",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"abf31c9873fc2d88b8ee05c6adb53a29",bookSignature:"Dr. David Bienvenido-Huertas",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10104.jpg",keywords:"Sustainable Construction, Innovative Construction, Construction Processes, Sustainable Design, Design Optimization, Maintenance Minimization, Energy Efficiency, Energy Conservation Measures, Thermal Comfort, Socio-cultural Integration, Urban Environment, Visual Impact",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 26th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 23rd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 22nd 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 10th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 11th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"5 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"David Bienvenido-Huertas has completed his Ph.D. as an Architect, currently, he is a researcher of the Building Construction II Department at Universidad de Sevilla, Spain",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"320815",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Bienvenido-Huertas",slug:"david-bienvenido-huertas",fullName:"David Bienvenido-Huertas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/320815/images/system/320815.jpg",biography:"PhD Architect. Researcher of the Building Construction II Department at Universidad de Sevilla, Spain. Active member of the Research Group TEP970: Technological Innovation, 3d Modeling Systems and Energy Diagnosis in Heritage and Building at the Universidad de Sevilla. His area of expertise covers climate change in the building sector, adaptive thermal comfort, heat transfer, fuel poverty, energy conservation measures, and design of nearly zero energy buildings. 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1. Introduction
Paddy is the staple food of more than 60% of the world population, and mainly produced and consumed in the Asian region which over 90% of the crop grown in Asia. In Malaysia, the cultivation of paddy rice have covers 204,246 ha area of land and principally planted in the eight granary areas; Muda Agricultural Development Authority (96,558 ha), Kemubu Agriculture Development Authority (32,167 ha), Kerian Sungai Manik Project (27,829 ha), Northeast Selangor Project (18,482 ha), Penang Integrated Agricultural Development Project (10,305 ha), Seberang Perak (8,529 ha), Kemasin Semerak Integrated Agricultural Development Project (5,220 ha) and North Terengganu Integrated Agricultural Development Project (5,156 ha) [1]. Most of the paddy in Malaysia is planted as wet paddy, while dry land paddy is very small acreage, and mostly in Sarawak and Sabah. The continuously increasing population caused the increase of the volume in production of rice is an immediate requirement in Malaysia, in order to attain self-sufficiency in food. Since the possibility of extending area under cultivation has practically been exhausted, the only alternative is to enhance crop productivity per hectare. However, achieving this task seems impossible due to various obstacles. One of the main problems is the paddy field has been destroyed by many weeds and pests, such as insects, birds, rodents, and snails especially golden apple snail.
The golden apple snail is a freshwater mollusc that native from Northern Argentina and Southern Brazil [2]. The intention of its introduction in Asia in early 1980s, it has been considered for use as an aquaculture species that provide dietary high-protein supplement for local consumption and as an income earner for the rural poor [3]. Unfortunately, the low market value due to the unexpectedly poor consumer reception resulted in the elimination of its existence in Taiwan [4]. Nevertheless, many snail-farming projects were abandoned and the golden apple snail escapes into irrigation ditches and the natural waterways, and subsequently it invaded the rice fields. The initial introduction is thought to have been from Argentina to Taiwan, but by 1982, the golden apple snail had been introduced from Taiwan to the Philippines and continued to China (1985), Korea (1986), Sarawak and Peninsular Malaysia, Malaysia (1987), Java and Sumatra, Indonesia (1989), Thailand (1989), Vietnam (1989) Hong Kong (1991), Laos (1992), and Cambodia (1995) [5]. The golden apple snail has been reported as an important pest of paddy rice in all of these countries and the damage is clearly sufficiently serious to warrant major concern.
In Malaysia, reference [6] was reported that this golden apple snail was firstly presented to be the caused of rice field’s damage in 1992 when it was first seen in Keningau, Sabah. After a year from the first invasion, it devastated to Selangor state with an estimated damage about 48 ha of irrigated rice. The golden apple snail was then spread rapidly to other rice growing areas which able to establish easily and rapidly in wet lowland areas where as the water is stagnant and shallow. Once this pest infested in new areas, it was difficult to manage due to its biological and morphological characteristics [7]. According to reference [2], the characteristic possess by golden apple snail such as high fecundity, voracious appetite, fast growth and reproduction, and able to aestivate in soil during dry season have led to its rapid multiplication and widespread distribution. A female snail start to lay eggs at two months old and can laid 50–500 eggs per cluster at one time, with 80% hatchability rate and the incubation ranges from 10 to 15 days characteristics [7]. An adult of golden apple snail can live up to 3 years with the size up to 3 cm in height. In addition, it also has a gill and a lung-like organ which make it being able to survive in and out of water. It also can withstand drought for several months by closing its operculum and aestivate in the soil.
Golden apple snail was reported as a major and serious pest in paddy field as it can caused severe damages by completely eliminate the young leaf and stem from plant bases which will result in the death of damaged plants [5,8]. It cuts the base of young seedlings with its layered tooth (radula) and munches on the succulent tender sheath of rice. The damage intensity of the infestation are depends on snail density and size and the growth stage of the rice plant [9]. Reference [10] reported that crop stand was reduce by over 90% when a density of golden apple snail is 8 per m2 with the size of snail is from 10 to 40 mm. The golden apple snail are most damaging to young rice seedlings which is up to 15 days after transplanting because the young, tender leaves and stems favour the snail’s feeding habits [11]. This snail is a nocturnal herbivore which unlike as other species of slugs of water and land, where it has a highly voracious appetite. Reference [12] has stated that it can consume a blade of rice in just 3 to 5 minutes. They can even consume the young seedling in a whole field overnight and the obvious signs of severe damage are characterized by missing hills and floating fragments of rice plants. It can destroy newly transplanted or direct-seeded rice as long as there is water in the field.
Therefore, the successful establishment and invasion of the golden apple snail in irrigated rice systems have led to significant economic damage. Farmers in the infested areas are faced with the options of paying additional costs to control the spread of golden apple snail, replanting damaged areas of paddy, or ignoring the problem all together at the risk of potentially large yield losses. The economic analysis on yield losses and severe damage cause by golden apple snail was reported by [10] and [13]. Reference [10] reported the yield loss of rice by golden apple snail in Philippines for year 1990 was at 70,000 to 100,000 tons valued at US$12.5-17.8 million. The total cost due to the golden apple snail including yield loss, replanting cost and the cost of control such as molluscicides and handpicking was estimated at US$28-45 million. According to another estimate on cost of control the golden apple snail in two countries; Japan and Philippine which farmers spent US$64,385 and US$10 million respectively only for pesticides [13].
There are a diversity of management approach has been conducted, including chemical, biological, physical, and cultural methods in order to prevent losses due to these pests. These pests can be effectively controlled by application of pesticides, however, this has long-term toxicity effects, particularly for livestock grazing on pastures following rice production, fish population and also will effect on human health. In another study, cultural control practices were investigated for control of pest population which includes mixed cropping, planting methods (transplanting or direct seeding), age of seedlings at time of transplanting, water management, fertilizer management, crop rotation, number of rice crops per year, planting time, synchronous or asynchronous planting over a given area, trap crop, tillage, weeding and growth duration of the crop. The selection of a particular control method or a combination of methods will depend largely on the management strategy to be adopted which in turn depends on the nature of the paddy rice industry being affected and the costs versus benefits of the whole operation.
Cultural and mechanical control methods will make the environment less favourable for the golden apple snails to establish their colonies. Wire mesh grills were highly recommended to construct at water inlets which it can minimize the entry of golden apple snail into the rice fields and prevent invasion of golden apple snails, but small snails can still enter unnoticed. Hand picking of eggs and destroying of golden apple snails to reduce population levels are highly labour intensive practices and unfeasible in large paddy fields. Among the recommended cultural control measures; crop establishment, planting methods, seedling rate, good leveling the field to remove snail refuges and facilitate drainage, planting at higher densities, burning straw, are the most used methods whereas farmers have started to use older seedlings (more than 30 days old) as a way of minimizing golden apple snail damage [14]. Reference [15] also reported that the use of roto-tiller during plant preparation is beneficial as it resulted to about 27% golden apple snail mortality as compared to the unploughed fields.
The golden apple snail can be utilized as an animal feed and considered as a replacement for duck and fish meal. Herding duck in paddy fields during the fallow period is advised because ducks was consumed snail’s shell and meat. Therefore, duck herding together with feed supplementation during their confinement can increase the side income for paddy farmers. However, [16] was stated that this method was not practical in some areas such as Japan whereas there is little market for duck in Japan. Another biological agent is fish which a carp with pharyngeal teeth has a high potential for preying on golden apple snails. However, utilization of fish may not be practical, since fish culture requires keeping deep water in fields [13], but this is often not compatible with modern farming methods. Natural enemy fauna against golden apple snail are very poor in paddy fields and, thus, population explosions of golden apple snail always occur there.
These methods are only partially effective and very labour intensive. Chemicals are still used extensively and inappropriately. Rice farmers mostly rely on commercial available synthetic molluscicides for the immediate control of the golden apple snail in lowland rice fields, without considering the toxic hazards to themselves and non-target organisms. Reference [12] was stated the most common synthetic insecticides used are Brestan® (Triphenyl tin acetate), Aquatin (triphenyltin chloride) and Namekill® (metaldehyde). Reference [17] and [18] were added another molluscicides which is niclosamide (2’,5-dichloro-4’-nitrosalicylanilide), recommended for control of golden apple snail in transplanted and direct-seeded rice while metaldehyde has been found to be effective in controlling golden apple snail in transplanted. However, this chemicals were used abusively that causing excessive environmental pollution and extremely toxic to non-target organisms. For example, niclosamide which is the only compound recommended for the control of aquatic snails by the World Health Organization (WHO) is effective against golden apple snail at 0.5–1.0 mg a.i./L, but the LC50 for carps is only 0.14 mg a.i./L [5].This means that no fish must be present in the rice fields while the product is applied. Furthermore, the cost of niclosamide in Malaysia is about RM85-95/ha, which is unaffordable to many farmers.
Therefore, the new approach emphasized on environmentally friendly control measures was adopted to replace the chemical oriented control program such as biopesticide or botanical pest control [16]. Botanical pesticide is a biopesticide which extracted directly from the plants that contain toxic compound which use for pest control. It was slow-acting crop protectants which provide an alternative to the synthetic pesticides [19]. Regarding botanical pesticides, a recent review shows that although some plants are used locally against golden apple snail, very little research has been published [5]. In the Philippines, the use of botanicals has been focused recently not only for insect pests but also for golden apple snail control. Reference [20] had found that use of eco-friendly pesticides of plant origin is safer not only to users but also to non-target organisms and the environment in general. As many plant products have been reported to possess pest control properties in various crop plants. Hence, in recent years there is an increased awareness on the use of plant products in pest management strategies such as Derris elliptica [21], Curcuma longa, Blumea balsamifera [22], Phytolacca dodecandra [23], Melia azedarach [24], Nicotiana tabacum [25], Chenopodium quinoa [5], Azadirachta indica [26], Barringtonia racemosa [27], Blumea mollis and Hygrophila auriculata [28].
The neem tree known botanically as Azadirachta indica A. Juss. belong to family Meliaceae, tribe Melieae and the genus Azadirachta is a tropical evergreen related to mahogany. The tribe Melieae are consists of two genera Azadirachta and Melia. Reference [29] were reported the species belonging to Melia genus are distributed in Indo-Myanmar, Indonesia, Philippines, China, Fiji, Malaysia, Mexico and Africa. Melia azedarach Linn. also called as ‘gora neem’ or ‘bakayan’ (Persian Lilac) is often confused with neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss). However, these two species are quite different, the former being a native of Middle East. Reference [30] reported two varieties of neem Azadirachta indica A. Juss which one of it is Azadirachta indica Juss var. Siamensis Valeton (Siamese neem tree). This variety was found throughout South-east Asia (Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Thailand). The siamensis variety is phenotypically different from the Indian variety and is characterized by less branching, longer and thicker leaflets, a larger and denser inflorescence and larger fruit.
This plant is native to the coastal fringe forests of the drier tropical region of east India, Sri Lanka and Burma. It is currently widespread in Pakistan, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia [31]. The neem tree is undemanding and grows well on moist, dry, stony, clayey or shallow soils. Therefore, it is able to grow almost anywhere in the lowland tropics. However, it generally performs best in areas with annual rainfall of 400-1,200 mm [32]. Extracts or crude parts of neem often used for protecting stored grains against insects by mixing them together with seeds. Reference [33] was found that the leaf powder, the seed oil and all kinds of extracts do indeed have a negative effect on the seed-eating insects. However, if this plant parts are used to treat stored seeds against insects, the mammalian consumer of these seeds especially human ought not to be affected by residues of this treatment.
Neem appears to be safe for humans and the environment as it has not been found to possess toxic compound. Reference [34] was stated that neem has oral LD50 in rats of >5000 mg/kg which making it essentially nontoxic to mammals. In fact, neem leaves and other plant parts are valued for their therapeutic properties and extensively used for medicinal especially in India. Reference [35] reported that many disorders like inflammation, infections, fever, skin diseases, dental disorders and others have been treated with different parts of neem tree. In addition, neem also exhibits a wide range of pharmacological activities such as blood sugar lowering properties, anti-inflammatory, antihyperglycaemic, antiulcer, antimalarial, antifungal, antibacterial, antiviral, antioxidant, antimutagenic anticarcinogenic and immunomodulatory [33].
Nowadays, the dependency on synthetic chemicals has prompted the large scale synthesis of newer chemicals. Eventhough these synthetic pesticides valued for effectiveness and convenience but it also pose certain problems including phytotoxicity and toxicity to non-target organisms, environmental degradation and health hazards to farmers. In addition, they also may accelerate development of resistant pests to specific pesticidal chemicals.
Therefore, the cost-effective, nontoxic, biodegradable, eco-friendly and botanical ‘soft pesticides’ are the need of present day agriculture as an alternative to hazardous and recalcitrant synthetic pesticides [35]. Neem was stated on the tops of the list of 2,400 plant species that are reported to have pesticidal properties and is regarded as the most reliable source of eco-friendly biopesticidal property. Neem based pesticides are systemic in nature which have no ill effects on humans and animals, and have no residual effect on agricultural produce. Besides, it is also easy to prepare, cheap and highly effective and thus constitute as an important source of pesticide for economically poor farmers.
There are a lot of researches have been done to discover and determine the potential of neem as a biopesticide in against a variety of rice insect pests. Reference [36] reported the effects of two different neem products (Parker Oil™ and Neema®) on mortality, food consumption and survival of the brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens) were studied in the field. The experiment with nymph and adult reared in cages that set out in the paddy field showed immediate mortality after treatment application. The results clearly indicate the neem-based pesticide (Parker Oil™ and Neema®) containing low lethal concentration can be used effectively to inhibit the growth and survival of Nilaparvata lugens. Besides, reference [15] and [37] also have reviewed the effectiveness of neem insecticidal properties that successfully against white-backed planthopper (Sogatella furcifera), green leafhopper (Nephotettix virescens) and the rice water weevil (Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus).
Reference [12] tested aqueous neem leaf and seed extracts, neem oil and Bioblitz (EC formulation) against golden apple snail in the laboratory. Leaf and seed extracts were the most toxic causing 100% snail mortality at 100 ppm after 48 hours. Aqueous neem seed and leaves extract was tested against golden apple snails in the field (Rejesus and Punzalan, 1997). Treatment with concentration 20, 90 and 100 kg/ha of neem seeds were the most effective aqueous extract which inhibited feeding of the golden apple snails. However, effects of neem treatments on the ecology of the golden apple snails are still to be investigated.
In Thailand, reference [38] revealed the toxicity of leaf crude extracts from neem tree and garlic (Allium sativum L.) on mortality rate of golden apple snails at concentrations of 50, 250, 500, 750 and 1000 mg/l. High concentration of neem tree leaf extract (1000 mg/l) killed 95.83% of golden apple snail in 95 hours and high concentration of garlic (1000 mg/l) killed 91.66% of golden apple snail in 96 hours.
Besides against rice insect pests, neem also has shown activity on a wide range of insect pests of many crops worldwide. Reference [35] stated that neem products are effective against more than 350 species of arthropods, 12 species of nematodes, 15 species of fungi, three viruses, two species of snails and one crustacean species. Some naturally occurring compounds have been isolated from neem plants and shown to be active against different species of insect pests. It is well recognised that azadirachtin is the active ingredient of neem [34].
Azadirachtin (C35H44O16) is a tetranortriterpenoids (limonoids) which extractable from Azadirachta plant species. This compound in neem have insecticidal properties as an antifeedant, repellence, oviposition deterrent, molting inhibition and a growth retardant for a variety of insects and arthropods [26,39,40,41]. Although every plant part of the neem tree contains azadirachtin substance, but most of previous research stated that the substance was much more concentrated in the seed kernels [32,33]. It presence in the neem seed kernel is to the extent of 0.1% to 0.5% by weight. Besides the azadirachtin, neem also contains more than 20 compounds that responsible for the characteristics smell of crushed seeds and neem oil.
The increasing amount of research on insect-plant chemical interactions has unveiled the potential of utilizing botanicals insecticides in the form of secondary plant metabolites or allelochemicals [36]. These naturally occurring biocidal agents have been shown to be selective, readily biodegradable and safe to human. The neem tree has been proposed in this study as the azadirachtins of this tree have been recognised for their insecticidal properties.
2. Material and methods
2.1. Sampling location
The samples were collected from irrigated lowland rice field of Federal Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation Authority (FELCRA) Seberang Perak which located within Kg. Gajah Sub-district, Perak. FELCRA was cover the area about 17,698 ha by planting two types of major crops; paddy and oil palm (Figure 1). Total area under paddy cultivation is about 4,656.57 ha of which 3,413.78 ha are under an estates central management and the rest under semi-estate management.
Figure 1.
Map of FELCRA Seberang Perak that showing lot area for its two major crops
The sample collections of golden apple snail have been conducted from the lot FBSP 8 (Figure 1) with total area 712.59 ha (669 lots). The sampling collections were done at block L1B7 (191.94 ha). The leaves and seeds of neem were also collected from the surrounding area of FELCRA Seberang Perak. They were brought to the laboratory and placed in room temperature (30-35oC) to dry and stored in an airtight container until used.
2.2. Tested mollusc
A population of golden apple snail were collected within the study area: L1B7- FELCRA Seberang Perak. Then, they were sorted for standard sizes (small and large) using a digital vernier caliper (range of ±1mm) (Figure 2). The golden apple snails were assorted into size class with the size range within 20-40 mm. The size of golden apple snail was selected by the height of shell which provided convenience in selecting snails of uniform size. These golden apple snail were used for the toxicity test in laboratory conditions.
Figure 2.
Measurement of golden apple snail shell height for size determination
2.3. Extraction procedure
The concentrations used in the bioassays were prepared from raw plant parts extraction, in successive dilutions with distilled water (aqueous extract). Before the extraction process, the neem leaves and seed samples were air-dried at room temperature, and grounded into fine powder. Then, the fine powder was sieved for extraction. Crude plant extracts were prepared by filling up distilled water on weighed plant material to get desired concentration rate. The solution was left overnight and filtered through plastic net. Liquid detergent was added to the final extract to act as a surfactant. The solutions were independently sprayed on the plants and pure distilled water was used for control with the same volume of the solution.
2.4. Toxicity test
Two plant parts which is neem seeds and leaves in combinations with application of required concentration rates of neem extract solution including the control (untreated) were carried out on two different sizes of golden apple snail (Table 1). The results from range-finder test were used to establish a more narrow concentration range for the definitive toxicity test. Once this range was determined, four narrow concentrations were developed to test the toxicity of leaves and seed crude extract and the experiment was replicated three times. A total of 135 golden apple snail with five snails per treatment were tested, which golden apple snail were exposed to the test substance in one plastic cage. Then, they were fed with 14 day-old of paddy seedlings that had been transplanted from nursery with 30 seedlings per plastic cage. A various concentrations of crude aqueous extract solutions from each of the raw materials were sprayed evenly on these paddy seedlings. After that, distilled water was flooded into the plastic cages to mimic the natural conditions for golden apple snail’s growth. Mortality and survival of golden apple snail was assessed at 24, 48, 72 and 96 hours after treatment application. The mortality of the golden apple snail during the tests were confirmed by the opening of operculum and the head did not respond when pushed.
Treatment
Neem plant parts
Concentration (%)
P0C0
-nil-
0 (water only)
P1C1
Leaves
0.75
P1C2
1.5
P1C3
2.25
P1C4
3.0
P2C1
Seeds
0.75
P2C2
1.5
P2C3
2.25
P2C4
3.0
Table 1.
Experimental treatment on two different sizes of golden apple snail, small and large.
2.5. Statistical analysis
The observation on golden apple snail mortality was carried out for four consecutive days after treatment application and data was recorded based on the number of golden apple snail’s mortality in every 24 hours up to 96 hours exposure period. For the toxicity test, the concentration-mortality regression analysis were developed using the mortality data of golden apple snail after 96 hours treatment. This regression analysis was conducted to determine the values of concentration of neem crude extract that caused 50% and 90% (LC50 and LC90) mortality of the golden apple snail. Probit Analysis was used to analyse statistically the data and calculated together with their 95% fiducial limits. Then, the variances within the treatments in terms of concentration of neem crude extract, type of plant parts and size of golden apple snail were evaluated in analysis of variance (ANOVA) by General Linear Model and when the significant differences were observed, further multi-comparison test was applied through Pairwise comparison analysis. This analysis could determine which means were significantly different and classified them in a group. The t-test at 95% confidence interval was used to compare LC50 valued between neem leaves crude extract and neem seeds crude extract, and to compare LC50 valued in different size of golden apple snail. Probit Analysis, ANOVA and t-test analysis were undertaken using the Minitab® 14.1 version (Minitab, Inc.).
3. Result and discussion
3.1. Mortality of golden apple snail
The mortality gathered from this experiment was used to identify the potential of each neem leaf and seed extracts in controlling golden apple snail. The percentages of mortality for both sizes (small and large) on the control treatment (P0C0) were significantly lower than on all the neem-treated plants (p≤0.005) (Table 2). Approximately 6.7% of the golden apple snail mortality percentage on the control treatment for both sizes respectively, and those treated with aqueous neem extract is in the range of 89.5% to 92.9%. The results showed that golden apple snail was susceptible to neem extraction as the golden apple snail mortality relatively high on the treated plants compared with the control treatment.
% mortality=mean mortality in treatment – mean mortality in controlMean mortality in treatment×100E1
Treatment
Percentage of mortality (%)
Small golden apple snail
Large golden apple snail
P0C0
6.7
6.7
P1C1
92.6
92.6
P1C2
92.9
91.3
P1C3
93.1
92.3
P1C4
92.6
89.5
P2C1
89.5
90.5
P2C2
90.5
89.5
P2C3
92.6
91.7
P2C4
89.5
90.9
Table 2.
Mortality of golden apple snail treated with different treatments.
Results obtained from these experiments noted that the aqueous neem extract has the potential to reduce golden apple snail infestation. According to reference [12], the tested of small-scale plot showed the neem treated plots had lower missing hill damage compared to control that plots, even the golden apple snail mortality is very low. Besides golden apple snail, neem tree extract also could help controlling other paddy insect pests as it is typically control a broad-spectrum of pests. This can result in the need for use of additional application of pesticides.
3.2. Mortality pattern of golden apple snail
The mortality pattern as a result of the exposure of different size ranges of golden apple snail to different concentrations with different neem plant parts is demonstrated. Data mortality of the snail was taken every 24-hours interval in four days and the results were shown in Figure 3 and 4. The analysis of data demonstrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4 as distribution of golden apple snail mortality in relation with the time and different treatment concentrations for both neem plant parts.
Based on the observations, it showed that the effectiveness of neem extract on the snail tested was both relatively slow and not highly varies and took 72 to 96 hours to reach end-point mortality. The findings were contradicted to that finding by [12], where the 48 hours as end-point mortality for golden apple snail. However, a similar situation was also observed in another study [38] which neem tree leaf extract was killed 95.83% of golden apple snail in 95 hours. Reference [42] was stated that the effectiveness varies according to the insect pest species, its life stage and environmental factors.
Figure 3.
Accumulated mortality of small golden apple snail on different treatments
Figure 4.
Accumulated mortality of mixed sizes of golden apple snail on different treatments
In this study, the effectiveness of neem extracts varies for between the plant parts tested and the small size and large size of golden apple snail for the same plant parts. Results from the studies demonstrated small sizes of golden apple snail were highly mortality (25.19%) at 24 hours and 24.07% at 72 hours for large sizes of golden apple snail. These results were due to different food intake rates between the small and large golden apple snail. The mortality of small golden apple snail was higher and faster than that the large golden apple snail as small golden apple snail has high appetite for development process. This result agreed to that reference [43], who found that smaller golden apple snail had a greater relative foraging capacity on macrophytes than adult. They also added that the juvenile of golden apple snail could consume an approximately 12 times more resources by mass than adults.
Different parts of neem plant also express different potencies of molluscicides. Thus, the golden apple snail mortality was also comparable to the different plant parts which 93.33% of small golden apple snail was dead with leaves crude extract and only 71.67% in seeds crude extract. For the large sizes of golden apple snail, 84.17% was dead in leaves crude extract and 73.33% when treated with neem seeds crude extract. This can be stated that leaves crude extract are more effective compared to the seeds crude extract in controlling small golden apple snail. A similar situation happened in controlling large sizes of golden apple snail, but the mortality rate for small golden apple snail was much larger than large golden apple snail.
The evaluation on the molluscicidal test data of aqueous neem extract was revealed that the plant parts vary considerably in their degree of activities. Result from the studies shows that the aqueous neem leaves crude extract was more effective than neem seeds crude extract for both sizes of golden apple snail. However, reference [22] classified the seeds had the highest molluscicidal toxicity than the leaves on the death of 80-100% at 48 hours for different concentrations. Furthermore, reference [12] also added that, among the aqueous extracts, neem leaf extract was the least toxic even at 0.1%.
3.3. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) in experimental treatment
The analysis of variance within treatments in term of concentrations of neem crude extract, different types of neem plant parts and sizes of golden apple snail were analysed statistically by determination of ANOVA using General Linear Model (GLM). Then, when the significant difference was observed, further multi-comparison test was applied through Pairwise comparison analysis to determine means were significantly different and classified into groups.
From the analysis of variance in Table 3 was obtained the F-statistic of 7.08 with p-value is 0.000 and Table 4 with the F-statistic of 3.93, p-value is 0.008. This value indicates that there are very strong evidences to suggest that the means of variable for small and large sizes of golden apple snails are not similar to each other and it required discovering which treatment has significantly difference in means.
Source
DF
Seq SS
Adj SS
Adj MS
F
P
Treatment
8
192.963
192.963
24.120
7.08
0.000
Error
18
61.333
61.333
3.407
Total
26
254.296
Table 3.
Analysis of variance for treatments application on small sizes of golden apple snail.
Source
DF
Seq SS
Adj SS
Adj MS
F
P
Treatment
8
146.667
146.667
18.333
3.93
0.008
Error
18
84.000
84.000
4.667
Total
26
230.667
Table 4.
Analysis of variance for treatments application on large sizes of golden apple snail.
Figures 5 and 6 summarize the results of Tukey’s Simultaneous Test (Pairwise comparison) for all the tested neem concentrations for both plant parts against the golden apple snail. The results indicate that leaves and seeds of neem plants extracts were significantly effective than the control treatment. A comparison of treated plants with control revealed significant difference in the number of mortality for golden apple snail. In Figure 5, shows that the mean level for control treatment (P0C0) is significantly the lowest among other treatments, while Figure 6 shows the mean level for P0C0 is lower than other six treatments except for P1C4 and P2C2. However, another treatment was not significantly different from each other.
Figure 5.
Pairwise comparisons among levels of treatment on small sizes of golden apple snail.
The comparison of the different treatments revealed that the neem has a positive effect against golden apple snail. Findings from the study suggested that the neem tested had a feeding deterrent effect on the golden apple snail. Reference [12], while studying the effect of Phytolacca dodecandra and Azadirachta indica on the reproduction of the golden apple snail reported that their active molluscicidal compounds such as triterpenoid and azadirachtin [34] caused a significant reduction in the survival of young and matured golden apple snail. The compounds have many properties including insecticidal activity, antifeedant, acting as a phago- and oviposition deterrent [36], growth retardant, moulting inhibitor, and sterilant as well as having anti-fungal, anti-viral and anti-bacterial properties against pathogens [33].
Figure 6.
Pairwise comparisons among levels of treatment on large sizes of golden apple snail.
3.4. LC50 value of neem crude extract
Table 5 and 6 summarize the results on the effect of neem leaves and seeds aqueous crude extract to two different golden apple snail’s mortality. Results from Table 5 indicate that the estimate of the LC50 value for neem leaves crude extract against small golden apple snail is 0.442% with a 95% confidence interval (CI) of (0.012 – 0.743%) while for neem seeds crude extract is 1.036% with a 95% CI of (0.444 – 1.456). The LC50 value in large golden apple snail for neem leaves crude extract is 0.498% with a 95% CI of (-0.714 – 1.065%) and 1.045 with a 95% CI of (0.489 – 1.449%) for neem seeds crude extract (Table 6).
Neem plant parts
Conc. (%)
LC50 (%) 95% CI
LC95 (%) 95% CI
Leaves
0.75
0.442 (0.012 – 0.743)
2.266 (1.878 – 2.912)
1.5
2.25
3.0
Seeds
0.75
1.036 (0.444 – 1.456)
4.279 (3.391 – 6.282)
1.5
2.25
3.0
Table 5.
Toxicity of neem crude extract against small sizes of golden apple snail
Neem plant parts
Conc. (%)
LC50 (%) 95% CI
LC95 (%) 95% CI
Leaves
0.75
0.498 (-0.714 – 1.065)
4.632 (3.469 – 8.007)
1.5
2.25
3.0
Seeds
0.75
1.045 (0.489 – 1.449)
4.149 (3.307 – 6.001)
1.5
2.25
3.0
Table 6.
Toxicity of neem crude extract against large sizes of golden apple snail
Based on the LC50 values after 96 hours exposure period, the aqueous extract of neem leaves demonstrated more potent molluscicidal activity than neem seeds aqueous extract, which can be attributed to the different extracting plant parts. Comparison of the LC50 and LC95 of aqueous neem crude extract on leaves and seeds at 96 hours exposure showed that, golden apple snails were more sensitive against the aqueous leaves crude extract than that aqueous seeds crude extract. The aqueous extract of the neem leaves was 2.34 and 2.10 times more toxic than those from the seeds against small and mixed sizes of golden apple snail, respectively.
Finding from this study was contradicted to that study by reference [12], aqueous neem seed extract was more toxic than neem leaves extract. The seed extract was also the most toxic and causing 100% mortality after 24 hours of exposure at 20,000 ppm for both golden apple snail size and the neem leaf extract the least toxic that caused 100% mortality at 30,000 ppm and 40,000 ppm for small and mixed golden apple snail sizes, respectively. Reference [22] found that, the seed extract has high toxicity with toxic more than 200-1,000 ppm and leaves extract was in inactive status when the toxicity more than 10,000 ppm.
The factor causing differences in the findings probably due to the azadirachtin content in each of the different neem plant parts. All parts of the neem tree contain azadirachtin, and more concentrated in the seed kernel [32,33]. Finding of the study was expected considering the fact that the content of azadirachtin in neem tree varies greatly between locations and other factors may also contribute to variability [42]. Difference in trees maturity, application technique and perhaps environmental factors would probably contribute to these inconsistencies. This study did not analyze on the active ingredient from prepared the extract; however, it is possible that the azadirachtin content in seeds and leaves could raise the efficiency of extraction.
Results from the research also demonstrated that, snail mortality using the neem extracts at 96 hours was dependent on the sizes of golden apple snail’s sizes. The higher lethal concentration was observed in the large golden apple snail’s size (30-40 mm) than the small golden apple snail (20-30 mm), which suggesting that lethal concentration increased as the size of the golden apple snail is increased. A similar situation was also observed in another study [12] where the leaf extract caused 100% mortality at 30,000 ppm for small golden apple snail and 40,000 ppm for mixed sizes of golden apple snail. Reference [44] was stated that, the size of golden apple snail at 10 mm, started eating paddy plants. Therefore, control measures should be implemented when the size of the golden apple snails was smaller or younger stage to reduce crop losses by using lower concentration of neem extract.
3.5. Correlation between treatment and size of golden apple snail
The interaction between treatments can be visualized by plotting the number of snail mortality as dependent variable against two types of plant part with one line for each level of the concentration as illustrated in the Figure 7 and 8. As the difference between any leaves and seeds means changes with the concentration level; which the leaves were the high ranking in the observation for both sizes of golden apple snail.
The interaction plot in Figure 7 indicates that the ordinal interaction as the lines is not parallel. The difference between neem leaves and neem seeds extracts was essentially close for concentration 2.25%, whereas the difference on concentrations 0.75% and 3.0% ppm was much larger for the neem leaves crude extract than that neem seeds crude extract.
Figure 7.
Interaction plot for treatment and mortality rate of small golden apple snail
Figure 8 shows the lines are not parallel but crossed each other; mean that there is an interaction. From examining this interaction plot, it appears that neem leaves crude extract has the highest mortality rate compared to the neem seeds crude extract for three different concentrations of 0.75%, 1.5% and 2.25% ppm. However, it was not for concentration 3.0% where as neem seed extract higher than neem leaves extract.
Figure 8.
Interaction plot for treatment and mortality rate of mixed sizes of golden apple snail
4. Conclusion
The comparisons of LC50 values between neem leaves and seeds extract were not substantially different from each other and it showed no significant difference (T-test: 0.56; p=0.677 and T-test: 0.86; p=0.549). However, aqueous neem leaves extract have the potency in controlling both sizes of golden apple snail in using low concentration compared to aqueous neem seeds extract. The LC50 value of aqueous neem leaves extract after 96 hours exposure period was 2.34 times and 2.10 times more toxic than those from the seeds for small and large sizes of golden apple snail, respectively. On the other hand, aqueous neem leaves extract was caused high snail mortality with 93.33% and 84.17% of small and large size of golden apple snail was dead compared to aqueous seeds crude extract, 71.67% and 73.33% respectively. In the context of effectiveness, neem leaves extract also showed the ability to cause high mortality in a shorter time than seeds crude extract by killed 38.3% of the small golden apple snail within 24 hours and 30.83% at 72 hours for large sizes of golden apple snail, while neem seed extract was only 24.17% at 72 hours and 29.17% at 96 hours for small and large size of golden apple snail, respectively.
From the result, both plant parts have ability in controlling golden apple snail but aqueous neem leaves extract was expressed the effectiveness as a molluscicide than neem seeds extract for both size of golden apple snail.
In this study, all the tested neem concentrations for both plant parts affected the golden apple snail mortality (small and large) and were significantly different from the control treatment (ANOVA: F=7.08, p=0.000 for small snail and F=3.93, p=0.008 for large size of golden apple snail). The result was revealed that control treatment caused the lowest mortality number of golden apple snail among other treatments. However, the four concentrations for the extraction of leaves and seeds showed no significant difference in the mortality rate of golden apple snail.
Toxicity study of neem leaves and seeds crude extract in small and large size of golden apple snail exhibited the statistically not significant difference of the LC50 values between two different sizes of golden apple snail (T-test: - 1.02; p=0.494and T-test: - 1.02; p=0.494). Half of the small golden apple snail populations were appeared to be affected by the neem leaves extract at 0.442% and 1.036% for neem seed extract. While for large size of golden apple snail, the concentration of neem leaves extract at 0.498% and 1.045% for neem seed extract was needed to cause 50% mortality of golden apple snail. The higher lethal concentration was observed in the large size of golden apple snail than the small golden apple snail, which suggesting that lethal concentration increased as the size of the golden apple snail is increased. Therefore, the neem crude extract application to small golden apple snail is the appropriate application because the farmer can use the lower concentration for crop damage protecting. In the observation of the speed of action of neem extracts, the study was showed that 25.19% of the small sizes of golden apple snail were highly dead at 24 hours and 24.07% at 72 hours for large sizes of golden apple snail.
In conclusion, the molluscicidal potential of neem has been proven, beyond doubt by the present investigations. This both neem plant parts can be used as alternative molluscicides to harmful synthetic chemical molluscicides that are widely used today to eradicate unwanted golden apple snail in the paddy field. Utilization of neem-based biopesticide early in the rice growing season when young golden apple snail at the predominant life stage would provide effective control and, due to their minimal effects on other aquatic life will reduce the resurgence problem that always occurred when chemical molluscicides are used early in the rice growing season. Therefore, the use of neem as molluscicides are highly recommended because they are toxicologically safe, environment friendly, easy to use and have a wide range of insecticidal activity.
The research has attempted to provide some information on the potential and toxicity of neem trees against the golden apple snail. In addition, this research also provides an idea for the development of locally produced, cheaper and safer biopesticide formulation which its application can provides an alternative way for synthetic pesticide application in pest management control at paddy field. Therefore, the results gathered from this research need to be confirmed on paddy field trial site, as well as investigate the environment impact from the extract application by determining the acute toxicity effect and chronic toxicity effect on non-target organism such as fish. It is also recommended to extend neem extraction research to other extraction solvent and method, as solvent and extraction procedure may largely influence azadirachtin production. Moreover, the evaluations in this study were done using determination of golden apple snail mortality and different amount of organic compound in neem might influence the pesticidal activities of neem on golden apple snail. The study on the mechanism or mode of action of neem crude extract on golden apple snail should be tested to ensure the main factor of golden apple snail mortality.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by funds from the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE), Malaysia through Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS) 600-RMI/ST/FRGS5/3/Fst(270/2010 - Potential of Neem, Azadirachta indica for controlling the golden apple snail, Pomacea canaliculata headed by Dr. Siti Noor Hajjar Md Latip.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/37961.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/37961.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/37961",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/37961",totalDownloads:6029,totalViews:1059,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"December 8th 2011",dateReviewed:"April 4th 2012",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"July 25th 2012",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/37961",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/37961",book:{slug:"pesticides-advances-in-chemical-and-botanical-pesticides"},signatures:"Rosdiyani Massaguni and Siti Noor Hajjar Md Latip",authors:[{id:"146825",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Rosdiyani",middleName:null,surname:"Massaguni",fullName:"Rosdiyani Massaguni",slug:"rosdiyani-massaguni",email:"naniefrezy@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"149116",title:"Dr.",name:"Siti Noor Hajjar Md",middleName:null,surname:"Latip",fullName:"Siti Noor Hajjar Md Latip",slug:"siti-noor-hajjar-md-latip",email:"noorhajar@salam.uitm.edu.my",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Material and methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Sampling location",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Tested mollusc",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Extraction procedure",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4. Toxicity test",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.5. Statistical analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"3. Result and discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.1. Mortality of golden apple snail",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.2. Mortality pattern of golden apple snail",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.3. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) in experimental treatment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.4. LC50 value of neem crude extract",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.5. Correlation between treatment and size of golden apple snail",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"4. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"Acknowledgement",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'MukhlisZ. 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C.\n\t\t\t\t\t2000 Potential effects of commercial molluscicides used in controlling golden apple snalts on the native snail Vivipara costata (Quoy and Gaimard). Philipp. Ent. 14\n\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t149157\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B18",body:'DelaCruz. M. S.JoshiR. C.\n\t\t\t\t\t2001 Efficacy of commercial molluscicide formulations against the golden apple snail Pomacea canaliculata (Lamarck). In: The Philippine Agricultural Scientist 84\n\t\t\t\t\t1 Jan.-Mar. 2001).\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B19",body:'AkhtarY.YeoungY. R.IsmanM.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008 Comparative bioactivity of selected extracts from Meliaceae and some commercial botanical insecticides against two noctuid caterpillars, Trichoplusia ni and Pseudaletia unipuncta. Phytochem Rev 7\n\t\t\t\t\t7788\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B20",body:'RejesusB. M.SayabocA. S.JoshiR. C.\n\t\t\t\t\t1988 The distribution and control of the introduce golden snail (Pomacea sp.) in the Philippines. In: Proc. of the Symp. on the Introduction of Germplasm and Plant Quarantine Procedures, Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia), 14-15 Dec. 1988. 213223 .'},{id:"B21",body:'MainiP. N.RejesusB. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t1993b Molluscicidal activity of Derris elliptica (Fam. Leguminose). In: Philippine Journal of Sciences. 114\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B22",body:'RejesusH. M.PunzalanE. G.\n\t\t\t\t\t1997 Molluscicidal action of some Philippine plants on golden apple snail, Pomacea spp. Philipp. Ent. 11\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t6579\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B23",body:'NdambaJ.RobertsonI.IemmichE.ChandiwanaS. K.FuruP.MolgaardP.\n\t\t\t\t\t1994 Investigation of the diurnal, ontogenic and seasonal variation in the molluscicidal saponin content of Phytolacca dodecandra aqueous berry extracts. Phytochemistry, 35, [9599 ].'},{id:"B24",body:'CharlestonD. S.KfirR.DickeM.VetL. E. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t2005 Impact of botanical pesticides derived from Melia azedarach and Azadirachta indica on the biology of two parasitoid species of the diamondback moth. Journal Biological Control 33, 131142\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B25",body:'OpolotH. N.AgonaA.KyamanywaS.MbataG. N.AdipalaE.\n\t\t\t\t\t2006 Integrated field management of cowpea pests using selected synthetic and botanical pesticides. Journal of Crop Protection 25, 11451152\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B26",body:'MalaS.MuthalagiS.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008 Effect of Neem oil Extracive (NOE) on Repellency, Mortality, Fecundity, Development and Biochemical Ananlysis of Pericallia ricini (Lepidoptera:Arctidae)'},{id:"B27",body:'MusmanM.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010 Toxicity of Barringtonia racemosa (L.) Kernel Extract on Pomacea canaliculata (Ampullariidae). Tropical Life Sciences Research, 21(2), 3343 .'},{id:"B28",body:'BaskarK.MaheshwaranR.KingsleyS.IgnacimuthuS.\n\t\t\t\t\t2011 Bioefficacy of plant extracts against Asian army worm Spodoptera litura Fab. (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Journal of Agricultural Technology 2011 7 1): 123-131'},{id:"B29",body:'ChowdharyA.SinghV.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008 Chapter 2: Geographical distribution, ethnobotany and indigenous uses of neem. In: Neem: A Treatise. Singh, K.K., Phogat, S., Tomar, A., and Dhillon, R.S. (eds). Published by I.K International Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. 546\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B30",body:'AroraR.SinghS.SharmaR. K.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008 Neem Leaves: Indian Herbal Medicine. In: Watson, R.R. and Preedy, V.R. (eds). Botanical medicine in clinical practice. Published by CABI International 2008. 885\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B31",body:'Csurhes, S., (2008).Pest plant risk assessment: Neem Tree, Azadirachta indica. Available at: www.dpi.qld.gov.au/...EnvironmentalPests/IPA-Neem-Tree-Risk-Assessment.pdf'},{id:"B32",body:'TomarA.SinghK. K.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008 Chapter 1: Neem: An Introduction. In: Neem: A Treatise. Singh, K.K., Phogat, S., Tomar, A., and Dhillon, R.S. (eds). Published by I.K International Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. 546\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B33",body:'BoekeS. J.BoersmaM. G.AlinkG. M.Van LoonJ. J. A.Van HuisA.DickeM.RietjensI. M. C. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t2004 Safety evaluation of neem (Azadirachta indica) derived pesticides. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 94 2541\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B34",body:'YuS. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008 Chapter 5: Evaluation of toxicity. In: The toxicology and biochemistry of insecticides. Published by: CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group. 87100\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B35",body:'GirishK.ShankaraB. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008 Neem- A green treasure. Electronic journal of Biology, 4 3): 102-111.'},{id:"B36",body:'Senthil-NathanS.ChoiM. N.PaikC. H.SeoH. Y.KalavaniK.\n\t\t\t\t\t2009 Toxicity and physiological effects of neem pesticides applied to rice on the Nilaparvata lugens Stål, the brown planthopper. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 72\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\t17071713\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B37",body:'PathakM. D.KhanZ. R.\n\t\t\t\t\t1994 Insect pest of rice. International Rice Research Institute, International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology. 89\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B38",body:'BenchawattananonR.BoonkongU.\n\t\t\t\t\t2006 The toxicity of leave crude extract from neem tree (Azadirachta indica Juss.) and Garlic (Allium sativom L.) on mortality rate of golden apple snail (Pomacea sp.), 32nd Congress on Science and Technology of Thailand. Queen Sirikit National Convention Center, Bangkok'},{id:"B39",body:'LaleN. E. S.AbdulrahmanH. T.\n\t\t\t\t\t1999 Evaluation of neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss) seed oil obtained by different methods and neem powder for the management of Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) in stored cowpea. Journal of Stored Products Research 35, 135143\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B40",body:'SeljåsenaR.MeadowR.\n\t\t\t\t\t2005 Effects of neem on oviposition and egg and larval development of Mamestra brassicae L: Dose response, residual activity, repellent effect and systemic activity in cabbage plants. Crop Protection 25 (2006). 338345\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B41",body:'RimpiD.ChutiaB. C.SarmahM.RahmanA.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010 Effect of neem kernel aqueous extract (NKAE) on growth and development of red slug caterpillar, Eterusia magnifica butl in tea in North-East India, India. Journal of Biopesticides, 3\n\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t489494\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B42",body:'LimG. S.DaleG. B.\n\t\t\t\t\t1994 Neem Pesticides in Rice: Potential and Limitations. Published by: International Rice Research Institute. 69\n\t\t\t\t\t9-71110-047-7'},{id:"B43",body:'BolandB. B.MeerhoffM.FosalbaC.MazzeoN.BarnesM. A.BurksR. L.\n\t\t\t\t\t2007 juvenile snails, adult appetites: contrasting resource consumption between two species of applesnails (Pomacea). Journal of Molluscan Studies 18\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B44",body:'Philippine Rice Research Institute (PhilRice),\n\t\t\t\t\t2001 Management options for the golden apple snail. Rice Technology 33 Department of Agriculture-PhilRice. Maligaya Muñoz, Nueva Ecija. 12\n\t\t\t'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Siti Noor Hajjar Md Latip",address:null,affiliation:'
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1. Introduction
The modern metal forming industry has taken complete advantage and benefit offered by the advanced techniques in order to remain in today’s competitive market. The solidification modeling is a phase-change phenomena which is amazingly complicated as well as critical in many areas of science and engineering and also very vital in the field of automotive and aerospace applications. In the field of foundry engineering, when the molten metal is poured into the mold cavity, the metal solidifies and discharges heat into the mold, the metal shrinks due to which an air gap is formed in between the cast and the mold. This air gap acts as an obstruction for the heat flow from the cast to the mold and is to be found as one of the moving boundary conditions to be given as input for the casting simulation software. In the simulation of a solidification of the casting process, many parameters play a significant role responsible for the quality of the cast.
The data base for the properties of commonly used materials such as density, thermal conductivity, specific heat, solidus temperature, liquidus temperature, latent heat release etc., for the simulation of casting parameters need to be maintained by the industries.
2. Heat transfer mechanism in solidification
To comprehend the heat transfer mechanism we need to know the behavior of solidification. The heat transfer from the liquid hot temperature cast to the mold is a very complex phenomenon and different modes of heat transfer can be observed while solidification in the cast. While heat transfer is predominant the resistance to the heat flow also has different dimensions to this solidification. This resistance mainly depends on liquid cast metal, latent heat release, interface, solidified cast, the type of mold and the ambient conditions. General solidification of an alloy is discussed in the Figure 1 and specific cooling curve for Al6061 is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 1.
Solidification curve for alloy.
Figure 2.
Aluminum alloy (Al6061) solidification curve.
Initially on pouring the liquid metal cast into the mold cavity the whole metal fluid flows and occupies the mold cavity, the liquid metal flowing with the velocity, mixes thoroughly and releases heat to the mold due to the very high temperature difference. Complete thermal contact is observed between the cast and the mold which causes the heat transfer to be purely conduction, where the resistance offered by this liquid metal is negligible since the entire fluid flow is the superheated cast metal. Once the cast metal reaches the liquidus point on cooling, the cast shrinks and releases latent heat and also a number of metal oxides are released which causes an air gap between the cast and the mold. Due to this air gap the heat transfer phenomenon now changes to a complex one where all modes of heat transfer can be observed simultaneously. This air gap is characterized with an Interfacial Heat transfer Coefficient (IHTC) “h” across the metal-mold interface. The rate of heat at the interface is found using the surface heat flux as q (W/m2) and given by the Eq. 1.
q=hTc−TmE1
Tc and Tm are the cast and mold surface temperatures at the interface in K or deg. C.
The dynamics of solidification of cast metal, mold temperature and the cast temperature can be clearly understood from the cooling curves shown in Figure 2. Once the molten metal fills the cavity the alloy cast reaches the maximum temperature. Generally the heat transfer analysis starts from this point onwards as the temperature drops from the liquid cast metal to the liquidus temperature (TL), the point at which the solidification begins and this freezing is called liquid cooling. The loss of superheat temperature of the cast metal after pouring is found due to the turbulence in the liquid metal. This rate of cooling is linear and a minimum amount of heat is transferred from the cast to the mold as it is having a complete contact with the mold surface.
As the solidification progresses with time it reaches the liquidus point at the same time where the mold temperature increases significantly to a maximum temperature. Further the solid skin forms on the outer cast surface, the metal shrinks and an air gap starts forming between the metal and the mold. When the cast solidifies further the air gap separates the two surfaces. This is a common phenomenon in most of the alloys. The rate of heat transfer from the cast to the mold is very high as it releases larger quantity of latent heat to the mold and the cast temperature gradually reaches a solidus (TS) temperature of the alloy. The air gap plays a significant role in varying IHTC with various factors influencing solidification.
Further solidification reduces the cast surface temperature, however the inner cast metal shrinks and it further releases the heat to the mold and there is rise in the mold temperature as shown in Figure 2. Thereafter further reduction in the cast temperature after the solidus point (Ts) was found as the third stage of solidification. The air gap size is further increased as the solidification time increase and its effects are felt till the end of solidification. However there is still a temperature difference between the cast and mold for the further heat transfer to continue.
Once the complete air gap is formed between the cast and the mold, the gap will contain almost all kinds of gaseous except air that contradicts the air gap term. The sand mold which is used for the casting application, generates the mold gases which are often high in hydrogen, containing typically 50 percent which fills the air gap. The hydrogen gas thermal conductivity increases the heat transfer by 7 times more as the mold temperature rises to a high temperature of 500°C due to radiation. Therefore it is very essential to know or analyze the interface during the solidification process as it is further discussed in the next section.
On comparing the green sand mold with dry sand mold the green sand mold expand homogeneously and release heat to the surrounding which leads to a lesser resistance for the heat flow whereas dry sand mold offers more resistance than the green sand mold. The high thermal conductivity die mold material has uniform temperature variation and assumes homogeneous expansion.
3. Shrinkage behavior of casting
While melting the metal in the furnace has a higher specific volume hence it occupies more space by the metal and on pouring it results in the solidification in the mold which increases the complexity of the solidification [1]. After pouring the temperature of the cast reduces and the specific volume also reduces which causes shrinkage in the poured volume as shown in Figure 3. To understand the complex behavior of solidification we need to understand three different stages of shrinkage of metal during the solidification process; it includes liquid shrinkage, liquid- solid shrinkage and solid shrinkage.
Figure 3.
Specific volume changes against cast surface temperature.
3.1 Liquid shrinkage
The superheated metal which is poured in the liquid state has more specific volume than the liquid metal in the cavity [2]. This liquid metal occupies the mold cavity and is in superheated state and comes in complete contact with the mold surface. Here the mode of heat transfer is purely conduction shown in Figure 3. On solidification there is a liquid contraction due to reduction in specific volume, the metal cools further and reaches to a liquidus temperature. This contraction of liquid metal separates cast and mold surface and imitates the air gap formation which is assigned as liquid shrinkage.
3.2 Liquid- solid shrinkage
Actually the liquid contraction leads to a solidification which is a complex problem in the casting industry. This requires a proper feeding mechanism to fill the cavity by maintaining high liquid cast temperature while pouring and if not then the partial liquid - solid contraction leads to shrinkage porosity. The specific volume of the solid metal is lesser than the liquid metal. All the solidifications are planned for the directional solidification which refers to the faster cooling rate at which solidification progresses from the cavity metal to the feeder mechanism. The faster cooling rate and the movement of liquid in the solidification is due to the area of the surface which enables the liquid metal to drop its high temperature to solidus temperature. The runner, riser and the gating system is designed in the mold pattern enhances the directional solidification by transferring proper heat flow from the cast to the mold.
The alloys of eutectic type allow lesser solidification shrinkage volume and also have a lower sensitivity to the solidification problems caused by sudden geometry changes. While they involve smaller risers, these can be omitted completely in certain cases by gates placed strategically and because the metal feed avenues stay open longer, it ensures a uniform solidifying process. While eutectic type of solidification is the most simplest, it requires the least reciprocity and can withstand a range of geometries. Directional solidification is more complex; however, when it has an ideally designed geometry, it is highly capable of extremely higher interior unity. Heat transfer is in fact the main process behind the bilaterally symmetrical and mutual state of connectedness in the process of solidification shrinkage and geometrical patterns. The heat transfer during solidification of castings involves three modes of heat transfer, namely radiation, conduction and convection, the rate of heat transfer is still dependent on the geometry of the casting as discussed later in the interfacial heat transfer coefficient section.
3.3 Solid shrinkage
The final stages of shrinkage in the solid state which can cause a separate series of problems. As cooling progresses, and the casting attempts to reduce its size in consequence, it is rarely free to contract as it wishes. This stage of solidification is usually complex either by the types of mold, or by the other casting parts like the runner and riser that have already solidified and cooled as the air gap formed. The air gap formed is mainly due to the various factors like metal oxide formation, coefficient of thermal expansion, latent heat released, evaporation moisture in the case of sand mold, interfacial gap, mode of heat transfer etc. this type of solidification shrinkage is also called as pattern shrinkage.
These factors are the major causes for the heat to flow from the cast to the mold and it is found that it majorly affects the solidification and in turn affects the quality of the cast product. The amount of solid metal stretches like plastic casting, makes the solidification again into a complex problem. This shrinkage behavior leads to difficulty in predicting the size of the pattern since the degree to which the pattern is made oversize (the ‘contraction allowance’ or ‘patternmaker’s allowance’) is not easy to quantify. This shrinkage also causes hot tearing or cracking of the casting which lead to more localized problems.
In general, liquids contract on freezing because of the rearrangement of atoms from a rather open ‘random close-packed’ arrangement to a regular crystalline array of significantly denser packing. The densest solids are those that have cubic close packed (face-centred-cubic, fcc, and hexagonal close-packed, hcp) symmetry. Thus the greatest values for contraction on solidification are seen for these metals.
4. Interfacial heat transfer coefficient (IHTC)
The heat transfer characteristics during casting are governed by IHTC. The molten metal is poured into the cavity it first enters the mold due to the fluidity of the metal, it occupies the cavity and ensures complete contact between the metal and the mold. In the early stage of solidification, the fluidity of the molten metal conformance and contact between the cast and mold surfaces is good. At this early stage of solidification due to the nucleation of the metal, higher initial surface heat flux is reached. Further the solid skin forms and then spreads to cover the entire casting surface. As the solidified layer forms with sufficient strength, simultaneously air gap forms and as a consequence the contact between the casting and the mold are reduced. This leads to the sudden drop in the heat flux and the solid skin forms on the outer cast surface [3]. The cast liquid - solid shrinks/contracts away from the mold surface. This further releases heat and it is absorbed by the mold surface and in turn increases the temperature of the mold as it expands. The mode of heat transfer is not only due to conduction at this stage because the heat from the metal to the mold takes place across the interface region but also due to other modes of heat transfer convection and radiation. The air gap varies for the different cast metals and depends on their factors of the release of metal oxides, hydrogen gases and material properties of the cast and mold, geometry etc.
Further the third stage of solidification is identified between the liquidus to solidus temperature of the cast as the fall in the casting surface temperature is suddenly halted, due to the release of latent heat. After the complete solid skin formation on the cast the heat transfer further diminishes and gap size increases and the mode for heat transfer is assumed to be conduction of heat through the gaseous phase in the interface using the air gap method. This air gap size is measured as x by assuming the expansion to be homogeneous, and the interfacial heat transfer coefficient is estimated as h = k/x: where k is thermal conductivity of the air (W/mK) as shown in Figure 4. This concept of conduction as a mode of heat transfer in IHTC is reported by Kai- Ho and Robert D Pelhke, [4]. There are many factors that influence the IHTC and practically the IHTC becomes highly unpredictable if all the factors are not taken into account while designing. The various factors listed by the authors Lewis and Ransing, [5] and Guo Zhi-Peng et al. [6], that affect the interfacial heat during solidification is listed below.
Figure 4.
Schematic representation of IHTC during solidification of casting.
Die coating thickness: The initial high peak value of IHTC is reduced with an increase of die coating thickness. While pouring the metal at the liquid stage the effect of die coating behaves as a weaker influence at the interface as the air gap formed.
Insulating pads, chills, etc.: The IHTC has different behaviors with insulating pads and chills. It is obvious that always the insulating material reduces the IHTC and the chills increases the IHTC.
Geometry of Casting: The area of contact with the mold and the directional solidification will have higher IHTC.
Pouring temperature: Higher values of superheat will increase the initial value of IHTC.
Surface roughness: Higher initial value of IHTC for the better contact when the surfaces are smooth.
Alloy composition: Higher initial value established for an alloy with a larger freezing range.
Latent heat: Cast from superheat temperature to liquidus temperature ensures sharp slope in IHTC due to the evolution of latent heat.
Metallostatic pressure: During the pouring of molten metal into the cavity rises the metallostatic pressure, this is also responsible for higher IHTC at the initial stage.
Mold temperature: During initial stage higher IHTC due to the higher mold temperature and smaller temperature difference for higher peak heat flux.
Die Coating thickness: Increase of die coating thickness decreases the IHTC. While pouring the metal at the liquid stage the effect of die coating behaves as a weaker influence at the interface as the air gap formed.
Mold materials
Type of castings
As it is pointed out by many researchers the gap size mainly depends on the gas that is formed in the interface. The rate of solidification of castings made in a sand mold is generally controlled by the rate at which heat can be absorbed by the mold. In fact, compared to many other casting processes, the sand mold acts as an excellent insulator, keeping the casting warm. However, of course, ceramic investment and plaster molds are even more insulating, avoiding premature cooling of the metal, and aiding fluidity to give the excellent ability to fill thin sections for which these casting processes are renowned. It is regrettable that the extremely slow cooling can contribute to rather poorer mechanical properties.
Extensive literature reviews have been made, in order to determine the interfacial heat transfer behavior during the solidification of casting at the metal-mold interfaces, since the 1970’s. The boundary conditions as a surface heat flux and mold surface temperature established at the metal mold interface were used to determine the precise interfacial heat transfer coefficient value by using many mathematical methods described in the literature. The most common approaches can be distinguished here as follows for the determination of IHTC at the metal-mold interface including surface heat flux and mold surface temperature:
Air gap measurement technique
Pure Analytical approach
Semi-analytical method
Numerical Methods
The following section explains the detailed procedure of these methods listed above.
4.1 Air gap measurement technique
This method calculates the IHTC based on entrapped gas properties present at the interface. The thermal conductivity of the air between the cast mold interface and the distance of air gap measured as x with the LVDT [7]. The formula used for IHTC calculation is, h = k/x, W/m2K. The mode of heat transfer assumed in this method is conduction at the interface, but the other modes of heat transfer are also practically possible as we have discussed in the above section. Hence this method is not widely accepted by the researchers.
4.2 Numerical approaches (inverse method)
In this approach, experimental cooling curves were obtained at certain locations of the cast surface and on the mold to estimate the IHTC. The IHTC is calculated based on measured cast temperature, estimated mold surface temperature and estimated mold surface heat flux. Generally solidification heat transfer problems as shown in Figure 5 were categorized as
Direct Heat Conduction Problem (DHCP)
Indirect Heat Conduction Problem (IHCP)
Figure 5.
Schematic diagram for DHCP and IHCP conditions.
In the DHCP the boundary conditions were known at the metal mold interface (which is a moving boundary problem and is difficult to acquire the parameters at the interface) and the effects were determined, mathematically it is known as a well posed problem. But in solidification of casting, knowing the boundary condition is very difficult because of its high transient nature, moving boundary problem, high temperature region, combination of all modes of heat transfer, etc., at the interface. So the inverse heat conduction problem is used to approach the problem. In order to calculate the boundary condition at the interface as a surface heat flux and surface temperature of the mold, experiments were carried out to determine temperatures in the mold to get the input data. This leads to a method of adoption of an ill-posed problem or the inverse heat conduction problem (IHCP) [8]. This ill-posed nature makes IHCP conduct experimentation to determine the boundary conditions at the interface before it has to be solved from the available data rather than using a DHCP approach.
The interfacial heat transfer coefficient at the cast mold interface can be calculated based on Eq. (1), requiring the transient surface heat flux. Cast and mold surface temperatures are measured using thermocouples during solidification regardless of its uncertainty in the physical measurements. The pure analytical or other methods mentioned above are unable to determine the surface heat flux at the interface. This leads to the numerical approaches and their formulation of inverse heat conduction problem (IHCP) at the interface to determine the boundary conditions. The boundary conditions at the interface are explored or determined by the IHCP. This has been studied by various techniques like FDM, FEM, FVM and CV methods. One of the common and mostly used method is mainly based on the function minimization technique based on the numerically calculated and measured data [6].
Fh=∑i−1NTi−Yi2E2
Where, F(h) is the minimization function, Ti, Yi are calculated and measured transient temperatures at the same locations, i= 0 to N, nodal point. The errors in the temperature measurement may also lead the IHCP into ill-posed. This problem leads the researchers to propose many techniques to solve for IHCP to determine boundary conditions at the interface with the measured temperature histories.
Polynomial extrapolation method: The temperature at the interface was deduced by extrapolating any one of the polynomial curve fitting techniques. This method needed many measurements inside the cast and mold surfaces. This mathematical tool failed to minimize measurement errors.
Regularization method: In order to minimize the error from the measurement obtained a sensitivity analysis can be carried out using the Tikhonov regularization theory. This was used to regularize some function to relate the measured data and this was improving the accuracy and stability of the results obtained. This method could achieve an excellent solution and could be applied to any complex geometry, but the computation takes a very long time.
Boundary element method and Laplace transform: the unknown temperature were transformed into equations as well as written as matrix format. This could be easily solved and written into a computer program. But it has some restrictions. It was an effective method to solve a simple linear problem. But the measured temperature data always has more noise (disturbances) in the data, this could fluctuate the result obtained as heat flux.
Beck’s function specification with finite difference method (implicit & explicit): It was another minimizing error technique used based on heat flux, where sum of squares of assumed and calculated data are used into the function. This method could be used for linear or nonlinear problems. Also, it has long computation time and also could achieve an accurate solution with efficient computation.
Control volume method: This method works, based on energy balance applied over a control volume drawn on each nodal point. The next one is the governing equation for the transient heat conduction written as a partial transient heat conduction equation changed into an ordinary differential transient equation. This involves both energy and mass conservation on each node, leads to a complex formulation equation containing up to 4th order, which may be difficult to program using computer languages, and can only be applied to simple geometrical shapes and one dimension.
A sample of a rectangular geometry with an aluminum (Al6061) cast volume of 45 cm3 was solidified and the IHTC was calculated as shown below in Figure 6. Here the IHTC curve was calculated using the control volume method and it shows a gradual increase. Various characteristics of the IHTC and the heat transfer can be discussed [9].
Figure 6.
IHTC variation for the rectangular aluminum casting with sand mold.
4.3 Behavior of IHTC for the given Al 6061
The behavior of the sample rectangular cast was considered as it summarizes most of the heat transfer modes in solidification of the cast. On pouring the IHTC was found to be 370 W/m2 K at 90 s, the higher initial surface heat flux was due to a perfect thermal contact. As further solidification starts, vaporization takes place in the sand mold because of the moisture content, presence of hydrogen release along with metal oxides across the interface and the reduction of specific volume of metal creates an air gap and decreases the value of IHTC rapidly to a minimum value of 163 W/m2 K at 130 s. The shrinkage of metal causes release of latent heat and rise in the IHTC, then heat transfer reduces once the solid skin is formed [10]. Again the inner metal leaks and flows out from the solid skin to outside and gets cooled which again releases latent heat and so IHTC increases and decreases. Continuous rise and fall of the IHTC shows peak formation, which is shown till the end of solidification. The fourth peak value of 1718 W/m2 K at 600 s and further again at 720 s the IHTC reached the highest peak value of 1918 W/m2 K. The vapor pressure developed in the sand mold is due to the escape of moisture content to the ambient, which is sufficient to allow the heat to flow from the solidifying metal to sand mold hence the sharp rise in IHTC is observed in the final stage of solidification. Not only vapor pressure but also huge temperature differences causes high heat flows. Due to the thermal resistance induced, as the metal solidifies and contracts, a fall in the IHTC is vividly observed.
5. Conclusion
The materials that change phase during solidification to room temperature can be much more complicated. The heat transfer in the solidification is a complicated phenomenon as shown in the above sections. Understanding the heat transfer characteristics while solidification will help to link the various developments in the micro structure of the materials and the dislocations present. When solidification is complete the strength of the material can be assessed and the formation of the grains in the material can be directed by control of the temperature and heat flow on solidification.
The IHTC of a sample of Al6061 is thoroughly explained to comprehend the various modes of heat transfer while solidification is taking place. Proper cooling helps to govern the solidification and as the temperature is sufficiently low the strains of dislocations will not be sufficiently mobile to migrate into low energy positions, forming low-angle boundaries. Thus the alloy will become sufficiently strong to retain any further strain as elastic strain. Once the metal solidifies properly the structure of the alloy will no longer be affected during further cooling. Hence a complete idea of IHTC at all the times of solidification is the best option to minimize the errors and maximize the strength.
\n',keywords:"solidification, casting, heat transfer, shrinkage, IHTC",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/74686.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/74686.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74686",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74686",totalDownloads:38,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"July 31st 2020",dateReviewed:"December 4th 2020",datePrePublished:"January 4th 2021",datePublished:"February 24th 2021",dateFinished:"January 4th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"This chapter deals with the heat transfer characteristics between the cast and the mold. Generally the heat transfer behavior between the cast and the sand mold is used and all the three modes of heat transfer are studied. The heat transfer characteristics from the cast is at a faster rate for a die mold than for the sand mold. Since the sand mold is used for most of the industrial applications for the complex shapes of metal the heat transfer and the shrinkage behavior in solidification has to be understood perfectly. In this chapter, since the heat transfer mechanism and the shrinkage behavior of the metal in the sand mold is interrelated, hence were predominantly discussed.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/74686",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/74686",signatures:"L. Anna Gowsalya and Mahboob E. Afshan",book:{id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",publishedDate:"February 24th 2021",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"328513",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Anna Gowsalya",middleName:null,surname:"Lucas",fullName:"Anna Gowsalya Lucas",slug:"anna-gowsalya-lucas",email:"gowsalyamahendran@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"343119",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahboob",middleName:null,surname:"E Afshan",fullName:"Mahboob E Afshan",slug:"mahboob-e-afshan",email:"mahboobemech@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Heat transfer mechanism in solidification",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Shrinkage behavior of casting",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Liquid shrinkage",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Liquid- solid shrinkage",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3 Solid shrinkage",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. Interfacial heat transfer coefficient (IHTC)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.1 Air gap measurement technique",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.2 Numerical approaches (inverse method)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.3 Behavior of IHTC for the given Al 6061",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'John Campbell: Castings, Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford, 2002'},{id:"B2",body:'Bhagavath S, Cai B, Atwood R, Li M, Ghaffari B, Lee P.D, Karagadde S: Combined Deformation and Solidification-Driven Porosity Formation in Aluminum Alloys, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, 2019; 50, 4891-4899'},{id:"B3",body:'Rajaraman R, Velraj R: Comparison of interfacial heat transfer coefficient estimated by two different techniques during solidification of cylindrical aluminum alloy casting, Heat Mass Transfer, 2008; Vol. 44, 1025-1034'},{id:"B4",body:'Ho F, Pelhke R.D: Metal –mould interfacial heat transfer, Metallurgical Transactions B, 1985; 16, 585-594'},{id:"B5",body:'Lewis R.W, Ransing R.S: A Correlation to Describe Interfacial Heat Transfer during Solidification Simulation and Its Use in the Optimal Feeding Design of Castings, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions, 1998; 29B, 448'},{id:"B6",body:'Guo Z-P, Xiong S-M, Murakami M, Matsumoto Y, Ikeda S: Study on interfacial heat transfer coefficient at metal/die interface during high pressure die casting process of AZ91D alloy, China Foundry, 2007; 4, No.1'},{id:"B7",body:'Griffiths W.D: The Heat-Transfer Coefficient during the Unidirectional Solidification of an Al-Si Alloy Casting, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B, 1999; 30 B'},{id:"B8",body:'Anna Gowsalya L, Jeyakumar P.D, Rajaraman R and Velraj R: Estimation and validation of interfacial heat transfer coefficient during solidification of spherical shaped Aluminum alloy (Al 6061) casting using inverse control volume technique, Frontiers in Heat and Mass Transfer (FHMT), 2019; 12, 21'},{id:"B9",body:'Rajaraman R, Anna Gowsalya L, Velraj R: Estimations of interfacial heat transfer coefficient during the solidification of rectangular aluminum alloy casting using two inverse methods, Frontiers in Heat and Mass Transfer (FHMT), 2018; 11, 23'},{id:"B10",body:'Zhang A, Liang S, Guo Z, Xiong S: Determination of the interfacial heat transfer coefficient at the metal-sand mold interface in low pressure sand casting, Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science, 2017; 88, 472-482'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"L. Anna Gowsalya",address:"gowsalyamahendran@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Department of Production Technology, Madras Institute of Technology, Anna University, India
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Mahboob E. Afshan",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Mechanical Engineering, B.S. Abdur Rahman Institute of Science and Technology, Vandalur, India
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",publishedDate:"February 24th 2021",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"199222",title:"Prof.",name:"H.G.",middleName:null,surname:"Sandalidis",email:"sandalidis@dib.uth.gr",fullName:"H.G. Sandalidis",slug:"h.g.-sandalidis",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Underwater Optical Wireless Communication Systems: A Concise Review",slug:"underwater-optical-wireless-communication-systems-a-concise-review",abstract:"Underwater optical wireless communications (UOWC) have gained a considerable interest during the last years as an alternative means for broadband inexpensive submarine communications. UOWC present numerous similarities compared to free space optical (FSO) communications or laser satellite links mainly due to the fact that they employ optical wavelengths to transfer secure information between dedicated point‐to‐point links. By using suitable wavelengths, high data rates can be attained. Some recent works showed that broadband links can be achieved over moderate ranges. Transmissions of several Mbps have been realized in laboratory experiments by employing a simulated aquatic medium with scattering characteristics similar to oceanic waters. It was also demonstrated that UOWC networks are feasible to operate at high data rates for medium distances up to a hundred meters. However, it is not currently available as an industrial product and mainly test‐bed measurements in water test tanks have been reported so far. Therefore, extensive research is expected in the near future, which is necessary in order to further reveal the “hidden” abilities of optical spectrum to transfer broadband signals at higher distances. The present work summarizes the recent advances in channel modeling and system analysis and design in the area of UOWC.",signatures:"Lydia K. Gkoura, George D. Roumelas, Hector E. Nistazakis, Harilaos\nG. Sandalidis, Alexander Vavoulas, Andreas D. Tsigopoulos and\nGeorge S. Tombras",authors:[{id:"19522",title:"Prof.",name:"George S.",surname:"Tombras",fullName:"George S. Tombras",slug:"george-s.-tombras",email:"gtombras@phys.uoa.gr"},{id:"23386",title:"Prof.",name:"Hector",surname:"Nistazakis",fullName:"Hector Nistazakis",slug:"hector-nistazakis",email:"enistaz@phys.uoa.gr"},{id:"171669",title:"Ms.",name:"Lydia",surname:"Gkoura",fullName:"Lydia Gkoura",slug:"lydia-gkoura",email:"lgkoura@phys.uoa.gr"},{id:"171670",title:"Prof.",name:"Andreas",surname:"Tsigopoulos",fullName:"Andreas Tsigopoulos",slug:"andreas-tsigopoulos",email:"atsigo@snd.edu.gr"},{id:"171672",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Vavoulas",fullName:"Alexander Vavoulas",slug:"alexander-vavoulas",email:"vavoulas@ucg.gr"},{id:"199221",title:"MSc.",name:"George D.",surname:"Roumelas",fullName:"George D. Roumelas",slug:"george-d.-roumelas",email:"groumelas@phys.uoa.gr"},{id:"199222",title:"Prof.",name:"H.G.",surname:"Sandalidis",fullName:"H.G. Sandalidis",slug:"h.g.-sandalidis",email:"sandalidis@dib.uth.gr"}],book:{title:"Turbulence Modelling Approaches",slug:"turbulence-modelling-approaches-current-state-development-prospects-applications",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"19522",title:"Prof.",name:"George S.",surname:"Tombras",slug:"george-s.-tombras",fullName:"George S. Tombras",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"George S. Tombras was born in Athens, Greece. He received the B.Sc. degree in Physics from Aristotelian University of Thessaloniki, Greece, the M.Sc. degree in Electronics from University of Southampton, UK, and the Ph.D. degree from Aristotelian University of Thessaloniki, in 1979, 1981, and 1988 respectively. \nFrom 1981 to 1989 he was Teaching and Research Assistant and, from 1989 to 1991, Lecturer at the Laboratory of Electronics, Physics Dept., Aristotelian University of Thessaloniki. Since 1991, he has been with the Laboratory of Electronics, Faculty of Physics, University of Athens, where currently is an Associate Professor of Electronics, Vice Chair of Faculty of Physics, and Director of the Dept of Electronics, Computers, Telecommunications and Control. His research interests include Mobile and Free Space Optical Communications, Analog and Digital Circuits and Systems, Chaotic Electronics, as well as Instrumentation, Measurements and Audio Engineering, Professor Tombras is the author of the textbook “Introduction to Electronics†(in Greek) and has authored or co-authored more than 100 journal and conference refereed papers and many technical reports.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"23386",title:"Prof.",name:"Hector",surname:"Nistazakis",slug:"hector-nistazakis",fullName:"Hector Nistazakis",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"35193",title:"Dr.",name:"Gervásio",surname:"Degrazia",slug:"gervasio-degrazia",fullName:"Gervásio Degrazia",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"171669",title:"Ms.",name:"Lydia",surname:"Gkoura",slug:"lydia-gkoura",fullName:"Lydia Gkoura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"171670",title:"Prof.",name:"Andreas",surname:"Tsigopoulos",slug:"andreas-tsigopoulos",fullName:"Andreas Tsigopoulos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"171672",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Vavoulas",slug:"alexander-vavoulas",fullName:"Alexander Vavoulas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"198948",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jesús Manuel",surname:"Fernández Oro",slug:"jesus-manuel-fernandez-oro",fullName:"Jesús Manuel Fernández Oro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Oviedo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"199218",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Andrés",surname:"Meana-Fernández",slug:"andres-meana-fernandez",fullName:"Andrés Meana-Fernández",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"199220",title:"Prof.",name:"Bruno",surname:"Pereiras García",slug:"bruno-pereiras-garcia",fullName:"Bruno Pereiras García",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"199221",title:"MSc.",name:"George D.",surname:"Roumelas",slug:"george-d.-roumelas",fullName:"George D. Roumelas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"our-story",title:"Our story",intro:"
The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
",metaTitle:"Our story",metaDescription:"The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/our-story",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\\n\\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n\\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\\n\\n
2004
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\\n\\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n
\\n\\n
2005
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\\n
\\n\\n
2006
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\\n
\\n\\n
2008
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\\n
\\n\\n
2009
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\\n
\\n\\n
2010
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\\n
\\n\\n
2011
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\\n
\\n\\n
2012
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\\n
\\n\\n
2013
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\\n
\\n\\n
2014
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\\n
\\n\\n
2015
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\\n\\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\\n\\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\\n
\\n\\n
2016
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\\n
\\n\\n
2017
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\n\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\n\n
2004
\n\n
\n\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\n\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n
\n\n
2005
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\n
\n\n
2006
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\n
\n\n
2008
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\n
\n\n
2009
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\n
\n\n
2010
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\n
\n\n
2011
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\n\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\n\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\n
\n\n
2012
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\n
\n\n
2013
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\n
\n\n
2014
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\n\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\n
\n\n
2015
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\n\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\n\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\n
\n\n
2016
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n
\n\n
2017
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
\n
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. 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