List of notable chemical characterisations of biochar.
\r\n\tAlthough the microorganism was later described by several other researchers with multiple synonyms, Escherich was recognized as the first, establishing the definitive name of the microbe as Escherichia coli in 1954.
\r\n\tIn 1933, Alfred Adam showed that certain serotypes of "dyspepsia Koli" (as he called the diarrheagenic E. coli strains) were implicated in epidemics of pediatric diarrhoea. In 1944, Kauffman proposed a classification scheme that is still in use today for the purpose of differentiating commensal types from pathogens and subclassifying them.
\r\n\tEscherichia coli, in its natural habitat, lives in the intestines of most healthy mammals. It is the main facultative anaerobic organism of the digestive system. In healthy individuals, that is, if the bacterium does not acquire genetic elements that encode virulent factors, the bacterium acts as a commensal forming part of the intestinal microbiota and thus helping the absorption of nutrients.
\r\n\tIn humans, E. coli colonizes the gastrointestinal tract of a neonate by adhering to the mucus of the large intestine within a few hours of birth. Since then, it remains in a relationship of mutual benefit. However, these commensal strains can cause infections in immunosuppressed patients.
\r\n\r\n\tPathogenic strains of E. coli, on the other hand, as soon as they colonize a healthy host, can cause infections of varying severity in the intestine, urinary tract, meningitis, and sepsis, among other infections.
\r\n\tDiarrhea caused by pathogenic strains of E. coli is an important cause of death in children under 5 years of age, especially in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, where it is one of the four most important causes of moderate and severe diarrhea, potentially lethal An increase in mortality is associated with enteropathogenic strains.
\r\n\tUrinary tract infections are more common in women because of the short length of the urethra (25 to 50 mm) compared to men (about 15 cm). Among the elderly, urinary infections tend to be of the same proportion between men and women.
\r\n\tBecause the bacteria invariably enter the urinary tract through the urethra (an ascending infection), poor hygiene habits can predispose to infection; however, other factors become important, such as pregnancy, benign or malignant hypertrophy of the prostate, and in In many cases, the initiating event of the infection is unknown. Although ascending infections are the cause of lower urinary tract infections and cystitis, this is not necessarily the cause of upper infections such as pyelonephritis, which may have a hematogenous origin.
Pathogenic microorganisms can infect tissues of human by destroying cellular functions. Microorganisms themselves or their toxins can damage host cells. Microbial infections are treated with antimicrobials by either inhibiting the microbial growth or killing the microorganism. Antibiotics are widely being used not only in the treatment of acute and chronic infections, but also in the prophylactic treatment [1]. Targets of antimicrobials are cell membrane, cell wall, protein synthesis, nucleic acid synthesis, and biological metabolic compound synthesis (Figure 1) [2]. Over usage of antibiotics, mutations in the genes, carrying resistance genes in chromosomes and plasmids, gaining resistance genes carried by transposons, insertion sequences (IS) and conjugation from the same or other species of microorganisms cause bacteria develop resistance to antimicrobials [3].
Targets of antimicrobials.
Plasma membrane of microorganism that has selective permeability contributes active transport to gain energy as ATP. Cytoplasmic content and gradient such as micro and macromolecules and ions are controlled by active transportation via integral transporter proteins. When selective membrane permeability is disrupted by antimicrobials, ions are lost and cellular ion gradient is distorted, so, the organism undergoes cellular damage and death [4].
Plasma membranes of bacteria are constructed by fatty acids that can be synthesized in cell or taken from environment as building blocks. Targets of antimicrobials are metabolic steps of fatty acid synthesis and membrane phospholipids. Polymyxin B, that is a bactericidal antibiotic, has been used as one of very few drugs in the treatment of Gram-negative bacteria such as
Cell walls of microorganisms are constructed by peptidoglycan. Glycan polysaccharide strands are linked by crosslink that bind polypeptides bound to N-acetyl muromic acid (NAM) of each polysaccharide strands.
After bactoprenol, which is a membrane-bound acceptor, transfers UDP-NAM-pentapeptide and UDP-NAG from cytoplasm to outer site of cell membrane, transglycosylation, and transpeptidation reactions are catalyzed by penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) bound to cell membrane as a DD-peptidases to construct peptidoglycan [3].
Certain antibiotics such as β-lactam antibiotics react with PBPs having high affinity to β-lactams by binding to PBPs as a substrate. These drugs are structural analogs of acyl-D-alanyl-D-alanine that binds to active site of PBP as a substrate of PBP during transpeptidation reaction. Transpeptidation reaction is blocked by these antibiotics inactivating transpeptidase domain of PBPs. Microorganisms are killed by these cell wall inhibitors that inhibit peptidoglycan biosynthesis [3].
β-lactamase, that is an enzyme synthesized by many species of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, inactivates β-lactams degrading amide bond of β-lactam ring of β-lactam antibiotics [4] (bnm MRSA and MSSA). β-lactamases can be mediated by either plasmids or chromosomes, whereas penicillinases of
β-lactamase is synthesized by
Biological metabolic reactions are catabolized by enzymes that are activated by substrates. Synthesis of metabolic biological compounds can be inhibited by drugs as a competitive inhibition manner. Drugs that are structural analogs of substrates act as substrates for the enzymes used in metabolic reactions.
Para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) is a substrate for folic acid synthesis that is a coenzyme in the reactions of purines, pyrimidine, and amino acids synthesis [2].
Sulfanilamide and 3,4,5-trimethoxybenzylpyrimidine are the examples of drugs inhibiting synthesis of metabolic biological compounds. Sulfonamides (Sulfa drugs) have been used in many infections such as urinary tract infections. Sulfonamide is widely used in combination with other compounds. Silver sulfadiazine, one of the combined drugs, is used in burn infections [2].
Trimethoprim sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMZ) is another combined drug used widely because of its synergistic activity. Trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole block distinct steps of DNA and RNA precursor synthesis, and protein. Sulfamethoxazole that is sulfonamides showing structurally analogy with PABA blocks the reaction synthesizing dihydrofolic acid (DHF) from PABA, whereas trimethoprim that is sulfonamides showing structurally analogy with DHF blocks the reaction synthesizing tetrahydrofolic acid (THF) from DHF (Figure 2) [2].
The synthesis of deoxynucleoside triphosphate precursors (dNTP: dATP, dGTP, dCTP, and dTTP), and the inhibition of tetrahydrofolate (THF) and dNTP synthesis by antibiotics.
Antibiotics can inhibit replication, transcription, and folate synthesis of microorganisms.
Deoxyribonucleotide precursors are synthesized for the polymerization of deoxynucleotides. By kinase enzyme, deoxynucleoside triphosphates (dNTP: dGTP, dCTP, and dATP) are synthesized from deoxynucleoside diphosphates (dNDP: dGDP, dCDP and dADP) that are synthesized from ribonucleosides by ribonucleotide reductase. But deoxythymidine triphosphate (dTTP) is synthesized by different pathway. Deoxyuracil diphosphate (dUDP) that is synthesized from uracil diphosphate (UDP) by ribonucleotide reductase is converted to deoxyuracil monophosphate (dUMP). Thymidylate synthetase catalyzes a reaction that converts dUMP methylated by tetrahydrofolate (THF) to dTMP. In this step, tetrahydrofolate (THF) is synthesized from dihydrofolate (DHF) by dihydrofolate reductase. Finally, dTTP is synthesized from dTMP by kinase (Figure 2).
DNA gyrase opens DNA strands for the polymerization of deoxynucleotides by DNA polymerase according to the each circular template strand of chromosome [5].
Kinolons, such as nalidixic acid and ciprofloxacin that is used in the treatment of infections caused by
Synthesis of deoxynucleotide precursors that are used in the replication of DNA can be blocked by trimethoprim, hydroxyurea, 5-fluorodeoxyuridine, and 5-fluorouracil.
Trimethoprim is an inhibitor of folate synthesis. Trimethoprim, that is a structural analog of DHF, prevents the synthesis of THF by inhibiting dihydrofolate reductase. So, dTMP that is a precursor of deoxynucleotide polymer is not synthesized. There are many mechanisms of trimethoprim resistance. If
Hydroxyurea inhibits ribonucleotide reductase that catalyzes deoxynucleoside diphosphate from ribonucleoside diphosphate (Figure 2). If microorganism of gene coding ribonucleotide reductase is mutated, microorganism develops resistance to hydroxyurea [5].
Precursor synthesis can be blocked by 5-fluorodeoxyuridine and 5-fluorouracil with competitive inhibition. Monophosphate forms of 5-fluorodeoxyuridine and 5-fluorouracil are structural analogs of dUMP that is the substrate of thymidylate synthase. They inhibit the synthesis of dTMP. If the microorganism of gene coding thymidylate synthase is mutated, the microorganism develops resistance to 5-fluorodeoxyuridine and 5-fluorouracil [5].
Dideoxynucleotides that are used as drugs are similar with deoxynucleotide precursors, except that the hydroxyl group is absent in their 3′ carbon. Dideoxynucleotides that mimic deoxynucleotide precursors corpore into DNA and then, stop replication, due to it cannot be bound by the next deoxynucleotide.
Mitomycin C blocks replication by binding guanine bases that are located in both template strands of DNA [5].
Genetic information is transcripted from DNA to RNA by RNA polymerase that catalyzes a reaction, binds ribonucleotides with phosphodiester bond. RNA polymerase is constructed by 2α, 1β, 1β′, 1ω, and 1σ subunit. Transcription that is initiated by σ subunit that binds to promoter elongates until it is terminated by termination protein P (Rho) that is a RNA-DNA helicase releasing transcript from template DNA by breaking hydrogen bonds produced between template DNA and transcript [5].
Rifampin, that is a derivative of rifamycine family of antibiotics, blocks initiation of transcription by binding to β subunit of RNA polymerase. Rifampin is used in the treatment of infections caused by
Protein is translated from mRNA by tRNA in ribosome. Translation is initiated by the binding of formylmethionine tRNA-aminoacyl-tRNA (fMet-tRNAfMet), translation initiation region (TIR) of mRNA and initiation factor 2 (IF-2) to P site of 30S subunit of ribosome and the formation of 70S complex as a result of the release of IF-2. Translation continues with the binding of a new aminoacyl tRNA to A site, transferring the polypeptide from tRNA bond to P site to tRNA bond to A site by peptidyl transferase, and translocating of polypeptidyl tRNA from A to P site by elongation factor-G (EF-G), until translation is terminated by termination protein P (Rho) [5].
Puromycin that mimics aminoacyl tRNA enters into ribosome and is added to polypeptide grown, but it is not translocated from A site to P site of ribosome. Polypeptide containing puromycin at the carboxyl terminal is released from ribosome and translation is terminated. Puromycin is toxic to humans and animals, as it inhibits translation of eukaryotes [5].
Chloramphenicol, that is a bacteriostatic agent and the inhibitor of 23S rRNA, inhibits transcription by preventing peptidyl transferase reaction, as a result of preventing the binding of aminoacyl tRNA to A site of ribosome. Due to its ability enter into blood-brain barrier, chloramphenicol is used in the treatment of many central nervous system infections such as bacterial meningitis. If the gene of ribosomal protein is mutated or bacteria has enzyme inactivating chloramphenicol, coded by
Erythromycin, that belongs to macrolide class of antibiotics, inhibits translation by binding to 23S rRNA. As a result of the blockage of E site, that is the exit site for peptidyl-tRNA by erythromycin, premature polypeptide is released in translocation step. Macrolites, such as erythromycin, clarithromycin, azithromycin, and roxithromycin, are used in the treatment of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria such as
Thiostrepton and other thiopeptide antibiotics block translation by binding to 23S RNA in the peptidyl transferase reaction and preventing the binding of EF-G that is a translocase translocating polypeptidyl tRNA from A to P site. Thiostrepton is used against Gram-positive bacteria. But the usage of thiostrepton is limited to veterinary and agriculture [5].
Tetracyclin causes futile cycle to release aminoacyl tRNA from A site of ribosome by binding of release factors mimicking aminoacyl tRNA to A site. Tetracyclin is a broad spectrum antibiotic used to treat infections caused by Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.
Aminoglycosides that contain kanamycin, neomycin, gentamycin, streptomycin, amikacin, and tobramycin effect translocation by binding to A site. Aminoglycosides that have broad spectrum of activity cause false reading of mRNA and translation errors. Mutants that are resistant to aminoglycosides are seen rare. Aminoglycoside resistance is caused by the genes that inactivate aminoglycosides by phosphorylation, acetylation, and adenylation of them.
Fusidic acid inhibits turnover of EF-G by preventing the release of EF-G from ribosome. Mutations that are occurred in
The word char, is a common terminology used for the solid product of the combustion of carbonaceous material [1]. Generally, char product is rich in carbon content; an example is charcoal, which is almost the earliest invention of humans from fire or heat creation. Another vivid example of char is biochar. In this case, the study, is made from organic compounds such as forest, agricultural or animal products but in the absence/limited supply of oxygen compared to charcoal. Therefore, biochar is derived from biomass combustion in the presence of a limited oxygen supply and at relatively low temperatures below 700°C. The earliest known purpose for creating biochar was specifically for soil application such as carbon storage or sequestration in soil; improvement of soil performance such as increase in nutrient availability, reduction of compactness in soil, soil pH improvement; soil water filtration. Recent applications involve energy production, biochemical process stability and improvement, climate change mitigation, and construction additive [1, 2, 3]. The raw material determines carbonized organic matter properties and the operational parameters used during it production. Pyrolysis (slow or fast) and gasification are the main methods for the production of biochar. The physical nature of the biochar produced is directly affected by the chemical composition of the biomass feedstock. Most organic matter begin to thermally decompose at temperatures above 120°C. Hemicelluloses degrade between 200 and 260°C, cellulose between 240 and 350°C, and lignin between 280 and 500°C. As a result, the proportions of these components will affect the degree of reactivity and, as a result, the extent to which the physical structure is modified during processing [4]. Biochar is characterized with high porosity with pores ranging in size from micro to macropores. Large holes, which originate from the raw biomass’s vascular bundles, are critical for increasing soil quality because they can serve as habitats for symbiotic microbes. Biochar major components are carbon, volatile matter, mineral matter (ash), and moisture. The percentage composition of each components varies based on the feedstock material and the operating parameters [1]. Biochar from plant-based materials have higher carbon composition which range from as low as 51% to as high. The understanding of the key mechanisms for changes in physicochemical properties of biochar during processing for various feedstock types and operating parameters is required to determine biochar’s potential for application both now and in future. Therefore, this chapter explains biochar production techniques, factors affecting its properties and compositions and its application.
An ever-growing appetency for using biochar for various applications has orchestrated an increase in converting it into biochar. Thermochemical conversion is a common technology for making biochar. Thermochemical conversion techniques are pyrolysis, hydrothermal carbonization (HTC), gasification, torrefaction, and hydrothermal liquefaction [5, 6].
Pyrolysis is a thermochemical technique that produces biochar, bio-oil, and syngas derived from biomass [7]. The process involves heating and thermally decomposing biomass under anaerobic conditions or limited oxygen supply (low stoichiometric oxygen atmosphere) with temperatures ranging between 400°C and 1200°C [2]. The absence of oxygen enables biomass heating beyond its thermal stability limit, causing the creation of more robust products, including solid residues. By creating an anaerobic atmosphere, it is also ensured that combustion will not occur when the biomass is heated. It is a highly complex process involving many distinct reactions in the reacting zone [8]. In another study, a low-temperature range for pyrolysis was recorded between 250°C and 900°C. Biomass from Agriculture comprises lignin, cellulose, hemicelluloses, and silica. Typically, cellulose pyrolyzes at 350°C, whereas the melting point of lignin is well above 350°C [6]. Although the product yield depends on various operating variables, char formation is generally favored by low temperatures and long residence times [9]. Therefore, it can be decoded that the effective temperature range for pyrolysis was between 300 and 700°C. The cracking of heavy chemicals happens in secondary pyrolysis and converts biomass into biochar or gases. Figure 1 is a summary of the pyrolysis technique and the operating variables affecting pyrolysis.
Schematic representation of pyrolysis process [
In essence, this is an alternative way to valorize biomass into various products such as bio-oil, syngas and biochar. Depolymerization, fragmentation, and cross-linking are chemical mechanisms that occur during the process at specific temperature points, resulting in a different product state for lignocellulosic components, including cellulose and hemicellulose (solid, liquid and gas). Biochar and bio-oil are the solid and liquid products, whereas CO2, CO, H2, (collectively known as syngas) are evolved as the gaseous by-products (C1-C2 hydrocarbons) [3]. Biochar is made in a different type of reactors, such as paddle kiln, bubbling fluidized bed, wagon reactor, and agitated sand rotating kiln. The biomass nature and employed type determine the biochar yield during the pyrolysis route. The major operating parameter that impacts product efficiency is the temperature [10, 11]. When the pyrolysis temperature is increased, biochar’s yield decreases and the generation of syngas increases. The gas yield is represented by the initial section of the product side (as shown in Eq. (1)), with various gases created during the process.
The mixture of multiple sorts of liquid outputs is shown in the second part of the products’ side, and the solid yield is represented in the last component [12]. One of the most significant masteries of this technology is that it may be optimized to achieve the desired outcomes. Slow pyrolysis, for example, can be utilized to produce a considerable amount of biochar, whereas fast pyrolysis is better for dominantly producing bio-oil [13].
Pyrolysis is strongly dependent on the operating parameters, namely temperature, heating rate, and residence time [14]. These operating conditions further help to categorize pyrolysis into other six subclasses. These subclasses are slow pyrolysis, fast pyrolysis, flash pyrolysis, vacuum pyrolysis, intermediate pyrolysis, and hydropyrolysis [15]. Each classification of pyrolysis has its own documented benefits and drawbacks. The subclasses in question foster an environment for different reaction conditions and mechanisms to have various products. The pyrolysis technology mechanism is shown in Figure 2.
Representation of a pyrolysis process [
As indicated by the name, to complete the process, slow pyrolysis has a long residence time (more than 1 hour), and biochar is produced as a major product [16]. Slow pyrolysis is dubbed conventional pyrolysis, where biomass is heated at temperatures ranging between 300 and 600°C accompanied by a heating rate of 5–7°C/min [12, 17]. A lower heating rate and longer vapor residence time provide a suitable environment and adequate time for the secondary reactions to proceed. Furthermore, a prolonged residence period permits vapors created during the secondary reaction to be evacuated [15, 18]. This leads to the creation of solid carbonaceous biochar in the end. Slow pyrolysis favors char development, but liquid and gaseous products are also created in modest quantities. Biochar is formed as a primary product (35–45%) together with other products such as bio-oil (25–35%) and syngas (20–30%), as indicated in Eq. (1) [6, 19].
Fast pyrolysis is a direct thermochemical process for converting solid biomass into high-energy liquid bio-oil. A high-efficiency thermochemical technique to produce biomass-derived biofuels, with reduced amounts of solids and gases produced [20, 21]. Fast pyrolysis is carried out without oxygen at temperatures above 500°C and a heating rate of over 300°C/min. Fast pyrolysis is a rapid biochar generation technique that takes only a few seconds. Fast pyrolysis produces 60% bio-oil, 20% biochar, and 20% syngas, as reported in other studies [21, 22]. Even higher temperatures in the range of 850–1250°C with a heating rate of 10–200°C for a short residence time ranging from 1 to 10 s have been reported in several experiments. 60%-75% of liquid products, 15%-25% of biochar and 10–20% of non-condensable gaseous products are produced by a typical pyrolysis process [23]. Fast pyrolysis takes biomass to temperatures in which thermal cracking can occur and minimizes the exposure time, which supports biochar production [24].
This is dubbed to be an enhanced and modified version of fast pyrolysis. Biomass decomposes quickly, usually in less than a minute, at 1000°C and even higher temperatures. Heating rates of above 1000°C/sec have been recorded on occasion. Flash pyrolysis is carried out at temperatures between 900 and 1200°C, which can be reached in less than one second (usually between 0.1 and 1 s) [25, 26]. A high bio-oil yield combines a high heating rate with a high temperature and a short vapor residence time. However, the yield of biochar is reduced because of the process [27, 28]. In flash pyrolysis, heat and mass transfer processes, reaction chemical kinetics and biomass phase transition behavior all play a role in product distribution. Although flash pyrolysis is performed in a fluidised bed reactor and a twin-screw mixing reactor, it has limited industrial applicability because of the reactor’s architecture, which requires it to run at a high temperature with a very high heating rate [12].
This is the thermal decomposition of biomass under vacuum or relatively low pressure in an isolated oxygen environment [15, 29]. Pressure is usually regulated in the region between 0.5 and 2 bar, and temperature is maintained at 450–600°C [30]. Like slow pyrolysis, vacuum pyrolysis has comparably low heating rates. However, these two techniques, in comparison, yield significantly different products. This owes to the constant and effective discharge of the vapor produced during vacuum pyrolysis through condensation train. The rapid evacuation of organic vapors created during the primary pyrolysis also considerably minimizes the vapor residence time, which in turn minimizes the occurrence of secondary reactions and assures a high liquid product yield during the secondary pyrolysis [31]. As a result, only vacuum or low-pressure extraction is utilized to remove vapor evolved during pyrolysis, which substantially affects product quality and yield by preventing inorganic devolatilisation.
As the name suggests, this is a combination of slow and fast pyrolysis processes, and it is crucial when there is a need to balance solid and liquid products. This means that slow pyrolysis is more efficient at producing large amounts of char, but it also results in lower amounts of liquid products, while it is vice versa with fast pyrolysis. Generally, pressure is kept at 1 bar during the process. Intermediate pyrolysis has temperatures ranging between 500 and 650°C, with heating rates between 0.1 and 10°C/min and residence time between 5 and 17 mins [32]. 40–60% liquid, 20–30% non-condensable gases, and 15–25% biochar are typical constituents of finished products [33, 34]. Using intermediate pyrolysis conditions prevents the synthesis of high molecular reactive tars and results in dry biochar, which can be utilized for agricultural purposes or directly in boilers and engines in conjunction with high-quality bio-oil [2].
It relatively a novel technique that is used for the conversion of biomass into high quality products by injection of hydrogen or hydrogen based material into the reactor under high pressure, typically above the atmospheric pressure, stretching from 50 bar to 200 bar [15, 35]. The heating rate (10–300°C/s), residence time (over 15 sec) and temperature (350–600°C) are not highly deviated from fast pyrolysis [36]. In essence, hydropyrolysis can be considered a special type of fast pyrolysis subjected to high pressure in an atmosphere infused with hydrogen or hydrogen-based material. This method is not ideal for the production of biochar as the introduction of hydrogen under high temperature and pressure acts as a reducing agent, hence reducing oxygen content in the bio-oils produced and synchronously inhibiting the production of biochar [37, 38]. The employment of a catalyst to eradicate oxygen, water, and COx from the liquid product is typically linked with hydropyrolysis. Catalysts also reduce depolymerisation and coking reactions [39]. However, developing the catalyst for this intention remains a notable example of the difficult aspects of catalytic hydropyrolysis.
The majority of the material used in biochar production via pyrolysis contain carbohydrates in various forms (cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin), and these react differently based on the operating conditions they are subjected to, thus influencing the product yield of pyrolysis [15]. More specifically, lignin and cellulose are the major parts of biomass, making up its bulk [40]. On pyrolysis, cellulose mostly creates tar, a mixture of discrete ketones, aldehydes, organic liquids, and char, whereas lignin essentially produces char and a minimal amount of water. As the cellulose content grows but the char and tar content decreases, the yield of gaseous content increases. It’s also been discovered that structural differences in biomass cause changes in the pyrolysis product’s composition [41].
By lowering the extent of polymerization, the process of cellulose degradation is determined, which consists of two principal reactions:
Slow pyrolysis involves cellulose degradation over a prolonged period with a lower heating rate.
Fast pyrolysis occurs at high heating rates through speedy volatilization and leads to levoglucosan formation.
In addition to producing the solid product biochar, levoglucosan is dehydrated to generate hydroxymethylfurfural, which can break down to produce liquid and gaseous products such as bio-oil and syngas, respectively. Furthermore, the hydroxymethylfurfural can undergo several processes, including aromatization, condensation, and polymerization, to generate solid biochar [42, 43]. At low temperatures, cellulose degrades to a reasonably stable anhydrocellulose that produces a lot of char, but it decomposes into volatiles [25, 44].
The hemicellulose degradation mechanism is like that of cellulose. Depolymerisation of hemicellulose leads to oligosaccharides production [45]. Decarboxylation, intramolecular rearrangement, depolymerisation, and aromatisation reactions can be used to synthesize biochar or the compound can degrade into syngas and bio-oil [46]. The volatile products and lignin are responsible for the char yield of the cellulose and hemicellulose components in biomass [40].
Unlike the degradation of cellulose and hemicellulose, lignin decomposition is more complicated [47]. The creation of a more condensed solid structure and the shattering of relatively weak bonds result in the formation of char from lignin [48]. The β-O-4 lignin bond is broken and causes free radicals to be released. The protons emanating from other particles are captured by these free radicals, causing the production of degraded substances or compounds. Chain propagation is accomplished by free radicals moving to other molecules. Different amounts of lignin related to variable wood types bring about different breakdown rates. Coniferous lignin has been discovered to be more stable than deciduous lignin, and the former creates more char [49, 50].
This is a thermochemical process that decomposes carbon-rich materials into gaseous products, including CO, CO2, CH4, H2, and traces of hydrocarbons; these gases are referred to as syngas [51, 52]. Gasification happens at high temperatures between 700 and 900°C in an environment with restricted oxidizing agents such as oxygen, air, nitrogen, steam, carbon dioxide, or a mixture of these gases. It was discovered that when the temperature rose, carbon monoxide and hydrogen production increased, while other components such as methane, carbon dioxide, and hydrocarbons declined [53]. The main product of this process is syngas (mostly hydrogen), while char is referred to as a by-product (or waste) with a lower yield, along with ash, tar, and some oil [51]. Partial oxidation of biomass, unlike combustion, takes the energy available in the biomass and bundles it into chemical bonds in the form of gaseous products. The intrinsic chemical energy of carbon in biomass is transformed into combustible fuel gases, which are more efficient and convenient to utilize than raw biomass [54]. Commercial use of the gasification technique has also been documented. Because of its lower Levelised emissions and higher volume of syngas, gasification outperforms other traditional techniques including pyrolysis, combustion, and fermentation. The O/C ratio is critical to achieving high gasification efficiency. High gasification efficiency is achieved by using biomass with a low O/C ratio during gasification. Biomass can be reduced in its O/C ratio by the process of torrefaction. Before conventional gasification, torrefaction might be regarded as a pretreatment for better product quality. It is a low-temperature process between 200 and 300°C with a heating rate of roughly 50°C/min depending on the biomass composition and type [55, 56]. Pyrolysis and gasification are closely related processes. When gasification and pyrolysis are combined, there is no apparent separation between the two approaches [57, 58]. The little composition of oxygen used in gasification causes the biomass to undergo partial oxidation, changing the final product’s characteristics. The product type is one of the most significant variations between pyrolysis and gasification. Gasification produces around 85% gaseous products, 10% solid char, and 5% liquid products [15, 58]. The schematic of the gasification process is shown in Figure 3.
Process diagram for gasification [
The gasification mechanism can be sub-divided into many steps as follows [5]:
Biomass moisture is entirely removed from the material, and no energy is recovered in the process. Different types of biomass have varying moisture contents. When the biomass has a high moisture content, drying is used as a distinct step during gasification.
The biomass is heated from 200 to 700°C with restricted oxygen or air during the pyrolysis process. The volatile components of the biomass are evaporated under these circumstances. The volatile vapor contains CO, CO2, CH4, H2, tar (heavier hydrocarbon) gases, and water vapor [59]. Tar and char are also formed [60].
The oxidation and combustion reactions of the gasification agents are the primary energy sources for the gasification process. These gasification agents react with the gasifier’s combustible species to create CO2, CO, and water.
The CO2 and H2O are produced when the oxygen provided to the gasifier combines with the combustible elements. Upon contact with the char formed by pyrolysis, some of this CO2 and H2O are converted to CO and H2 [60, 61]. Furthermore, the hydrogen in the biomass can be oxidized, resulting in the production of water. The reduction reactions that take place inside the gasifier are endothermic, and the energy necessary for them comes from the combustion of char and volatiles. Through a series of reactions, biomass reduction produces combustible gases such as hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and methane [62, 63].
Furthermore, during the gasification process, the tar gases formed during the pyrolysis step are cracked, resulting in non-condensable gasses, light hydrocarbons, and unconverted tar [64]. The cracking stage follows more or less Eq. (2).
Where
Biomass is a composite solid substance made up of organic, inorganic and biological material produced from living or non-living creatures/organisms. There are two main categories of biomass, namely Woody and Non-woody biomass. Woody biomass is mainly forestry and tree residue [1]. It is characterized by low moisture and ash content, high calorific and bulk density values, and low voidage; in contrast, Non-woody biomass is made up of agricultural crop residue, animal waste, and municipal and industrial solid waste [1]. Non-woody biomass is characterized by high moisture and ash content, decreased calorific value, low bulk density, and increased voidage compared to woody biomass [1]. The moisture content of the biomass has been shown to have a significant effect on the physicochemical characteristics of the derived biochar [2]. A study conducted by [3] comparing the pyrolytic charcoals produced from hard and softwood bark samples reported a direct correlation between initial sample moisture content and the surface chemistry derived charcoal; the study found that a decrease in the moisture content of maple bark resulted in charcoal surface becoming more graphite-like and polyaromatic attributed to prolonged pyrolysis time. The effect of feedstock lignin and cellulose content on biochar formation is a well-researched area [4]. Lignin is an amorphous, high molecular weight polymer that is hydrophobic in nature and has several aromatic functional groups in comparison; cellulose and hemicelluloses are made up of simple sugar monomers that disintegrate at temperatures below 450 degrees Celsius [5]. Studies conducted by Tripathi et al. 2016 and Yu et al. 2014 [2, 6] showed that the cellulose content of feedstock aided the formation of tar (which comprises aldehydes, organic liquids, ketones, and char); while a high lignin concentration is beneficial to the formation of char during pyrolysis. According to Demirba (2004) [7], high feedstocks lignin content will increase char formation. It has been shown that increased lignin content in plant biomass promotes carbonization and increases biochar carbon and ash content [8, 9].
Residence (pyrolysis time) has been shown to affect the degree of carbonization and biochar yield of feedstock; this effect is particularly pronounced at low temperatures [18]. According to Zornoza et al. (2016), increased residence time during pyrolysis results in a higher degree of carbonization, reducing the liable organic matter mitigation the vulnerability of the biochar to microbial attack [19]. Residence time has also been shown to influence the specific surface area of biochar produced. A study conducted by Wang et al. (2019) found that the surface area of biochar’s derived from the co-pyrolysis of sewage sludge and cotton stalks increased as residence time increased from 30 minutes to 90 minutes [20]. This was attributed to the formation and extension of pore structures of the biochar caused by the increased thermal decomposition of organic matter and volatiles released from etching pores during the increased residence time [21]. The same study noted a decrease in the surface area of the biochar’s as the residence time was increased from 90 minutes to 150 minutes; this reduction was accounted for by the collapse of the pore structure of the biochar during the extended residence time [20]. Residence time has also been shown to affect the calorific value of the biochar produced; a study conducted by Ahmad et al. (2020) on coconut shell derived biochar showed an increase in calorific value from 25.99 MJ/kg to 29.54 MJ/kg as residence time increased for 45 minutes to 75 minutes [22].
The pre-treatment of biomass before the pyrolysis has been shown to influence biochar characteristics. Pre-treatment is primarily divided into four categories: physical, physiochemical/thermal, chemical, and biological. Physical pre-treatment describes methods (milling, grinding etc.) that use mechanical energy to alter biomass properties. The most common form of physical pre-treatment is particle size reduction via mechanical comminutions. The effect of particle size reduction and fractionation of ash content is well researched. A study conducted by Liu et al. showed that the ash content of switchgrass and pine bark varied considerably with particle size fractions [22]. The study also reported the potential 20% removal of inorganic constituents from switchgrass and a 30% removal of inorganic constituents from raw pine bark. A similar study conducted by Bridgeman et al. found that the ash content of switchgrass and reed canary greatly increased in fines with particle sizes smaller than 90 micrometers, increasing to 3.62 wt. % to 6.0 wt. % for reed canary grass and 3.12 wt. % to 6.88 wt. % (dry basis) for switchgrass [23]. Besides the ash content, feedstock particle size is also correlated to biochar particle size, with finer feedstocks producing finer biochar particle sizes [18]. Studies have found that biochar’s derived from finer feedstocks exhibit lower nitrogen content as well as increased surface area, electrical conductivity, and pH [24, 25]. A study conducted by Sun et al. (2012) evaluating the properties of fine apple wood and corn stover-derived biochar (feedstock = 0.25 mm) reported a higher surface area when compared to applewood or corn stover-derived biochar stover-derived biochar of feedstock particle size = 1.5 mm [27]. Thermal pre-treatment describes methods that make use of thermal energy to produce changes in biomass properties; the most common forms of thermal pre-treatment are steam explosion, HTC and hot water extraction. Steam explosion involves the subjection of biomass to high temperatures and pressures between (160-260°C) and (0.69–4.83 MPa); the biomass subsequently undergoes sudden decompression scattering the fiber material and breaking the covalent bonds between the hemicellulose and lignin [28, 29]. Steam explosion increases the lignin content of the biomass by facilitating the depolymerisation of lignin into lower molecular weight molecules, which then condense with other degradation products [30]. A study conducted by Chen et al. 2017 [46] evaluating the effect of the steam explosion of crop straws before pyrolysis reported a change in the surface structure of the derived biochar; exhibiting a rougher surface when compared to the smoother, clearer and distinct pore structure of the untreated crop straw [31]. The same study also showed an approximate increase in the specific surface area of oil-rape straw-derived biochar 16 times greater than that on the untreated sample.
Properties of biochar produced depend on the composition, type of biomass and the conditions under which it is carbonized. Both physical and chemical characterizations are necessary when identifying the basic properties of biochar and predicting the various application uses. Biochar serves as a promising alternative to its surface area, charged surfaces and functional groups. Figure 4 below displays the different physical and chemical methods used for biochar characterization, focusing on BET and FTIR, belonging to the chemical characterization and SEM as physical characterization.
Overview of a proposed characterization techniques for biochar [
The main aim of quantification to distinguish biochar from organic matter and other forms of black carbon produced. Majority of the potential technology is dependent on spectroscopic characteristics rather than physical separation or isolation.
Biochar being produced from a range of biomass that has different chemical and physical properties results in materials of different properties. Properties of each biomass are important during thermal conversion processes, proximate analysis (ash and moisture content); calorific value; fractions of fixed carbon; volatile components; fractions of lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose; inorganic substances; true density; particle size and moisture content.
Chemical composition of biomass feedstock and biomass is subjected to a range of analyses to achieve the basic physicochemical characteristics of each raw material. Figure 5displays the physiochemical characteristics of biochar. Biochar production is often assessed through changes in the elemental concentrations of C, H, O, S and N and the associated ratios. The fixed carbon is the solid residue that remains after the particle size is carbonized and the volatile matter is expelled. The H/C and O/C ratios are used to determine the degree of aromaticity and maturation. Elemental ratios of O/C, O/H and C/H have been used to provide a reliable measure of the extent of pyrolysis and the level of oxidative adjustment of the biochar. Irrespective of the pyrolytic temperature, the BET areas increased with an increase in carbon burn off, indicating that the carbon burns off had a significant role in increasing pore volume and surface area while the average pore size increased with residence time and pyrolytic temperature. The BET surface area of biochar value of (1057 m2 .g − 1) has been reported, which appears slightly higher than that of activated carbon (970m2 .g−1). Biochar micropore volume of (0.24 mL .g−1) also appeared smaller than that of activated carbon, having a value of (0.32 mL .g−1), however having an average pore diameter of (5.2 nm).
Fourier-transform infrared spectra (FTIR) of the biochar samples [
Scanning electron microscopy is categorized as a physical characterization technique used to determine the samples macroporosity and the physical morphology of solid substance (Figure 6). A study by Amin 2016 [1] approximated that the biochar produced from cellulose plant materials had a pore diameter of 1 𝜇m. This characteristic is highly dependable in the intrinsic architecture of the feedstock use.
SEM micrograph of biochar with magnification of 500x [
SEM micrographs displayed that the biochar produced at different pyrolytic temperatures has a distinguishable and clear honeycomb structural appearance due to the original tubular structures present in plant cell materials (Figure 6). The well-developed pores have a direct impact on the high surface area. According to Cantrell et al. (2012), biochar produced at lower temperatures is appropriate for regulating fertilizer nutrients and absorbing pollutants from the soil. Higher temperatures lead to material analogous to activated carbon and environmental remediation. SEM micrographs of biochar displayed a clean surface as the pyrolysis process had stabilized the volatile hydrocarbons, therefore smoothening the surface of the biochar. Pyrolysis at lower temperatures displays molded structures with small pores and uneven surface structure. In general, it is safe to say that since the biomass wastes contain lignin and high volatile matter content, the pore creation in biochar is directly affected.
FTIR spectroscopy serves as a great tool to observe the shift change of chemical compositions. The commonly used technique for biochar characterization using the FTIR is the pellet technique, which mixes 1 mg of dried biochar with 300 mg of pre-dried and pulverized spectroscopic grade KBr. Novak ae al. (2012) used the pellet technique to conclude 3400to 3410 cm−1, H-bonded O–H stretching vibrations of hydroxyl groups from alcohols, phenols, and organic acids, 2850 to 2950 cm−1, C–H stretching of alkyl structures; 1620–1650 cm−1, aromatic and olefinic CDC vibrations, CDO in amide (I), ketone, and quinone groups; 1580 to 1590 cm−1, COO- asymmetric stretching; 1460 cm−1, C–H deformation of CH3 group; 1280–1270 cm−1, O–H stretching of phenolic compounds; and three bands around 460, 800, and 1000–1100 cm−1, bending of Si–O stretching [68]. Figure 5 illustrates the FTIR spectra of biochar collected during different stages of the production, i.e. (Biochar: Original, −1: pre-incubation, −2: jointing, −3: Heading; −4: Mature).
Biochar is a product (together with bio-oil and gases) resulting from biomass pyrolysis. Biochar usage has increased because it reduces the negative impacts of biomass on the environment [69]. The physicochemical properties of biochar are what govern the applications of this material. Depending on the feedstock type, production technology and process conditions [70]; the quality, yield and toxicity of the resulting biochar differs (as shown in Table 1) [72, 73]. These applications (including potential applications) range from adsorption for water and air pollutants [74], activated carbon [75], anaerobic digestion promoter/catalyst [76], construction material [77], agriculture and horticulture use such as soil conditioning, compost additive [78], carbon sequestration, etc. [73]. Figure 7 demonstrates these applications and how biochar contributes to the circular economy through its uses in agriculture and horticulture. Also, these numerous biochar benefits show a great potential to contribute to the economic sustainability of emerging cellulosic bioenergy production systems [79, 80]. It is worth noting that as the number of applications of biochar increases, so does the number of manufacturers, leading to a need for regulated standards and guidelines for the production of this material (see Table 2) [81, 82].
Type of characterization | Determination method | Results and remarks |
---|---|---|
Elemental analysis | C, H, O, S and N associated ratios | The H/C, O/C and N ratios are used to determine the aromaticity and maturity of the biochar |
BET | Surface area, pore structure, average pore diameter, pore volume and average pores of biochar | 1057m2g−1; macroporosity and microporosity; 5.2 nm; 0.24 mLg−1; 3.3 nm. [71] |
FTIR | Changes which occur in the biochar preparations as well as its functional groups present from the original biochar. | Changes include dehydration, pyrolysis, graphene nucleation, and finally carbonization; O–H (3600–3100 cm − 1), C=C and C=O stretching (1740–1600 cm − 1), C–O–C symmetric stretching (1097 cm − 1), –COOMe (1400–1500 cm − 1), and so on |
List of notable chemical characterisations of biochar.
Biochar uses in agriculture and horticulture and its contribution to the circular economy [
Process | Process temperature | Residence time | Solid product yield on a dry wood feedstock basis (mass %) | Carbon content of the solid product (mass %) | Carbon yield (masscarbon, product/masscarbon feedstock |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Slow pyrolysis | Minute to days | 95 | |||
Fast pyrolysis | 12–26 | 74 | 0.2–0.26 | ||
Gasification | — | — | |||
HTC | 1-12 h | ||||
Flash carbonization | 37 | ||||
Torrefaction | 10–60 min | 61–84 | 51–55 | 0.67–0.85 |
Comparison of typical operating conditions and product properties of various biochar production processes [81].
Biochar application in agriculture and horticulture has been explored both on a laboratory scale and in the field. These applications include being used as a component of chemical fertilizer [83], soil microbial activity, soil amendment for crop productivity improvement through nutrient availability [84, 85] as well as water holding capacity [86]. Biochar has also been reported to alleviate heavy metals release in the soil while having a limiting effect that aids in increasing the pH of highly acidic soils [87, 88]. Though biochar is another soil conditioner type, it differs from compost by production pathways. Biochar is produced by thermal decomposition of food, horticultural and municipal solid waste in the absence of oxygen, while natural biodegradation of organic substrates produces compost by the microbial community under aerobic conditions. Another difference is that; compost degrades fast, making its benefits relatively short-lived compared to biochar which persists in the soil for more prolonged periods [78, 89].
Low soil organic carbon and fertility are challenges faced by many agricultural farmers around the globe. Biochar offers a solution to this challenge because it gives two options, i.e. returning nutrients and carbon to the soil while producing energy [90]. Also, the compositing rate can be increased by using biochar as an additive. Zhang and Sun [91] have examined spent mushroom compost and biochar co-composting. Their results showed a great increase in nutrients content of the resultant compost product and an improved composed quality while reducing the composting time from 90 to 270 days to only 24 days. Also, the large porosity of biochar enables it to facilitate microbial growth in the compost pile, leading to accelerated nutrient recycling [92]. The addition of biochar to poultry manure has been found to increase the maximum temperature reached and shorten the thermophilic phase [93].
An issue of heavy metals/metalloids (HMS) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in soil and water poses detrimental environmental problems and poor quality of agriculture, affecting all forms of life [94, 95]. These pollutants are toxic, persistent, non-biodegradable and potentially bioaccumulate [96]. Among other bioremediation technologies used to solve the HMS and PAHs issue, biochar is one of the best solutions due to its advantages [97]. These advantages include sustainability, low costs, sequestration of carbon, etc. [94]. Various physical and chemical characteristics of biochar, such as pore structure, specific surface area and functional groups, have been used to adsorption different pollutants [98]. For instance, Mahmoud, et al. [99] have used modified Switchgrass biochar for efficient decolorization of reactive red 195 A dye from aqueous and wastewater samples. Other biomass materials such as rice husks and dairy manure have also been used for biochar production with varying adsorption capacities according to the biomass used upon other factors [100].
Biochar has been used in road construction and as a concrete admixture. Wang, et al. [77] assessed this where a novel production of fill material and pedestrian/vehicle paving blocks were done. In this study, biochar addition was found to be beneficial to cement hydration even though it was noticed that the studied particle sizes could incur microcracks and strength degradation. Also, biochar’s incorporation resulted in enhanced immobilization of potentially organic contaminants and toxic elements in the sediment product, which is significant for moderately to heavily contaminated products. Therefore, biochar from wood can be used as a green combination for cement-based recycling procedures for highly contaminated waste. The use of biochar in construction material to trap atmospheric carbon dioxide in buildings also offers the potential to reduce greenhouse gasses by 25%. High pH and high water retention rate of biochar enable it to absorb some of the mixing water used in concrete mixing, thereby reducing the amount of free water in the concrete [101].
Since biochar’s applications depend greatly on its properties, future research must elucidate the production process effects on biochar’s properties. Biochar used in water treatment would differ from the one used in energy/agriculture. Likewise, there are diverse literature findings on the effects of biochar on agriculture, particularly on crop production caused by soils being different. For instance, crop yields may be increased or decreased by adding biochar depending on the soil type and fertilizer management [90, 102]. Also, the chemical behavior of biochar with heavy metal ions has been found to be inconsistent [103]. It is apparent that the interaction mechanisms between biochar, soil and plants are critical and yet not thoroughly known. Therefore, more efforts are still needed concerning biochar properties to soil and crop responses equally in the field and climate-controlled environment.
Biochar has been applied to remediate contaminated agricultural soil and improve soil fertility by reducing acidity and increasing the availability of nutrients. Thus, the addition of biochar to soils can be one of the best practices to overcome any biotic stress in soil and increase crop productivity, mainly in the agricultural sector. The properties of biochar have significantly been influenced by processes such as pyrolyscould, which have been discussed in this chapter. Thus, biochar appears as a highly promising option for pollutant removal. Economic impacts and recyclability should be considered in developing recoverable biochar for wide environmental applications. The relationship between various solutions for waste management and energy production differs in parameters and multiple techniques for its production and economic, social and ecological constraints. This review paper detailed the state-of-art information that would be helpful to find new opportunities in scientific innovation in the field of biochar research.
The authors are thankful to the Green Engineering and Sustainability research group in the Department of Chemical engineering at the Durban University of Technology, South Africa.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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being attacked or harmed, either physically or emotionally. In this chapter, it is defined as a possible ability of an individual or a group to face, manage, and anticipate a possible problem. This concept of vulnerability is associated with that of risk factor for social isolation, and therefore to situations that can also lead to illness and lack of mental and physical health. It can have its roots in poverty, in social exclusion, in ethnicity, in disability or simply in disease or specific developmental phases in life. All these aspects reflect very important vulnerability factors among biological, psychological, social, and behavioral variables. To date, no one has highlighted together two critical moments in life in which this brain area undergoes important variations: adolescence, in which its development occurs, and old age, in which this area goes into cognitive decline with the relative loss of many higher cognitive functions. This knowledge can help to better understand the forms of exclusion due to vulnerability in order to develop new forms of social inclusion.",book:{id:"8262",slug:"the-new-forms-of-social-exclusion",title:"The New Forms of Social Exclusion",fullTitle:"The New Forms of Social Exclusion"},signatures:"Rosalba Morese, Sara Palermo, Matteo Defedele, Juri Nervo and Alberto Borraccino",authors:[{id:"214435",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosalba",middleName:null,surname:"Morese",slug:"rosalba-morese",fullName:"Rosalba Morese"},{id:"218983",title:"BSc.",name:"Juri",middleName:null,surname:"Nervo",slug:"juri-nervo",fullName:"Juri Nervo"},{id:"218984",title:"MSc.",name:"Matteo",middleName:null,surname:"Defedele",slug:"matteo-defedele",fullName:"Matteo Defedele"},{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"},{id:"266453",title:"Prof.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Borraccino",slug:"alberto-borraccino",fullName:"Alberto Borraccino"}]},{id:"74550",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95395",title:"School Conflicts: Causes and Management Strategies in Classroom Relationships",slug:"school-conflicts-causes-and-management-strategies-in-classroom-relationships",totalDownloads:2333,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Conflicts cannot cease to exist, as they are intrinsic to human beings, forming an integral part of their moral and emotional growth. Likewise, they exist in all schools. The school is inserted in a space where the conflict manifests itself daily and assumes relevance, being the result of the multiple interpersonal relationships that occur in the school context. Thus, conflict is part of school life, which implies that teachers must have the skills to manage conflict constructively. Recognizing the diversity of school conflicts, this chapter aimed to present its causes, highlighting the main ones in the classroom, in the teacher-student relationship. It is important to conflict face and resolve it with skills to manage it properly and constructively, establishing cooperative relationships, and producing integrative solutions. Harmony and appreciation should coexist in a classroom environment and conflict should not interfere, negatively, in the teaching and learning process. This bibliography review underscore the need for during the teachers’ initial training the conflict management skills development.",book:{id:"7827",slug:"interpersonal-relationships",title:"Interpersonal Relationships",fullTitle:"Interpersonal Relationships"},signatures:"Sabina Valente, Abílio Afonso Lourenço and Zsolt Németh",authors:[{id:"324514",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sabina",middleName:"N.",surname:"Valente",slug:"sabina-valente",fullName:"Sabina Valente"},{id:"326375",title:"Prof.",name:"Abílio Afonso",middleName:"Afonso",surname:"Lourenço",slug:"abilio-afonso-lourenco",fullName:"Abílio Afonso Lourenço"},{id:"329177",title:"Dr.",name:"Zsolt",middleName:null,surname:"Németh",slug:"zsolt-nemeth",fullName:"Zsolt Németh"}]},{id:"55323",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68873",title:"Positive Psychology: The Use of the Framework of Achievement Bests to Facilitate Personal Flourishing",slug:"positive-psychology-the-use-of-the-framework-of-achievement-bests-to-facilitate-personal-flourishing",totalDownloads:1748,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"The Framework of Achievement Bests, which was recently published in Educational Psychology Review, makes a theoretical contribution to the study of positive psychology. The Framework of Achievement Bests provides an explanatory account of a person’s optimal best practice from his/her actual best. Another aspect emphasizes on the saliency of the psychological process of optimization, which is central to our understanding of person’s optimal functioning in a subject matter. Achieving an exceptional level of best practice (e.g. achieving excellent grades in mathematics) does not exist in isolation, but rather depends on the potent impact of optimization. This chapter, theoretical in nature, focuses on an in‐depth examination of the expansion of the Framework of Achievement Bests. Our discussion of the Framework of Achievement Bests, reflecting a methodical conceptualization, is benchmarked against another notable theory for understanding, namely: Martin Seligman’s PERMA theory. For example, for consideration, one aspect that we examine entails the extent to which the Framework of Achievement Bests could explain the optimization of each of the five components of PERMA (e.g. how does the Framework of Achievement Bests explain the optimization of engagement?).",book:{id:"5761",slug:"quality-of-life-and-quality-of-working-life",title:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life",fullTitle:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life"},signatures:"Huy P. Phan and Bing H. Ngu",authors:[{id:"196435",title:"Prof.",name:"Huy",middleName:"P",surname:"Phan",slug:"huy-phan",fullName:"Huy Phan"}]},{id:"55349",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68596",title:"The Development of a Human Well-Being Index for the United States",slug:"the-development-of-a-human-well-being-index-for-the-united-states",totalDownloads:2049,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has developed a human well-being index (HWBI) that assesses the over-all well-being of its population at the county level. The HWBI contains eight domains representing social, economic and environmental well-being. These domains include 25 indicators comprised of 80 metrics and 22 social, economic and environmental services. The application of the HWBI has been made for the nation as a whole at the county level and two alternative applications have been made to represent key populations within the overall US population—Native Americans and children. A number of advances have been made to estimate the values of metrics for counties where no data is available and one such estimator—MERLIN—is discussed. Finally, efforts to make the index into an interactive web site are described.",book:{id:"5761",slug:"quality-of-life-and-quality-of-working-life",title:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life",fullTitle:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life"},signatures:"J. Kevin Summers, Lisa M. Smith, Linda C. Harwell and Kyle D. Buck",authors:[{id:"197485",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Summers",slug:"j.-kevin-summers",fullName:"J. Kevin Summers"},{id:"197486",title:"Ms.",name:"Lisa",middleName:null,surname:"Smith",slug:"lisa-smith",fullName:"Lisa Smith"},{id:"197487",title:"Ms.",name:"Linda",middleName:null,surname:"Harwell",slug:"linda-harwell",fullName:"Linda Harwell"},{id:"197488",title:"Dr.",name:"Kyle",middleName:null,surname:"Buck",slug:"kyle-buck",fullName:"Kyle Buck"}]},{id:"56529",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70237",title:"Well-being and Quality of Working Life of University Professors in Brazil",slug:"well-being-and-quality-of-working-life-of-university-professors-in-brazil",totalDownloads:1682,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"This chapter presents a study about the perceptions on quality of working life (QWL) regarding factors and indicator in two public universities in Brazil. It aimed also to analyze their perceptions about university working conditions. This exploratory study is based on quantitative and qualitative analyses. A sample of 715 university professors participated on the research. Data collection was carried out in two steps: online survey and focus groups. There is a moderate negative correlation between psychological well-being and work-related stress. Emotional charge also presents a moderate positive correlation with work-related stress, as well as physical charge and psychological distress. Work-life balance is negatively correlated with physical charge, emotional charge, work-related stress, psychological distress, and burnout. We observed also that 43.6% of the professors reported high levels of work-related stress in their everyday work. The precariousness of university teaching is associated with three main elements, which we defined as the tripod of the precarization of university teaching work. It consists of academic productivism, excess of administrative work and bureaucratic activities, and inadequate working conditions. The operating dynamics of this tripod effect professors’ well-being, their QWL, and even the quality of the work they develop in public universities.",book:{id:"5761",slug:"quality-of-life-and-quality-of-working-life",title:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life",fullTitle:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life"},signatures:"Alessandro Vinicius de Paula and Ana Alice Vilas Boas",authors:[{id:"175373",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Alice",middleName:null,surname:"Vilas Boas",slug:"ana-alice-vilas-boas",fullName:"Ana Alice Vilas Boas"},{id:"196534",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessandro Vinicius",middleName:null,surname:"De Paula",slug:"alessandro-vinicius-de-paula",fullName:"Alessandro Vinicius De Paula"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"74550",title:"School Conflicts: Causes and Management Strategies in Classroom Relationships",slug:"school-conflicts-causes-and-management-strategies-in-classroom-relationships",totalDownloads:2328,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Conflicts cannot cease to exist, as they are intrinsic to human beings, forming an integral part of their moral and emotional growth. Likewise, they exist in all schools. The school is inserted in a space where the conflict manifests itself daily and assumes relevance, being the result of the multiple interpersonal relationships that occur in the school context. Thus, conflict is part of school life, which implies that teachers must have the skills to manage conflict constructively. Recognizing the diversity of school conflicts, this chapter aimed to present its causes, highlighting the main ones in the classroom, in the teacher-student relationship. It is important to conflict face and resolve it with skills to manage it properly and constructively, establishing cooperative relationships, and producing integrative solutions. Harmony and appreciation should coexist in a classroom environment and conflict should not interfere, negatively, in the teaching and learning process. This bibliography review underscore the need for during the teachers’ initial training the conflict management skills development.",book:{id:"7827",slug:"interpersonal-relationships",title:"Interpersonal Relationships",fullTitle:"Interpersonal Relationships"},signatures:"Sabina Valente, Abílio Afonso Lourenço and Zsolt Németh",authors:[{id:"324514",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sabina",middleName:"N.",surname:"Valente",slug:"sabina-valente",fullName:"Sabina Valente"},{id:"326375",title:"Prof.",name:"Abílio Afonso",middleName:"Afonso",surname:"Lourenço",slug:"abilio-afonso-lourenco",fullName:"Abílio Afonso Lourenço"},{id:"329177",title:"Dr.",name:"Zsolt",middleName:null,surname:"Németh",slug:"zsolt-nemeth",fullName:"Zsolt Németh"}]},{id:"76968",title:"In the Darkness of This Time: Wittgenstein and Freud on Uncertainty",slug:"in-the-darkness-of-this-time-wittgenstein-and-freud-on-uncertainty",totalDownloads:461,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Both Wittgenstein and Freud experienced the crisis of humanism resulting from the first and second world wars. Although they were both considered to be influential figures, they hardly investigated the ways in which people could cope with the consequences of these crises. However, Wittgenstein and Freud did suggest ways of understanding uncertainties caused by real life events, as well as by the nature of human thought processes. This article will explore the therapeutic ways of dealing with uncertainties common to both thinkers and the different concepts facilitating their methodologies. The central contention of this article is that both Wittgenstein and Freud developed a complex methodology, acknowledging the constant and unexpected changes humans have deal with, whilst also offering the possibility of defining “hinge propositions” and “language-games” which can stabilize our consciousness.",book:{id:"10814",slug:"anxiety-uncertainty-and-resilience-during-the-pandemic-period-anthropological-and-psychological-perspectives",title:"Anxiety, Uncertainty, and Resilience During the Pandemic Period",fullTitle:"Anxiety, Uncertainty, and Resilience During the Pandemic Period - Anthropological and Psychological Perspectives"},signatures:"Dorit Lemberger",authors:[{id:"325725",title:"Dr.",name:"Dorit",middleName:null,surname:"Lemberger",slug:"dorit-lemberger",fullName:"Dorit Lemberger"}]},{id:"76565",title:"Introductory Chapter: The Transition from Distress to Acceptance of Human Frailty - Anthropology and Psychology of the Pandemic Era",slug:"introductory-chapter-the-transition-from-distress-to-acceptance-of-human-frailty-anthropology-and-ps",totalDownloads:393,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"10814",slug:"anxiety-uncertainty-and-resilience-during-the-pandemic-period-anthropological-and-psychological-perspectives",title:"Anxiety, Uncertainty, and Resilience During the Pandemic Period",fullTitle:"Anxiety, Uncertainty, and Resilience During the Pandemic Period - Anthropological and Psychological Perspectives"},signatures:"Fabio Gabrielli and Floriana Irtelli",authors:[{id:"174641",title:"Dr.",name:"Floriana",middleName:null,surname:"Irtelli",slug:"floriana-irtelli",fullName:"Floriana Irtelli"},{id:"259407",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabio",middleName:null,surname:"Gabrielli",slug:"fabio-gabrielli",fullName:"Fabio Gabrielli"}]},{id:"77214",title:"The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Mental Health of Dentists",slug:"the-impact-of-the-covid-19-pandemic-on-the-mental-health-of-dentists",totalDownloads:390,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Since March 2020, the COVID-19 disease has declared a pandemic producing a worldwide containment. For months, many people were subjected to strict social isolation away from family and loved ones to prevent disease transmission, leading to anxiety, fear, and depression. On the other hand, many had to close down their businesses and stop working, resulting in financial issues. Previous studies have reported that pandemics, epidemics, and some diseases can lead to mental disorders such as fear, anxiety, stress, and depression. Among those most affected, healthcare workers (HCWs), especially those on the front line, often develop mental health problems. Although there is data available on the management and care of HCWs, little attention has been paid to the mental health and well-being of dentists during the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, this chapter aims to review the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on dentists’ mental health and mental health-related symptoms. Finally, to recommend specific measures to avoid consequent potential implications for dentists, dental students, and dental patients.",book:{id:"10814",slug:"anxiety-uncertainty-and-resilience-during-the-pandemic-period-anthropological-and-psychological-perspectives",title:"Anxiety, Uncertainty, and Resilience During the Pandemic Period",fullTitle:"Anxiety, Uncertainty, and Resilience During the Pandemic Period - Anthropological and Psychological Perspectives"},signatures:"Andrea Vergara-Buenaventura and Carmen Castro-Ruiz",authors:[{id:"346660",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Vergara-Buenaventura",slug:"andrea-vergara-buenaventura",fullName:"Andrea Vergara-Buenaventura"},{id:"419814",title:"MSc.",name:"Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Castro-Ruiz",slug:"carmen-castro-ruiz",fullName:"Carmen Castro-Ruiz"}]},{id:"55323",title:"Positive Psychology: The Use of the Framework of Achievement Bests to Facilitate Personal Flourishing",slug:"positive-psychology-the-use-of-the-framework-of-achievement-bests-to-facilitate-personal-flourishing",totalDownloads:1748,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"The Framework of Achievement Bests, which was recently published in Educational Psychology Review, makes a theoretical contribution to the study of positive psychology. The Framework of Achievement Bests provides an explanatory account of a person’s optimal best practice from his/her actual best. Another aspect emphasizes on the saliency of the psychological process of optimization, which is central to our understanding of person’s optimal functioning in a subject matter. Achieving an exceptional level of best practice (e.g. achieving excellent grades in mathematics) does not exist in isolation, but rather depends on the potent impact of optimization. This chapter, theoretical in nature, focuses on an in‐depth examination of the expansion of the Framework of Achievement Bests. Our discussion of the Framework of Achievement Bests, reflecting a methodical conceptualization, is benchmarked against another notable theory for understanding, namely: Martin Seligman’s PERMA theory. For example, for consideration, one aspect that we examine entails the extent to which the Framework of Achievement Bests could explain the optimization of each of the five components of PERMA (e.g. how does the Framework of Achievement Bests explain the optimization of engagement?).",book:{id:"5761",slug:"quality-of-life-and-quality-of-working-life",title:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life",fullTitle:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life"},signatures:"Huy P. Phan and Bing H. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:33,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:42,paginationItems:[{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"82875",title:"Lipidomics as a Tool in the Diagnosis and Clinical Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105857",signatures:"María Elizbeth Alvarez Sánchez, Erick Nolasco Ontiveros, Rodrigo Arreola, Adriana Montserrat Espinosa González, Ana María García Bores, Roberto Eduardo López Urrutia, Ignacio Peñalosa Castro, María del Socorro Sánchez Correa and Edgar Antonio Estrella Parra",slug:"lipidomics-as-a-tool-in-the-diagnosis-and-clinical-therapy",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82440",title:"Lipid Metabolism and Associated Molecular Signaling Events in Autoimmune Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105746",signatures:"Mohan Vanditha, Sonu Das and Mathew John",slug:"lipid-metabolism-and-associated-molecular-signaling-events-in-autoimmune-disease",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82483",title:"Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105891",signatures:"Laura Mourino-Alvarez, Tamara Sastre-Oliva, Nerea Corbacho-Alonso and Maria G. Barderas",slug:"oxidative-stress-in-cardiovascular-diseases",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Importance of Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant System in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11671.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:33,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. 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