burnt, that is, bituminous, sub-bituminous, anthracite or lignite. Anthracite has the highest carbon content, hence also has the highest calorific value of all four types. It however, costs two to three times more than regular coal and is therefore not typically used in commercial boilers. Bituminous coal contains mostly silica, alumina, iron oxide and calcium while lignite and sub-bituminous coal contain less silica and iron oxides but higher calcium and magnesium oxide concentrations (Table 1). CFA is also designated based on the concentrations of these four major minerals. Ash with more than 70 wt% silica, alumina and iron oxides and low in lime (1–12%) is designated class F while ash with 50–70 wt% silica, alumina and iron oxides and high lime content (30–40%) is class C [2]. The former is usually produced from combustion of bituminous and anthracite coal, and the latter from lignite and sub-bituminous coals.
Components | Bituminous (%) | Sub-bituminous (%) | Lignite (%) |
---|---|---|---|
Silica | 20–60 | 40–60 | 15–45 |
Alumina | 5–35 | 20–30 | 10–25 |
Ferric oxide | 10–40 | 4–10 | 4–15 |
Calcium oxide | 1–12 | 5–30 | 15–40 |
Magnesium oxide | 0–5 | 1–6 | 3–10 |
Sulphite | 0–4 | 0–2 | 0–10 |
Sodium oxide | 0–4 | 0–2 | 0–6 |
Potassium oxide | 0–3 | 0–4 | 0–4 |
Chemical composition of fly ash from the combustion of bituminous, sub-bituminous and lignite coal [2].
Although the greater share of CFA generated after coal combustion is deposited in waste heaps, it is also widely used in road construction, as a raw material in cement manufacture, for the sequestration of toxic gases including SO2, NO2 and Hg and, more recently, as a source of catalysts and metals [3, 4].
The formation of mine drainage laden with toxic concentrations of metals and other ions is a common legacy of base metal and coal mining [5, 6]. Acid mine drainage (AMD) is formed via a cascade of reactions when ferrous sulphide phases, for example, pyrite are exposed to oxygenated water, leading to the formation of ferric ion. Ferric ion then subsequently acts as an additional oxidising agent for pyrite, making the reaction self-perpetuating as long as the pH remains below 3.5 although other factors, including temperature and microorganisms, also play an important role [7]. AMD poses significant environmental and ecological challenges to receiving water bodies as well as to human populations that depend on these water resources for consumption [8]. There have therefore been numerous attempts at investigating the use of various materials including CFA which is otherwise a waste product, for the treatment of AMD. Two main characteristics stand out in favour of CFA: (i) its alkaline nature that counters AMD acidity and (ii) its capacity for adsorption/co-precipitation of elemental ions [9, 10]. The synthesis of other adsorbents from CFA, for example, zeolites [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16], modified mesoporous silica [17] and a number of other composite materials [18, 19, 20] have also been widely studied.
Metal removal by CFA and its derivatives varied, following different mechanisms including ion exchange, precipitation as well as chemical and physical adsorption as the following selected examples illustrate. Belviso et al. [12] investigated the removal of Mn2+ by raw CFA from Brindisi, Italy, and a zeolite synthesised from the same fly ash. They found that adsorption was rapid, attaining equilibrium in 5 minutes and that samples filtered with untreated CFA which contained higher Ca2+ and Mg2+ concentrations, for example, up to 340 mg L−1 versus 22 mg L−1 of Ca in CFA and zeolite-treated samples, respectively. In addition, although CFA resulted in slightly greater removal in both batch and column tests, >97% of Mn2+ was removed from solution by the end of exposure times. With pHPZC of 12.2 and 12, adsorption of Mn2+ to either adsorbents was unlikely as all were positively charged. Since Mn2+ precipitates above pH 9 as Mn(OH)2, the high solution pH induced by adsorbents likely resulted in its precipitation. These high efficiencies were therefore the result of Mn2+ precipitation induced by the high pH of the adsorbents. Indeed, as noted by Cho et al. [9], fly ash is strongly alkaline with pH ranging from 10 to 13 when added to water. In contrast to the preceding study, these authors found that their CFA, sourced from Boryug, Korea, had a pHPZC of 2.8. It was therefore primed for adsorption of positively charged metal ions over a wide pH range and indeed, removed >95% of Zn2+, Pb2+, Cd3+ and Cu2+ by pH 8. Further, although removal of Zn was reduced in the presence of Cu2+ and Pb2+, that of Cd3+ was improved in the presence of Pb2+, and removal of Pb2+ itself was unaffected by any of the other metals. In general, adsorption by this CFA was in the order of Pb2+ > Cu2+ > Cd3+ > Zn2+. Adsorption equilibrium was attained in 2 hours for Zn and in 3 hours for the rest of the metals, and isotherm data for all four were well fitted by the Freundlich isotherm.
Spherical porous pellets made from Class C CFA from power plant in Greece were used by Papandreou et al. [21] and applied in the removal of Pb2+, Zn2+ and Cr3+. The pellets had a Brunauer-Emmett-Teller surface area of 23.41 m2 g−1 and approximately 52% of pore volumes occupied by 3.5–4.5 nm pores. Adsorption was investigated at pH 1–10 and found to be optimal at pH 7, for Pb2+ and Cr2+ and pH 8 for Zn2+. Electrostatic attraction between the ions and the charged adsorbent surface was determined to be the adsorption mechanism. Adsorption isotherms were best fitted by the Langmuir isotherm and maximum adsorption capacities of the pellets calculated to be 0.22, 0.27 and 0.44 mmol g−1 for Pb2+, Zn2+ and Cr3+, respectively. Zinc adsorption was strongly inhibited in the presence of Pb, a finding similar to that of Cho et al. [9] above, and which implies that these ions sorb to similar sites on both types of CFA. In contrast, Cr3+ did not inhibit sorption of either Pb2+ or Zn2+.
The relationship between adsorption and temperature is often used as an indicator of whether the process involves chemical or physical bond formation. An inverse relationship, that is, where adsorption decreases with increasing temperature denotes physisorption while a direct relationship, that is, adsorption increasing with increasing temperature denotes chemisorption. Adsorption to the pellets in the study by Papandreou above was found to substantially increase with temperature from 25 to 60°C implying that sorption of Pb2+, Zn2+ and Cr3+ was via chemical bond formation.
The use of CFA for the adsorption of metal ions from acid mine drainage was investigated by Rios et al. [22]. A class F CFA from the Rugeley power station in the West Midlands of England was applied to the strongly acidic (pH < 2) AMD from the Parys mountain in Anglesley, North Wales. Batch experiments were conducted to determine adsorption of Pb, Cu, Zn, Ni, Cr, Fe, As and NH4+ onto the raw CFA, a natural clinker from the Cerrejón coal deposit in Colombia and synthetic zeolites. Using sorbent/AMD ratios of 0.25 g/20 mL and 1 g/20 mL over a period of 24 hours, pH rose only slightly from 1.96 to 2.66 after 1 hour but no breakthrough to alkaline pH was observed using this adsorbent dosage. Adsorption by CFA seemed to partition into two scenarios. In the first, concentrations of the target ion in the final solution were higher than in the original untreated AMD. These ions included NH4+, Cr3+, Cu2+ and Zn2+. In the second group, CFA adsorbed more ions than it released into solution and final concentrations were lower; As, Zn, Fe and Pb belonged to this group. This study highlights the challenge of using raw CFA in AMD treatment, that is, that although some elemental ions may be attenuated, the concentrations of others may increase.
Column studies provide the opportunity to assess the long-term applicability of CFA treatment of AMD. Pérez-López et al. [23] used column experiments to determine the efficacy of fly ash in attenuating AMD formation from pyritic sludge. They found that while columns filled with pyrite-rich sludge leached drainage that was acidic (pH ~ 2) and rich in sulphate, iron and other metals, those containing sludge and fly ash produced alkaline leachate low in sulphate and lacking iron or other metals. The alkaline fly ash neutralised AMD acidity, thus decreasing metal solubility and increasing their precipitation within the column. In addition, these precipitates formed coatings on pyrite grains, preventing their exposure to oxidising agents thus retarding AMD generation in a process known as micro-encapsulation [24].
Gitari et al. [10] used column studies to investigate the suitability of CFA and its derivatives as back-fill materials. They therefore designed experiments to measure the AMD treatment efficacy of (i) fresh CFA, (ii) solid residues prepared from exposing CFA to AMD, (iii) blends of the solid residues with varying amounts of fresh CFA (5, 25 and 40%) and (iv) a blend of solid residues with ordinary portland cement (OPC). They found that dissolution of CaO in fly ash and the solid residues, and hydration reactions in OPC were responsible for the initial high pH of the leachates in the different columns. This alkalinity subsequently controlled metal leaching through the formation of aluminium and iron precipitates and the co-precipitation of other elements with these phases. However, the leached fractions of most ions increased with increasing CFA concentrations in the blends, for example, Cr(III) concentrations went from 4.97 to 10.27 μmol L−1 and 11.19 μmol L−1 as CFA concentrations in solid residue blends increased from 5 to 25% and then to 40%. Sulphates were removed as gypsum (CaSO4) and as such, their attenuation was highly dependent on Ca2+ from dissolution of CaO in CFA and OPC. Attenuation of Fe and Al, on the other hand, was pH dependent since the formation of hydroxide precipitates was greater at neutral and basic pH. Subsequent modelling studies using PHREEQ software showed that Fe concentrations were controlled by goethite and amorphous Fe(OH)3 phases while those of Al were controlled by boehmite, basaluminite and gibbsite [25].
In some cases, for example, where AMD passes through dolomitic rocks, the acidity as well as metal and sulphate concentrations may be attenuated, resulting in neutral mine waters. Despite this, sulphate concentrations often remain considerable due to high initial concentrations [26]. Madzivire et al. [27, 28] investigating the use of CFA for sulphate removal found that attenuation was not significant below pH 10. Nevertheless, 60% of sulphate was removed from the solution at pH above 11 with the addition of gypsum and alumina, and sulphate was removed as ettringite (Ca6Al2(SO4)3(OH)12⋅26H2O). One drawback, however, was that the use of CFA increased the concentrations of B, K, Cr, Mo and Sr in the treated water necessitating the inclusion of an additional treatment step such as adsorption using zeolites. Nevertheless, these studies provide evidence of the applicability of CFA in AMD treatment both in acid neutralisation and metal removal.
Metal removal from AMD proceeds through various mechanisms including precipitation, oxidation, reduction and adsorption. Adsorption efficiency increases with surface area. The large surface areas of CFA splenospheres and cenospheres therefore significantly influence metal adsorption from AMD. Specifically, since surface areas increase with decreasing particle size, smaller particles, particularly nano-sized ones (1–100 nm), likely play a very important role in adsorption of element ions. In fact, CFA has been shown to contain significant quantities of nanoparticles [29, 30] which are enriched in metal ions [31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36]. Despite this, there is a dearth of information regarding the role of CFA nanoparticles during AMD treatment.
This chapter therefore highlights the key role of nanoparticles in remediation effects of CFA. Using Fe oxy(hydroxides), Ti dioxides and carbon nanotubes phases known to be abundant in CFA [29, 37, 38, 39], we illustrate the likely effect of nanoparticle-based processes on observed metal removal efficiencies of CFA.
Consider a crystal of iron or titanium oxide. In the bulk of the crystal, Fe or Ti ions are surrounded (coordinated) by six nearest-neighbour oxygen atoms, an arrangement that balances the electric charge of anions and metal atoms. However, when the bulk is divided into smaller particles, new surfaces are created and the spatial configuration of the bulk is lost. This leads to an increase in surface energies which the newly exposed atoms on the surface attempt to dissipate by re-organising, for example, ‘dangling’ oxygen atoms may form bridged pairs. Such surface reconstructions result in particles with considerably different properties from those of the bulk material [40, 41].
In fact, many of the unique characteristics of nanomaterials (NMs) are the result of size-dependent surface properties. There is evidence that properties, including crystalline habit, magnetism and colour, change with particle size [42]. In addition, the proportion of atoms located at or near particle surfaces increases as particle size decreases. The extra surface charge increases particle reactivity, hence smaller particles are more reactive than bulk counterparts [43, 44]. Brown et al. [45] also showed that the larger number of edge and corner binding sites as well as the wide variety of defects on the surfaces of NMs (Figure 1) is responsible for increased reactivity at the nano-scale. Adsorption of ions from surrounding media may be a means to reduce surface energy and regain particle stability. Thus, NMs are excellent adsorbents due to their large surface areas and abundant, highly reactive surface sorption sites.
A model of possible defects on single-crystal surface [45].
Advancements in various microscopic and spectroscopic techniques have facilitated the identification of nano-sized materials in CFA. By combining transmission and scanning electron microscopy, as well as atomic force microscopy and X-ray diffraction (XRD) for instance, Dwivedi et al. [46] found that CFA from Harduaganj in Aligard, India, contained spherical particles with sizes ranging from 11 to 25 nm. In another study, high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) revealed the presence of 10–100 nm hematite and yavapaiite (KFe(SO4)2) nanoparticles in CFA from a power plant in Santa Catarina state in Brazil [34].
Ribeiro et al. [32] coupled EDS with field-scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) and HR-TEM to characterise CFA from an anthracite-burning thermal power plant in, Porto, Portugal. Besides the larger cenospheres (~ 100 μm), ultrafine glassy spheres (~ 100 nm) as well as carbonaceous nanospheres (~ 50 nm) and nanotubes (0.1–32 nm in diameter and 8–59 μm in length) were identified in the CFA (Figure 2).
Carbon nanotubes (a) and carbonaceous spheres (b) and (c) in CFA from anthracite coal [32].
Fe was present as maghemite, hematite and magnetite or as sulphates, that is, schwertmannite and jarosite and titanium as anatase and rutile. Quartz nanoparticles were also identified occurring discretely or embedded in amorphous phases, for example, glass and nano-spherules rich in Al, Si, Ti, K, Mg and Fe were frequently observed embedded in carbonaceous matrices. Indeed, these inorganic phases are often found encapsulated by carbonaceous matter although Wilcox et al. [47] showed that this encapsulation may be a factor of the amount of carbon in feed coal. Comparing CFA from pure high sulphur-high Fe bituminous coal and a blend consisting of 70% of this high sulphur-high Fe coal and 30% of a low sulphur-high CaO coal, these authors found that unlike CFA from the pure coal, inorganic particles in CFA from the blend did not contain any carbon on their surface (Figure 3). The composition of CFA particles therefore depends, to some extent, on the nature of feed coal burned; with the amount of carbon rather than the rank of coal determining coal deposition on CFA particles.
TEM images of (a) particles from the CFA blend. Note the absence of carbon deposits on the surface. (b) CFA particles from combustion of pure high sulphur-high Fe bituminous coal [47].
As a final example, let us consider the ultrafines (particles < 100 nm) in CFA from US coals examined by Chen et al. [48]. These nanoparticles were found to have distinctly different morphologies, compositions and microstructures (Figure 4). In addition, CFA from a bituminous coal was rich in crystalline phases of Fe, Ti and Al as small as 10 nm while a low-rank CFA was rich in aggregates of alkaline-earth elements in the form of sulphates, silicates and phosphates.
(a) Magnetite nanocrystalline particles, (b) a rod-like rutile particle, (c) a lime particle containing 5–10 nm nanocrystallites and (d) a cluster of FeAl2O4 particles on an amorphous silica sphere. Inserts in (a) and (b) are fast Fourier transforms (FFT) of the images and those in (c) and (d) are selected area electron diffraction (SAED) patterns [48].
Nano-scale unburned carbon was present as soot aggregates ranging in size from 100 to 1000 although aggregated smaller than 100 nm were also present. Their morphology was similar to that of soot aggregates from diesel engine exhausts. Importantly, these aggregates are made up of 20–50 nm primary particles arranged in an onion-like structure (Figure 5). Their formation, as we will see shortly, likely involves sudden quenching and homogenous condensation of refractory carbon-rich species in the combustion atmosphere.
(a) Coal fly ash soot aggregates with chain-like branching structure, (b) concentric stacking of graphitic layers making up soot particles [48].
Having confirmed their presence, let us now briefly consider the mechanisms that lead to the formation of nano-sized materials in CFA. While several mechanisms are responsible for particulate formation in CFA, the formation of nanoparticles is dominated by (i) the release of organically bound metals during coal volatilisation and (ii) vaporisation and subsequent condensation and aggregation of such elements [30, 49]. Nanoparticles in CFA may be categorised as either organic or inorganic and are formed through two separate pathways as illustrated in Figure 6.
Formation of nanomaterials in coal fly ash.
The formation of inorganic particles occurs through nucleation, also known as homogeneous condensation of flame-volatilised species [50, 51, 52, 53, 54], for example, SiO2, CaO and Fe2O3. The main features of this process were outlined by Nelson [51] thus:
The highly reducing conditions existing within coal chars during combustion reduce refractory oxides to more volatile sub-oxides or elements, for example, for Si:
As the volatile species move away from the particle to the bulk gas, they are re-oxidised due to the higher O2 concentrations
Provided the vapour pressure of the oxide exceeds the saturated vapour pressure, spontaneous condensation will occur and nuclei will form. Particle growth then proceeds via coalescence. Particle growth may also be the result of heterogeneous condensation, that is, condensation of other species upon these particles. This happens mostly from species that vaporise but whose concentrations are not sufficient for homogenous condensation.
Organic particles, or soot, form under fuel-rich conditions where hydrocarbon fragments have greater chances of colliding and growing instead of being oxidised to CO, CO2, H2 and H2O. Their formation involves chemical reactions that produce clusters of increasing molecular weight to the point where these clusters are visible as particles [30]. The formation of the first aromatic ring, usually benzene, is considered one of the critical steps in soot formation. Benzene rings then go on to form polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons which increase in molecular weight to soot particles (Figure 7).
Chemical and physical processes involved in the formation of soot particles [30].
Other factors influencing formation of both organic and inorganic particles include (i) temperature [39, 55], (ii) gas composition [56, 57, 58, 59] and coal rank [47, 58, 60]. Particle formation is enhanced at higher temperatures due to increased mineral vaporisation and environments with low oxygen to fuel stoichiometry produce less ultrafines [57]. In addition, Wen et al. [61] recently reported that combustion under N2 resulted in production of more particulates than combustion in CO2. The effect of coal rank, on the other hand, is multifarious and can be summarised as follows:
The higher char reactivity of lower rank coals favours the formation of nanoparticles because of the higher combustion temperatures of these chars [62];
The reducing atmosphere produced by carbon combustion at high temperatures increases ash vaporisation [59];
Low-rank coals have high concentrations of alkaline-earth metals which supress the vaporisation of silica by reacting with it to form less volatile silicates. This results in nanoparticles from combustion of lignite being mostly MgO and CaO, and SiO2 nanoparticles being significant only in bituminous coal [59].
CFA contains nanomaterials of various parent minerals and elements. These include (i) iron oxides which comprise a large fraction of the inorganic nanoparticles in CFA occurring as pyrite, pyrrhotite, magnetite, hematite, jarosite, goethite and yavapaiite [32, 34, 63, 64, 65] and (ii) carbon nanomaterials, for example, single- or multi-walled nanotubes [29, 32, 46, 47].
Both organic and inorganic nanoparticles in fly ash are associated with higher concentrations of metal ions in CFA than larger particles. In fact, it has been known since the work of Davison et al. [52] that element enrichment in CFA is inversely related to particle size. These authors found that concentrations of Pb, Ti, Sb, Cd, Se, As, Ni, Cr and Zn increased with decreasing CFA particle size and that particles with aerodynamic diameters >40 μm, for example, had Pb loadings up to 90 μg g−1 while those with diameters below 5 μm had loadings of up to 980 μg g−1. Positing at first that this observation was due to the fragmentation of pyritic inclusions in the coal, they later inclined to the homogenous and heterogeneous condensation hypotheses explained above. Later, Linak et al. [66] also reported up to 50 times enrichment of S, Cl, Na, K, V and P in ultrafines; confirming that the smaller the particles, the higher the concentrations of metals sorbed onto their surfaces.
Yi et al. [39] studied the relative distributions of trace elements in bottom ash, fly ash and flue gas. They found that except Hg whose concentration was highest in flue gas, all other elements (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Al, V, Zn, Mn and Fe) were enriched in fly ash relative to bottom ash (Figure 8). Similar results were reported for various Indian fly ashes [37, 38, 67]. Hg, although occurring in high concentrations in flue gases, is also bound to a considerable extent to inorganic fractions as we will see later, and to the organic fraction of CFA by carboxylic acid functional groups [29].
Relative distributions of trace elements in bottom ash, fly ash and flue gas from a coal boiler [39].
For some time, this phenomenon (element enrichment in nanoparticles) was thought of as being purely the result of the greater surface areas available for adsorption in smaller particles [52]. However, later geochemical investigations showed that surface features of these particles played a significant role. Nanoparticle binding of metal ions has been shown to involve faster kinetics [68, 69, 70], speciation transformations of the adsorbed species [71] and greater affinity for metal ions [69]. In addition, there is evidence that some of these phenomena, specifically higher reaction rates, are due to surface defects. Junta and Hochella [72] found that in the oxidation of Mn2+ to Mn3+ at hematite nanoparticle surfaces, steps were the most reactive sites for initiating the adsorption-oxidation reaction. Later, Madden and Hochella [68] found that this oxidation process was up to 1.5 orders of magnitude faster on 7.3 nm particles than on 37 nm particles largely due to changes in the electronic structure of hematite. As its particles get smaller, the Lewis basicity of the surface oxygen increased, decreasing the redox potential of adsorbed Mn2+ and making the oxidation reaction more favourable.
The nature of binding sites at the nano-scale has also been invoked to explain changes in metal adsorption. Greater binding of Cu2+ ions to 7 nm hematite particles, relative to the larger 25 and 88 nm counterparts was due to the greater number, in the smallest particles, of distorted octahedral sites in which Cu2+ ions are better stabilised [69]. This hypothesis correlates with the observations of the association of Hg with Fe-rich sites in nano-sized CFA, but not in larger particles [29]. Such unique material properties occurring at the nano-scale properties likely account for the metal-nanoparticle interactions observed in various investigations cited above.
Having examined the relationship between metal ions and nano-sized fractions of CFA and shown that these particles bind larger fractions of metals than micron-sized particles, let us now examine evidence that this phenomenon carries over when CFA is used for remediation of contaminated water, that is, that the nano-sized fraction is still responsible for a greater fraction of the metal removal observed. Synchrotron-based X-ray fluorescence was used to study the adsorption of Hg from flue gas by fly ash from a Kentucky utility [29]. The bulk ash (20 nm–10 μm in diameter) was largely amorphous with only quartz and hematite as crystalline phases. The fine ash had an average particle size of < 100 nm and comprised of more crystalline phases and some cementitious phases, for example, syngenite (K2Ca(SO4)2⋅H2O), glauberite (Na2Ca(SO4)2) and picromerite (K2Mg(SO4)2). A summary of Hg concentrations of the two classes of ash and fine ash before and after exposure to flue gas is presented in Table 2.
Hg concentration before flue gas exposure | Hg concentration after flue gas exposure | |
---|---|---|
Bulk ash | 11 ± 0.8 ppb | 161 ± 4 ppb |
Fine ash | 100 ± 6 ppb | 610 ± 20 ppb |
Hg concentrations in bulk and nano-sized particles before and after exposure to flue gases.
The 100 nm fraction represented only 0.01% of the total fly ash content. Nevertheless, it is clear from these data that despite already containing greater Hg concentrations before the exposure reaction, nano-sized CFA particles dominated Hg uptake from the flue gases.
Mercury was bound to hematite by bidentate inner-sphere complexes. The nature of binding is an important consideration because of its role in desorption processes as inner-sphere complexes are known to be more stable and less prone to desorption than outer-sphere complexes [43]. Using extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) spectroscopy, Ha et al. [73] showed that Zn(II) surface complexes on 10.5 nm hematite particles were more strongly held than those adsorbed to 550 nm particles. As a result, only 10–15% of Zn2+ ions were desorbed from the 10.5 nm particles where they were held as inner-sphere complexes but up to 40% were lost from the larger particles where Zn2+ ions were held in outer-sphere complexes. This highlights the fact that nanoparticles bind metal ions differently and that this is likely to influence the long-term effectiveness of remediation activity.
As stated at the beginning of this chapter, despite the numerous studies showing the efficiency of CFA in treatment of AMD, none of those we have come across specifically describe the role of nanomaterials in this process. Nevertheless, the evidence systematically synthesised in this chapter has shown that nano-scale materials likely account for most of the remedial action of CFA. Despite the cost effectiveness and efficiency of CFA at remediation, potential secondary contamination by other must always be addressed before its application in the field. Future research should investigate the potential role of photocatalytic nanoparticles in CFA, in pollutant transformation.
Supporting women in scientific research and encouraging more women to pursue careers in STEM fields has been an issue on the global agenda for many years. But there is still much to be done. And IntechOpen wants to help.
",metaTitle:"IntechOpen Women in Science Program",metaDescription:"Supporting women in scientific research and encouraging more women to pursue careers in STEM fields has been an issue on the global agenda for many years. But there is still much to be done. And IntechOpen wants to help.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"At IntechOpen, we’re laying the foundations for the future by publishing the best research by women in STEM – Open Access and available to all. Our Women in Science program already includes six books in progress by award-winning women scientists on topics ranging from physics to robotics, medicine to environmental science. Our editors come from all over the globe and include L’Oreal–UNESCO For Women in Science award-winners and National Science Foundation and European Commission grant recipients.
\\n\\nWe aim to publish 100 books in our Women in Science program over the next three years. We are looking for books written, edited, or co-edited by women. Contributing chapters by men are welcome. As always, the quality of the research we publish is paramount.
\\n\\nAll project proposals go through a two-stage peer review process and are selected based on the following criteria:
\\n\\nPlus, we want this project to have an impact beyond scientific circles. We will publicize the research in the Women in Science program for a wider general audience through:
\\n\\nInterested? If you have an idea for an edited volume or a monograph, we’d love to hear from you! Contact Ana Pantar at book.idea@intechopen.com.
\\n\\n“My scientific path has given me the opportunity to work with colleagues all over Europe, including Germany, France, and Norway. Editing the book Graph Theory: Advanced Algorithms and Applications with IntechOpen emphasized for me the importance of providing valuable, Open Access literature to our scientific colleagues around the world. So I am highly enthusiastic about the Women in Science book collection, which will highlight the outstanding accomplishments of women scientists and encourage others to walk the challenging path to becoming a recognized scientist." Beril Sirmacek, TU Delft, The Netherlands
\\n\\nAdvantages of Publishing with IntechOpen
\\n\\n\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'At IntechOpen, we’re laying the foundations for the future by publishing the best research by women in STEM – Open Access and available to all. Our Women in Science program already includes six books in progress by award-winning women scientists on topics ranging from physics to robotics, medicine to environmental science. Our editors come from all over the globe and include L’Oreal–UNESCO For Women in Science award-winners and National Science Foundation and European Commission grant recipients.
\n\nWe aim to publish 100 books in our Women in Science program over the next three years. We are looking for books written, edited, or co-edited by women. Contributing chapters by men are welcome. As always, the quality of the research we publish is paramount.
\n\nAll project proposals go through a two-stage peer review process and are selected based on the following criteria:
\n\nPlus, we want this project to have an impact beyond scientific circles. We will publicize the research in the Women in Science program for a wider general audience through:
\n\nInterested? If you have an idea for an edited volume or a monograph, we’d love to hear from you! Contact Ana Pantar at book.idea@intechopen.com.
\n\n“My scientific path has given me the opportunity to work with colleagues all over Europe, including Germany, France, and Norway. Editing the book Graph Theory: Advanced Algorithms and Applications with IntechOpen emphasized for me the importance of providing valuable, Open Access literature to our scientific colleagues around the world. So I am highly enthusiastic about the Women in Science book collection, which will highlight the outstanding accomplishments of women scientists and encourage others to walk the challenging path to becoming a recognized scientist." Beril Sirmacek, TU Delft, The Netherlands
\n\n\n\n\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5313},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:4819},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1468},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:9363},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:837},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:14778}],offset:12,limit:12,total:108153},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"20"},books:[{type:"book",id:"7689",title:"Semimetals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0d917e8350b0c0c911bfa2361c6c1d3b",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Vitalyi Igorevich Talanin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7689.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"103029",title:"Prof.",name:"Vitalyi Igorevich",surname:"Talanin",slug:"vitalyi-igorevich-talanin",fullName:"Vitalyi Igorevich Talanin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7814",title:"Atomic, Molecular and Optical Physics New Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"09d389205124552947af1898d31fa764",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ridha Horchani and Dr. Haikel Jelassi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7814.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"312378",title:"Dr.",name:"Ridha",surname:"Horchani",slug:"ridha-horchani",fullName:"Ridha Horchani"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7857",title:"String Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c0f1f74e6dfe0087e52325fc64b48235",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Mohammad Reza Pahlavani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7857.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"101263",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad Reza",surname:"Pahlavani",slug:"mohammad-reza-pahlavani",fullName:"Mohammad Reza Pahlavani"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8183",title:"Differential Hardening",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"3960c9c8b7a83b8e61db186dcf59d65a",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8183.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8447",title:"Density Functional Theory Calculations",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"430664e87463d090a0f03b1f096a7d9d",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Sergio Ricardo De Lazaro, Dr. Luis Henrique Da Silveira Lacerda and MSc. Renan Augusto Pontes Ribeiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8447.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"176017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sergio Ricardo De",surname:"Lazaro",slug:"sergio-ricardo-de-lazaro",fullName:"Sergio Ricardo De Lazaro"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8490",title:"Plasma Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0fe936bfad77ae70ad96c46de8b7730d",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Sukhmander Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8490.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"282807",title:"Dr.",name:"Sukhmander",surname:"Singh",slug:"sukhmander-singh",fullName:"Sukhmander Singh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8565",title:"Aeronautics and Astronautics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"43f114ba03e5e42ba53da372ffc3cbde",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8565.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8780",title:"Radionuclides - Recent Advances and New Trends",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"3ec120ceb22cf08366724e87f8eaa649",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ali Nabipour Chakoli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8780.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9189",title:"Hyperfine Structures",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"df6ed610ec763f455e222cff7ab5ae7a",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Sivarama Krishnan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9189.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"305542",title:"Dr.",name:"Sivarama",surname:"Krishnan",slug:"sivarama-krishnan",fullName:"Sivarama Krishnan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9207",title:"Telescopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"57bcf0a5b15fc2ed722e4b79f9183ae5",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9207.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9330",title:"Engineering Fluid Mechanics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"7f4234c9077a08c1ddefb1aef436bf43",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ahmed Niameh Mehdy Alhusseny, Dr. Nabeel Al-Zurfi and Dr. Adel Gharib Nasser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9330.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"208783",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"Alhusseny",slug:"ahmed-alhusseny",fullName:"Ahmed Alhusseny"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9465",title:"Sputtering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9ca7edff5f5d5c991efb8a8d40d7dded",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9465.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:34},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:33},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:30},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:25},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:74},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:13},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:38},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:137},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:20},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:13},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Genesiology",value:300,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",value:521,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Intelligent System",value:535,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:30},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7878",title:"Advances in Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation",subtitle:"Volume 3",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f95bf990273d08098a00f9a1c2403cbe",slug:"advances-in-extracorporeal-membrane-oxygenation-volume-3",bookSignature:"Michael S. Firstenberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7878.jpg",editors:[{id:"64343",title:null,name:"Michael S.",middleName:"S",surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. Firstenberg"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8299",title:"Timber Buildings and Sustainability",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bccf2891cec38ed041724131aa34c25a",slug:"timber-buildings-and-sustainability",bookSignature:"Giovanna Concu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8299.jpg",editors:[{id:"108709",title:"Dr.",name:"Giovanna",middleName:null,surname:"Concu",slug:"giovanna-concu",fullName:"Giovanna Concu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7614",title:"Fourier Transforms",subtitle:"Century of Digitalization and Increasing Expectations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ff3501657ae983a3b42fef1f7058ac91",slug:"fourier-transforms-century-of-digitalization-and-increasing-expectations",bookSignature:"Goran S. Nikoli? and Dragana Z. Markovi?-Nikoli?",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7614.jpg",editors:[{id:"23261",title:"Prof.",name:"Goran",middleName:"S.",surname:"Nikolic",slug:"goran-nikolic",fullName:"Goran Nikolic"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7062",title:"Rhinosinusitis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"14ed95e155b1e57a61827ca30b579d09",slug:"rhinosinusitis",bookSignature:"Balwant Singh Gendeh and Mirjana Turkalj",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7062.jpg",editors:[{id:"67669",title:"Prof.",name:"Balwant Singh",middleName:null,surname:"Gendeh",slug:"balwant-singh-gendeh",fullName:"Balwant Singh Gendeh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7087",title:"Tendons",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"786abac0445c102d1399a1e727a2db7f",slug:"tendons",bookSignature:"Hasan Sözen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7087.jpg",editors:[{id:"161402",title:"Dr.",name:"Hasan",middleName:null,surname:"Sözen",slug:"hasan-sozen",fullName:"Hasan Sözen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7955",title:"Advances in Hematologic Malignancies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"59ca1b09447fab4717a93e099f646d28",slug:"advances-in-hematologic-malignancies",bookSignature:"Gamal Abdul Hamid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7955.jpg",editors:[{id:"36487",title:"Prof.",name:"Gamal",middleName:null,surname:"Abdul Hamid",slug:"gamal-abdul-hamid",fullName:"Gamal Abdul Hamid"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7701",title:"Assistive and Rehabilitation Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4191b744b8af3b17d9a80026dcb0617f",slug:"assistive-and-rehabilitation-engineering",bookSignature:"Yves Rybarczyk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7701.jpg",editors:[{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",slug:"yves-rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7837",title:"Geriatric Medicine and Gerontology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e277d005b23536bcd9f8550046101979",slug:"geriatric-medicine-and-gerontology",bookSignature:"Edward T. Zawada Jr.",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7837.jpg",editors:[{id:"16344",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward T.",middleName:null,surname:"Zawada Jr.",slug:"edward-t.-zawada-jr.",fullName:"Edward T. Zawada Jr."}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"61c627da05b2ace83056d11357bdf361",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7610",title:"Renewable and Sustainable Composites",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2de26c3d329c54f093dc3f05417500a",slug:"renewable-and-sustainable-composites",bookSignature:"António B. Pereira and Fábio A. O. Fernandes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7610.jpg",editors:[{id:"211131",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Bastos",surname:"Pereira",slug:"antonio-pereira",fullName:"António Pereira"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8416",title:"Non-Equilibrium Particle Dynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c3add7639dcd1cb442cb4313ea64e3a",slug:"non-equilibrium-particle-dynamics",bookSignature:"Albert S. Kim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8416.jpg",editors:[{id:"21045",title:"Prof.",name:"Albert S.",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"albert-s.-kim",fullName:"Albert S. Kim"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8008",title:"Antioxidants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"76361b4061e830906267933c1c670027",slug:"antioxidants",bookSignature:"Emad Shalaby",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8008.jpg",editors:[{id:"63600",title:"Prof.",name:"Emad",middleName:null,surname:"Shalaby",slug:"emad-shalaby",fullName:"Emad Shalaby"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4396},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7878",title:"Advances in Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation",subtitle:"Volume 3",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f95bf990273d08098a00f9a1c2403cbe",slug:"advances-in-extracorporeal-membrane-oxygenation-volume-3",bookSignature:"Michael S. Firstenberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7878.jpg",editors:[{id:"64343",title:null,name:"Michael S.",middleName:"S",surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. Firstenberg"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8299",title:"Timber Buildings and Sustainability",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bccf2891cec38ed041724131aa34c25a",slug:"timber-buildings-and-sustainability",bookSignature:"Giovanna Concu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8299.jpg",editors:[{id:"108709",title:"Dr.",name:"Giovanna",middleName:null,surname:"Concu",slug:"giovanna-concu",fullName:"Giovanna Concu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7614",title:"Fourier Transforms",subtitle:"Century of Digitalization and Increasing Expectations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ff3501657ae983a3b42fef1f7058ac91",slug:"fourier-transforms-century-of-digitalization-and-increasing-expectations",bookSignature:"Goran S. Nikoli? and Dragana Z. Markovi?-Nikoli?",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7614.jpg",editors:[{id:"23261",title:"Prof.",name:"Goran",middleName:"S.",surname:"Nikolic",slug:"goran-nikolic",fullName:"Goran Nikolic"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7062",title:"Rhinosinusitis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"14ed95e155b1e57a61827ca30b579d09",slug:"rhinosinusitis",bookSignature:"Balwant Singh Gendeh and Mirjana Turkalj",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7062.jpg",editors:[{id:"67669",title:"Prof.",name:"Balwant Singh",middleName:null,surname:"Gendeh",slug:"balwant-singh-gendeh",fullName:"Balwant Singh Gendeh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7087",title:"Tendons",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"786abac0445c102d1399a1e727a2db7f",slug:"tendons",bookSignature:"Hasan Sözen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7087.jpg",editors:[{id:"161402",title:"Dr.",name:"Hasan",middleName:null,surname:"Sözen",slug:"hasan-sozen",fullName:"Hasan Sözen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7955",title:"Advances in Hematologic Malignancies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"59ca1b09447fab4717a93e099f646d28",slug:"advances-in-hematologic-malignancies",bookSignature:"Gamal Abdul Hamid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7955.jpg",editors:[{id:"36487",title:"Prof.",name:"Gamal",middleName:null,surname:"Abdul Hamid",slug:"gamal-abdul-hamid",fullName:"Gamal Abdul Hamid"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7701",title:"Assistive and Rehabilitation Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4191b744b8af3b17d9a80026dcb0617f",slug:"assistive-and-rehabilitation-engineering",bookSignature:"Yves Rybarczyk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7701.jpg",editors:[{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",slug:"yves-rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7837",title:"Geriatric Medicine and Gerontology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e277d005b23536bcd9f8550046101979",slug:"geriatric-medicine-and-gerontology",bookSignature:"Edward T. Zawada Jr.",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7837.jpg",editors:[{id:"16344",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward T.",middleName:null,surname:"Zawada Jr.",slug:"edward-t.-zawada-jr.",fullName:"Edward T. Zawada Jr."}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"61c627da05b2ace83056d11357bdf361",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7610",title:"Renewable and Sustainable Composites",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2de26c3d329c54f093dc3f05417500a",slug:"renewable-and-sustainable-composites",bookSignature:"António B. Pereira and Fábio A. O. Fernandes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7610.jpg",editors:[{id:"211131",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Bastos",surname:"Pereira",slug:"antonio-pereira",fullName:"António Pereira"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8463",title:"Pediatric Surgery, Flowcharts and Clinical Algorithms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"23f39beea4d557b0ae424e2eaf82bf5e",slug:"pediatric-surgery-flowcharts-and-clinical-algorithms",bookSignature:"Sameh Shehata",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8463.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37518",title:"Prof.",name:"Sameh",middleName:null,surname:"Shehata",slug:"sameh-shehata",fullName:"Sameh Shehata"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7187",title:"Osteosarcoma",subtitle:"Diagnosis, Mechanisms, and Translational Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"89096359b754beb806eca4c6d8aacaba",slug:"osteosarcoma-diagnosis-mechanisms-and-translational-developments",bookSignature:"Matthew Gregory Cable and Robert Lawrence Randall",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7187.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"265693",title:"Dr.",name:"Matthew Gregory",middleName:null,surname:"Cable",slug:"matthew-gregory-cable",fullName:"Matthew Gregory Cable"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7955",title:"Advances in Hematologic Malignancies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"59ca1b09447fab4717a93e099f646d28",slug:"advances-in-hematologic-malignancies",bookSignature:"Gamal Abdul Hamid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7955.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36487",title:"Prof.",name:"Gamal",middleName:null,surname:"Abdul Hamid",slug:"gamal-abdul-hamid",fullName:"Gamal Abdul Hamid"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7701",title:"Assistive and Rehabilitation Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4191b744b8af3b17d9a80026dcb0617f",slug:"assistive-and-rehabilitation-engineering",bookSignature:"Yves Rybarczyk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7701.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",slug:"yves-rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7726",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e7ea7e74ce7a7a8e5359629e07c68d31",slug:"swarm-intelligence-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Javier Del Ser, Esther Villar and Eneko Osaba",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7726.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8256",title:"Distillation",subtitle:"Modelling, Simulation and Optimization",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c76af109f83e14d915e5cb3949ae8b80",slug:"distillation-modelling-simulation-and-optimization",bookSignature:"Vilmar Steffen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8256.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"189035",title:"Dr.",name:"Vilmar",middleName:null,surname:"Steffen",slug:"vilmar-steffen",fullName:"Vilmar Steffen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7240",title:"Growing and Handling of Bacterial Cultures",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a76c3ef7718c0b72d0128817cdcbe6e3",slug:"growing-and-handling-of-bacterial-cultures",bookSignature:"Madhusmita Mishra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7240.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"204267",title:"Dr.",name:"Madhusmita",middleName:null,surname:"Mishra",slug:"madhusmita-mishra",fullName:"Madhusmita Mishra"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8299",title:"Timber Buildings and Sustainability",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bccf2891cec38ed041724131aa34c25a",slug:"timber-buildings-and-sustainability",bookSignature:"Giovanna Concu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8299.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"108709",title:"Dr.",name:"Giovanna",middleName:null,surname:"Concu",slug:"giovanna-concu",fullName:"Giovanna Concu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7062",title:"Rhinosinusitis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"14ed95e155b1e57a61827ca30b579d09",slug:"rhinosinusitis",bookSignature:"Balwant Singh Gendeh and Mirjana Turkalj",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7062.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67669",title:"Prof.",name:"Balwant Singh",middleName:null,surname:"Gendeh",slug:"balwant-singh-gendeh",fullName:"Balwant Singh Gendeh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7837",title:"Geriatric Medicine and Gerontology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e277d005b23536bcd9f8550046101979",slug:"geriatric-medicine-and-gerontology",bookSignature:"Edward T. Zawada Jr.",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7837.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16344",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward T.",middleName:null,surname:"Zawada Jr.",slug:"edward-t.-zawada-jr.",fullName:"Edward T. Zawada Jr."}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"170",title:"Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine",slug:"cardiology-and-cardiovascular-medicine",parent:{title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"},numberOfBooks:105,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:2860,numberOfWosCitations:447,numberOfCrossrefCitations:394,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1085,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"cardiology-and-cardiovascular-medicine",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"8218",title:"Aortic Stenosis",subtitle:"Current Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d9a81a576f7026e76fa6d29c27b308a6",slug:"aortic-stenosis-current-perspectives",bookSignature:"Peter Magnusson",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8218.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"188088",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Magnusson",slug:"peter-magnusson",fullName:"Peter Magnusson"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8266",title:"Cardiac Diseases and Interventions in 21st Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"186b2840cf326729108f409cd8f30bcc",slug:"cardiac-diseases-and-interventions-in-21st-century",bookSignature:"Ozgur Karcioglu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8266.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"221195",title:"Dr.",name:"Ozgur",middleName:null,surname:"Karcioglu",slug:"ozgur-karcioglu",fullName:"Ozgur Karcioglu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7280",title:"Topics in Heart Failure Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b5bb2a025687066e417525751fc81ce3",slug:"topics-in-heart-failure-management",bookSignature:"Giuseppe Rescigno and Michael S. Firstenberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7280.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"163401",title:"Dr.",name:"Giuseppe",middleName:null,surname:"Rescigno",slug:"giuseppe-rescigno",fullName:"Giuseppe Rescigno"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7055",title:"Angiography",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"20638a6ce5e042484cc33b5b510cdca6",slug:"angiography",bookSignature:"Burak Pamukçu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7055.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"70686",title:"Dr.",name:"Burak",middleName:null,surname:"Pamukçu",slug:"burak-pamukcu",fullName:"Burak Pamukçu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7049",title:"Cardiac Pacing and Monitoring",subtitle:"New Methods, Modern Devices",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"52722bbabb55cb46dc08d238880f4366",slug:"cardiac-pacing-and-monitoring-new-methods-modern-devices",bookSignature:"Mart Min",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7049.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62780",title:"Prof.",name:"Mart",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"mart-min",fullName:"Mart Min"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6777",title:"Advances in Extra-corporeal Perfusion Therapies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1e52fb6e834ada962495c512111f684e",slug:"advances-in-extra-corporeal-perfusion-therapies",bookSignature:"Michael S. Firstenberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6777.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64343",title:null,name:"Michael S.",middleName:"S",surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. Firstenberg"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6373",title:"Myocardial Infarction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"10bca0bf18d68ec3c1641dbc3a1ae899",slug:"myocardial-infarction",bookSignature:"Burak Pamukçu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"70686",title:"Dr.",name:"Burak",middleName:null,surname:"Pamukçu",slug:"burak-pamukcu",fullName:"Burak Pamukçu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7220",title:"Congenital Heart Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f59bacfffcccc636ec3082869d10a82e",slug:"congenital-heart-disease",bookSignature:"David C. Gaze",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7220.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"71983",title:"Dr.",name:"David C.",middleName:null,surname:"Gaze",slug:"david-c.-gaze",fullName:"David C. Gaze"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6311",title:"Blood Pressure",subtitle:"From Bench to Bed",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2e393b1d66ff57ba49a6e00a6f50714d",slug:"blood-pressure-from-bench-to-bed",bookSignature:"Aise Seda Artis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6311.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99453",title:"Dr.",name:"Aise Seda",middleName:null,surname:"Artis",slug:"aise-seda-artis",fullName:"Aise Seda Artis"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7445",title:"Cardiotoxicity",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"90d1dca21a942e95b62075a222238625",slug:"cardiotoxicity",bookSignature:"Wenyong Tan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7445.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"192949",title:"Dr.",name:"Wenyong",middleName:null,surname:"Tan",slug:"wenyong-tan",fullName:"Wenyong Tan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6209",title:"Endothelial Dysfunction",subtitle:"Old Concepts and New Challenges",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6e76bbf7858977527679a6e6ad6a173",slug:"endothelial-dysfunction-old-concepts-and-new-challenges",bookSignature:"Helena Lenasi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6209.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68746",title:"Dr.",name:"Helena",middleName:null,surname:"Lenasi",slug:"helena-lenasi",fullName:"Helena Lenasi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6747",title:"Peripheral Arterial Disease",subtitle:"A Practical Approach",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c5122c44b2f28868cb402257476d0c5",slug:"peripheral-arterial-disease-a-practical-approach",bookSignature:"Nishtha Sareen and Abhishek Ojha",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6747.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"203988",title:"Dr.",name:"Nishtha",middleName:null,surname:"Sareen",slug:"nishtha-sareen",fullName:"Nishtha Sareen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:105,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"45069",doi:"10.5772/54354",title:"The Immune Response in In Situ Tissue Engineering of Aortic Heart Valves",slug:"the-immune-response-in-in-situ-tissue-engineering-of-aortic-heart-valves",totalDownloads:3280,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:24,book:{slug:"calcific-aortic-valve-disease",title:"Calcific Aortic Valve Disease",fullTitle:"Calcific Aortic Valve Disease"},signatures:"S. L. M. van Loon, A. I. P. M. Smits, A. Driessen-Mol, F. P. T. Baaijens\nand C. V. C. Bouten",authors:[{id:"159635",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlijn",middleName:"V",surname:"Bouten",slug:"carlijn-bouten",fullName:"Carlijn Bouten"},{id:"161227",title:"MSc.",name:"Saskia",middleName:null,surname:"Van Loon",slug:"saskia-van-loon",fullName:"Saskia Van Loon"},{id:"161228",title:"MSc.",name:"Anthal",middleName:null,surname:"Smits",slug:"anthal-smits",fullName:"Anthal Smits"},{id:"161229",title:"Dr.",name:"Anita",middleName:null,surname:"Driessen-Mol",slug:"anita-driessen-mol",fullName:"Anita Driessen-Mol"},{id:"161230",title:"Prof.",name:"Frank",middleName:null,surname:"Baaijens",slug:"frank-baaijens",fullName:"Frank Baaijens"}]},{id:"43500",doi:"10.5772/54723",title:"Pharmacology of Arterial Grafts for Coronary Artery Bypass Surgery",slug:"pharmacology-of-arterial-grafts-for-coronary-artery-bypass-surgery",totalDownloads:2242,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:17,book:{slug:"artery-bypass",title:"Artery Bypass",fullTitle:"Artery Bypass"},signatures:"Oguzhan Yildiz, Melik Seyrek and Husamettin Gul",authors:[{id:"164299",title:"Prof.",name:"Oguzhan",middleName:null,surname:"Yıldız",slug:"oguzhan-yildiz",fullName:"Oguzhan Yıldız"},{id:"164968",title:"Dr.",name:"Melik",middleName:null,surname:"Seyrek",slug:"melik-seyrek",fullName:"Melik Seyrek"},{id:"164969",title:"Dr.",name:"Husamettin",middleName:null,surname:"Gul",slug:"husamettin-gul",fullName:"Husamettin Gul"}]},{id:"27007",doi:"10.5772/22937",title:"Non Contact Heart Monitoring",slug:"non-contact-heart-monitoring",totalDownloads:15084,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:15,book:{slug:"advances-in-electrocardiograms-methods-and-analysis",title:"Advances in Electrocardiograms",fullTitle:"Advances in Electrocardiograms - Methods and Analysis"},signatures:"Lorenzo Scalise",authors:[{id:"49866",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Lorenzo",middleName:null,surname:"Scalise",slug:"lorenzo-scalise",fullName:"Lorenzo Scalise"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"59778",title:"Epidemiology of Myocardial Infarction",slug:"epidemiology-of-myocardial-infarction",totalDownloads:1980,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"myocardial-infarction",title:"Myocardial Infarction",fullTitle:"Myocardial Infarction"},signatures:"Joshua Chadwick Jayaraj, Karapet Davatyan, S.S. Subramanian and Jemmi Priya",authors:[{id:"223196",title:"Dr.",name:"Joshua Chadwick",middleName:null,surname:"Jayaraj",slug:"joshua-chadwick-jayaraj",fullName:"Joshua Chadwick Jayaraj"},{id:"231054",title:"Dr.",name:"Karapet",middleName:null,surname:"Davatyan",slug:"karapet-davatyan",fullName:"Karapet Davatyan"},{id:"231055",title:"Ms.",name:"Jemmi",middleName:null,surname:"Priya",slug:"jemmi-priya",fullName:"Jemmi Priya"},{id:"244487",title:"Dr.",name:"S.S.",middleName:null,surname:"Subramanian",slug:"s.s.-subramanian",fullName:"S.S. Subramanian"}]},{id:"30097",title:"Bradycardia Secondary to Cervical Spinal Cord Injury",slug:"bradycardia-secondary-to-cervical-spinal-cord-injury",totalDownloads:16828,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"cardiac-arrhythmias-new-considerations",title:"Cardiac Arrhythmias",fullTitle:"Cardiac Arrhythmias - New Considerations"},signatures:"Farid Sadaka and Christopher Veremakis",authors:[{id:"101031",title:"Dr.",name:"Farid",middleName:null,surname:"Sadaka",slug:"farid-sadaka",fullName:"Farid Sadaka"},{id:"102527",title:"Dr.",name:"Christopher",middleName:null,surname:"Veremakis",slug:"christopher-veremakis",fullName:"Christopher Veremakis"}]},{id:"13783",title:"Electromagnetic Interference of the Pacemakers",slug:"electromagnetic-interference-of-the-pacemakers",totalDownloads:59074,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"modern-pacemakers-present-and-future",title:"Modern Pacemakers",fullTitle:"Modern Pacemakers - Present and Future"},signatures:"Umashankar Lakshmanadoss, Priya Chinnachamy and James P Daubert",authors:[{id:"13913",title:"Dr.",name:"Umashankar",middleName:null,surname:"Lakshmanadoss",slug:"umashankar-lakshmanadoss",fullName:"Umashankar Lakshmanadoss"},{id:"14368",title:"Dr.",name:"James",middleName:null,surname:"Daubert",slug:"james-daubert",fullName:"James Daubert"},{id:"27778",title:"Prof.",name:"saadia",middleName:null,surname:"Sherazi",slug:"saadia-sherazi",fullName:"saadia Sherazi"},{id:"59543",title:"Dr.",name:"Priya",middleName:null,surname:"Chinnachamy",slug:"priya-chinnachamy",fullName:"Priya Chinnachamy"}]},{id:"45265",title:"Spinal Arteriovenous Fistulas and Arteriovenous Malformations – Complicated Vasculature and Surgical Imaging",slug:"spinal-arteriovenous-fistulas-and-arteriovenous-malformations-complicated-vasculature-and-surgical-i",totalDownloads:2246,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"arteriovenous-fistulas-diagnosis-and-management",title:"Arteriovenous Fistulas",fullTitle:"Arteriovenous Fistulas - Diagnosis and Management"},signatures:"Shinji Yamamoto and Phyo Kim",authors:[{id:"164139",title:"Dr.",name:"Shinji",middleName:null,surname:"Yamamoto",slug:"shinji-yamamoto",fullName:"Shinji Yamamoto"}]},{id:"66725",title:"Dyslipidemia and Its Role in the Pathogenesis of Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease: Implications for Evaluation and Targets for Treatment of Dyslipidemia Based on Recent Guidelines",slug:"dyslipidemia-and-its-role-in-the-pathogenesis-of-atherosclerotic-cardiovascular-disease-implications",totalDownloads:495,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:null,title:"Dyslipidemia",fullTitle:"Dyslipidemia"},signatures:"Perry Wengrofsky, Justin Lee and Amgad N. Makaryus",authors:null},{id:"47808",title:"Role of Oxidized LDL in Atherosclerosis",slug:"role-of-oxidized-ldl-in-atherosclerosis",totalDownloads:3282,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:10,book:{slug:"hypercholesterolemia",title:"Hypercholesterolemia",fullTitle:"Hypercholesterolemia"},signatures:"E. Leiva, S. Wehinger, L. Guzmán and R. Orrego",authors:[{id:"153453",title:"MSc.",name:"Elba",middleName:null,surname:"Leiva",slug:"elba-leiva",fullName:"Elba Leiva"}]},{id:"62447",title:"Drug Induced Cardiotoxicity: Mechanism, Prevention and Management",slug:"drug-induced-cardiotoxicity-mechanism-prevention-and-management",totalDownloads:669,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"cardiotoxicity",title:"Cardiotoxicity",fullTitle:"Cardiotoxicity"},signatures:"Mina T. Kelleni and Mahrous Abdelbasset",authors:[{id:"247606",title:"Dr.",name:"Mina",middleName:"T.",surname:"Kelleni",slug:"mina-kelleni",fullName:"Mina Kelleni"},{id:"258449",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahrous",middleName:null,surname:"Abdelbasset",slug:"mahrous-abdelbasset",fullName:"Mahrous Abdelbasset"}]},{id:"53791",title:"Basics of Angiography for Peripheral Artery Disease",slug:"basics-of-angiography-for-peripheral-artery-disease",totalDownloads:2027,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"angiography-and-endovascular-therapy-for-peripheral-artery-disease",title:"Angiography and Endovascular Therapy for Peripheral Artery Disease",fullTitle:"Angiography and Endovascular Therapy for Peripheral Artery Disease"},signatures:"Yoshiaki Yokoi",authors:[{id:"66538",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoshiaki",middleName:null,surname:"Yokoi",slug:"yoshiaki-yokoi",fullName:"Yoshiaki Yokoi"}]},{id:"63304",title:"Doxorubicin-Induced Cardiotoxicity: From Mechanisms to Development of Efficient Therapy",slug:"doxorubicin-induced-cardiotoxicity-from-mechanisms-to-development-of-efficient-therapy",totalDownloads:804,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"cardiotoxicity",title:"Cardiotoxicity",fullTitle:"Cardiotoxicity"},signatures:"Danúbia Silva dos Santos and Regina Coeli dos Santos Goldenberg",authors:[{id:"26576",title:"Prof.",name:"Regina C.S.",middleName:null,surname:"Goldenberg",slug:"regina-c.s.-goldenberg",fullName:"Regina C.S. Goldenberg"},{id:"255926",title:"Dr.",name:"Danúbia",middleName:null,surname:"Silva Dos Santos",slug:"danubia-silva-dos-santos",fullName:"Danúbia Silva Dos Santos"}]},{id:"38317",title:"Complications of Pacemaker Implantation",slug:"complications_of_pacemaker_implantation",totalDownloads:16078,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"current-issues-and-recent-advances-in-pacemaker-therapy",title:"Current Issues and Recent Advances in Pacemaker Therapy",fullTitle:"Current Issues and Recent Advances in Pacemaker Therapy"},signatures:"Jeffrey L. Williams and Robert T. Stevenson",authors:[{id:"147723",title:"Dr.",name:"Jeffrey",middleName:null,surname:"Williams",slug:"jeffrey-williams",fullName:"Jeffrey Williams"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"cardiology-and-cardiovascular-medicine",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"65998",title:"Chronic Constrictive Pericarditis (CCP) in Africa: Epidemiology, Etiology, Diagnosis, and Surgical Treatment",slug:"chronic-constrictive-pericarditis-ccp-in-africa-epidemiology-etiology-diagnosis-and-surgical-treatme",totalDownloads:23,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84887",book:{title:"Inflammatory Heart Diseases"},signatures:"Koffi Herve Yangni-Angate"},{id:"69909",title:"Postprandial Lipemia as Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factor",slug:"postprandial-lipemia-as-cardiovascular-disease-risk-factor",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89933",book:{title:"Dyslipidemia"},signatures:"Neil Francis Amba and Leilani B. Mercado-Asis"},{id:"67764",title:"The Role of Lifestyle in Development of Coronary Heart Disease",slug:"the-role-of-lifestyle-in-development-of-coronary-heart-disease",totalDownloads:20,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86866",book:{title:"Inflammatory Heart Diseases"},signatures:"Sushama J. Bhosale"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:26},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6837",title:"Lithium-ion Batteries - Thin Film for Energy Materials and Devices",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"ea7789260b319b9a4b472257f57bfeb5",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Mitsunobu Sato, Dr. Li Lu and Dr. Hiroki Nagai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6837.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"179615",title:"Prof.",name:"Mitsunobu",middleName:null,surname:"Sato",slug:"mitsunobu-sato",fullName:"Mitsunobu Sato"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9423",title:"Applications of Artificial Intelligence in Process Industry Automation, Heat and Power Generation and Smart Manufacturing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"10ac8fb0bdbf61044395963028653d21",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Konstantinos G. Kyprianidis and Prof. Erik Dahlquist",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9423.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"35868",title:"Prof.",name:"Konstantinos",middleName:"G.",surname:"Kyprianidis",slug:"konstantinos-kyprianidis",fullName:"Konstantinos Kyprianidis"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9428",title:"New Trends in the Use of Artificial Intelligence for the Industry 4.0",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9e089eec484ce8e9eb32198c2d8b34ea",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Luis Romeral Martinez, Dr. Roque A. Osornio-Rios and Dr. Miguel Delgado Prieto",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9428.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"86501",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Romeral Martinez",slug:"luis-romeral-martinez",fullName:"Luis Romeral Martinez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10107",title:"Artificial Intelligence in Oncology Drug Discovery & Development",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"043c178c3668865ab7d35dcb2ceea794",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. John Cassidy and Dr. Belle Taylor",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10107.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"244455",title:"Dr.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Cassidy",slug:"john-cassidy",fullName:"John Cassidy"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10080",title:"Vortex Dynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"ea97962e99b3e0ebc9b46b48ba5bea14",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Zambri Harun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10080.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"243152",title:"Dr.",name:"Zambri",middleName:null,surname:"Harun",slug:"zambri-harun",fullName:"Zambri Harun"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8903",title:"Carbon Based Material for Environmental Protection and Remediation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"19da699b370f320eca63ef2ba02f745d",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mattia Bartoli and Dr. Marco Frediani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8903.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"188999",title:"Dr.",name:"Mattia",middleName:null,surname:"Bartoli",slug:"mattia-bartoli",fullName:"Mattia Bartoli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8771",title:"Raman Scattering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"1354b3097eaa5b27d9d4bd29d3150b27",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Samir Kumar and Dr. Prabhat Kumar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8771.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"296661",title:"Dr.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"samir-kumar",fullName:"Samir Kumar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10073",title:"Recent Advances in Nanophotonics-Fundamentals and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"aceca7dfc807140870a89d42c5537d7c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mojtaba Kahrizi and Ms. Parsoua Abedini Sohi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10073.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"113045",title:"Dr.",name:"Mojtaba",middleName:null,surname:"Kahrizi",slug:"mojtaba-kahrizi",fullName:"Mojtaba Kahrizi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:19},humansInSpaceProgram:{},teamHumansInSpaceProgram:{},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/20207/mohammadamin-emami",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"20207",slug:"mohammadamin-emami"},fullPath:"/profiles/20207/mohammadamin-emami",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()