Element analysis of samples (wt%).
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3486",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Advances in Photonic Crystals",title:"Advances in Photonic Crystals",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book collects chapters on different theoretical and experimental aspects of photonics crystals for Nanophotonics applications. 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The world concerns about environmental pollution caused by fossil fuel combustion and exhaustion of energy resources have drawn significant attention to researchers. Biomass can be converted into various fuels and chemicals by different methods to replace petrochemical fuels [1, 2, 3]. Fast pyrolysis of biomass is one of the most promising and fast developing biomass thermochemical conversion technologies, which can turn organic materials into high value products such as chemical products or liquid fuels. And this technology has been widely used in the field of biomass renewable utilization in recent years [4, 5, 6]. This transformation into an environment-friendly renewable energy sources can replace the fossil fuels consumed and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Among the biomass, the large amount of waste wood has attracted increasing attention because it can be used as an energy and reduce the waste of timber [7, 8, 9].
Particle boards occupy a large proportion of waste wood, so how to effectively convert it into high value chemical products has attracted the attention of researchers. Choi et al. [3] conducted fast pyrolysis of particle board over three types of zeolite catalysts, the results showed that the bio-oil yield and gas yield in catalytic pyrolysis was lower and higher than those in non-catalytic pyrolysis, respectively. Park et al. [10] also examined the catalytic pyrolysis of particle board using a nanoporous catalyst and showed that bio-oil is composed mainly of oxygenates, phenolics and acids, with smaller amounts of aromatics and hydrocarbons. Lee et al. [11] investigated the co-pyrolysis of waste particle board and polypropylene over four types of catalysts, they found that catalytic co-pyrolysis suppressed the formation of PAHs, and the quality of bio-oil has improved. When the particle board was combined with other materials for co-pyrolysis, or when the particle board was pyrolyzed over different catalysts, high quality bio-oil or aromatic products could be obtained [8, 11, 12, 13].
When only the particle board was pyrolyzed, many researchers have found that temperature was the most important factor to determine the yields of bio-oil and gas products. Most scholars have only studied the influence of temperature on the pyrolysis characteristics of wood and particleboard, and there are few literatures concerning the influence of other conditions on the pyrolysis characteristics of wood and particle board. In this paper, fast pyrolysis experiments were carried out in fixed bed reactor and a Py-GC/MS equipment, and the effects of temperature and gas phase residence time on the product yields and its components distribution were investigated. The effect of components of particle board on product yields and its components distribution was also investigated.
The experimental samples selected for this study included two types of solid wood, a wood adhesive, and six types of particle board.
Two types of solid wood, Larch wood (
Urea formaldehyde (UF) is the most commonly used adhesive in the wood based panel industry. Provided by Beijing Taier Chemical Co., Ltd., its F/U molar ratio is 1.1 and the solids content is 53%.
PBL: Larch Particle Board and PBP: Poplar Particle Board. The adhesive levels used for preparing particle boards were 5%, 10%, and 20%, respectively.
The particle board was made in our laboratory (width: 400 × 400 mm, thickness: 10mm). There was a certain difference between self-made particle board and actual waste particle board, but there were uncertainties in the waste time, wood types, adhesive types and content, etc., which were actually unfavorable for research and analysis of results. Therefore, the particle board was placed in a room under controlled environment for 6 months after preparation to simulate the waste particle board in nature.
The materials of solid wood and particle board were crushed, sieved and dried before the experiment. After the adhesive was dried and solidified in the oven, it was crushed and sieved, all materials have a particle size of about 1 mm. Elemental analysis, industrial analysis and component analysis of raw materials are shown in Tables 1
Samplea | C% | H% | O%b | N% |
---|---|---|---|---|
Larch | 46.15 | 6.31 | 47.36 | 0.12 |
Poplar | 45.24 | 6.30 | 48.36 | 0.10 |
UF | 33.45 | 5.02 | 29.31 | 32.22 |
PBL (10% sizing amount) | 44.15 | 6.11 | 46.28 | 3.46 |
PBP (10% sizing amount) | 43.35 | 5.96 | 47.55 | 3.14 |
Element analysis of samples (wt%).
The test result was an air-drying base.
The oxygen value was obtained by subtraction.
Samplea | M% | A% | V% | FC% |
---|---|---|---|---|
Larch | 7.26 | 1.78 | 73.12 | 17.84 |
Poplar | 6.79 | 1.81 | 72.51 | 18.89 |
UF | 2.18 | 0.53 | 95.98 | 1.31 |
PBL | 6.04 | 1.68 | 73.43 | 18.85 |
PBP | 6.37 | 1.57 | 73.01 | 19.05 |
Proximate analysis of samples (wt%).
The test result was an air-drying base.
Samplea | Cellulose% | Hemicellulose%b | Holocellulose% | Lignin% | pH | Ash% | Benzol extractive% |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Larch | 42.76 | 20.79 | 63.55 | 24.03 | 4.90 | 0.905 | 3.26 |
Poplar | 45.87 | 28.44 | 74.31 | 19.12 | 5.01 | 1.169 | 5.89 |
Component analysis of samples.
The test result was an air-drying base
The hemicellulose value was obtained by subtraction.
Elemental analysis of raw materials was performed using the VarioEL elemental analyzer at the Analytical Center of Changchun Institute of Chemicals, Chinese Academy of Sciences. The analysis was conducted in accordance with the International “Method for Analysis of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen in Rock Organic Matter” (GB/T 19143-2003), where C, H, and N elements were tested experimentally and the final results were averaged twice for the experiment. The O element content was obtained by subtraction.
The industrial analysis was completed at the Chemical Laboratory of Beijing Forestry University, and conducted according to the national standard “Test Methods for Charcoal and Charcoal” (GB/T17664-1999). From Table 2, it can be concluded that the ash content of Poplar was larger than that of Larch, and the volatile content of particle board and solid wood was equivalent, while the volatile content of UF resin was much higher than that of solid wood and particle board, but the fixed carbon of particle board was higher than solid wood and UF resin.
The chemical composition analysis was performed in the Bio-oil Adhesives Laboratory at Beijing Forestry University. The raw material preparation was performed in accordance with the national standard, “Analysis of Samples for Papermaking Raw Material Analysis” (GB/T 2677.1-93). The lignin content was determined according to the national standard “Determination of Acid-insoluble Lignin in Papermaking Raw Materials” (GB/T 2677.8-94), the cellulose content was extracted by nitric acid ethanol method, and the holocellulose content was determined according to the national standard “Determination of Holocellulose Content of Papermaking Raw Materials” (GB/T 2677.10-1995). The lignin content of Larch was higher than that of Poplar from Table 3, while the Poplar content of cellulose and hemicellulose was higher than that of Larch.
In this article, two devices were used to discuss the fast pyrolysis characteristics of waste particle board. One was a fixed bed fast pyrolysis device (fixed-bed reactor), and the other was a Py-GC/MS equipment. The yields of product were obtained from the fast pyrolysis experiments which were carried out on the fixed bed reactor. The distribution of components in the liquid phase products and the distribution of nitrogen were analyzed by Py-GC/MS equipment.
In this paper, a set of experimental apparatus for fast pyrolysis of small gas entrainment fixed bed was designed, precise automatic temperature control and extremely short gas phase residence time could be achieved through the device. The whole device consisted of gas supply system, sampling system, pyrolysis system, product absorption and measurement system. The schematic diagram of the experimental device is shown in Figure 1.
Schematic of (a) fixed bed fast pyrolysis reactor with carry gas feeding module, and (b) Py-GC/MS.
The gas supply system consisted of nitrogen cylinder, flow meter and three-way valve, etc. Nitrogen cylinder was equipped with safety valve and the nitrogen gas purity was 99.999%. The sampling system consisted of a feeding pipeline and a vibrating feeding device, which allows the continuous and uniform feeding of small amount of materials (less than 5 g). The pyrolysis system consisted of an automatic temperature-controlled electric heating furnace, a quartz tube reactor and a pipe end interface. The fixed-bed reactor was a quartz tube with an inner diameter of 20mm and a length of 500 mm, a quartz sintered plate was set in the middle of the tube to filter pyrolytic carbon produced by pyrolysis, both ends of the quartz tube were special metal quick connectors for convenient installation and removal, connected with stainless steel pipe through quick connector. The product absorption system consisted of a two-stage ice-water bath condensing tube, and an exhaust gas collection bag coupled with a volume flow meter.
The requirement of temperature for fast pyrolysis is 400∼600°C [1, 14, 15]. In this paper, in order to explore the pyrolysis characteristics of temperature and the nitrogen release mechanism of the particle board, four pyrolysis temperatures were selected, which were 450, 500, 550 and 600°C, respectively.
The requirement for the gas phase residence time of the fast pyrolysis process is 3–0.1 s [1, 14, 15], in order to investigate the influence of gas-phase residence time on the pyrolysis characteristics and nitrogen release mechanism of particle board, three gas-phase residence time were set in the research process, which were 3, 1 and 0.5 s respectively. Considering that the gas phase residence time was controlled by the flow rate of the carrier gas during the actual experiment, the relationship between the gas flow rate and the gas phase residence time at different pyrolysis temperatures was calculated before the formal experiment, the corresponding carrier gas flow rate was 0.1, 0.16, and 0.3 m3/h, respectively.
The temperature of the heating furnace was first determined during the experiment, and the pyrolysis system will stably maintained at the pyrolysis temperatures; then, the prepared feedstock was loaded into the feeding bag; open the intake system valve at a predetermined flow rate and began to purge the entire experimental pipeline with high-purity nitrogen to obtain the inert environment. After the temperature of the pyrolysis system was stabilized to the pyrolysis temperature, the feedstock particle slowly entered the injection line through the vibration feed tube, the material which fell into the injection line entrained by the carrier gas into the quartz tube reactor for fast pyrolysis reactions. The pyrolysis-generated volatiles and pyrolytic carbons entered the gas absorption and metering system with the carrier gas after being filtered by the sintered plate in the center of the quartz tube and the filter quartz wool placed at the end of the reactor pipeline. Pyrolytic carbon remaining in the reactor was collected after pyrolysis was completed.
The calculation of fast pyrolysis gas yield was converted into weight fraction after metering volume by flowmeter, the fast pyrolysis carbon yield was calculated by direct weighing, and the fast pyrolysis oil yield was obtained by subtraction method. In a typical experiment run, the feeding amount was 3 g, and the reaction temperatures of the fixed-bed quartz tube were 450, 500, 550, and 600°C respectively, the carrier gas flow rates were 0.1, 0.16, and 0.3 m3/h respectively, and the pyrolysis time was 5 min.
The Py-GC/MS equipment included a cracking system and a gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry analysis system. The cracking system consisted of a CDS5150 fast thermal cracker, which was equipped with injection and gas loading supply system manufactured by CDS, USA. The gas chromatography mass spectrometry analysis system consisted of a Shimadzu GCMS-QP2010Plus GC/MS analysis manufactured by Shimadzu Corporation of Japan. The pyrolysis system and the gas chromatograph mass spectrometry system were connected by a special insulation connecting pipeline, the chromatographic column was M-5 (60 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm). The schematic diagram of the experimental device is shown in Figure 1.
During the experiment, accurately weighed raw materials and a little amount of quartz fiber were placed in the quartz tube of the CDS5150 cracker. The pyrolyzer was purged with high-purity nitrogen as the carrier gas, pyrolyzed at the determined heating rate, pyrolysis time, and pyrolysis temperature, and the product was analyzed online by GC/MS. The spectra obtained for each test were analyzed using the system’s software. The NIST library was used to record the product’s absolute peak area and relative peak area.
When using the NIST library for analysis, most of the peaks could be identified and confirmed, but there were also a small number of peaks that could not be determined (the degree of similarity between the library and the standard material provided by the library was too low). Therefore, the sum of the relative peak area content determined by GC/MS in the relevant experimental results was less than 100%. The part where the sum did not reach 100% was the unknown product, but this part was very small and was represented by other classes in the result analysis.
The Py-GC/MS experimental conditions and instrument parameter settings are shown in Table 4.
Parameter name | Setting value | |
---|---|---|
Cracking conditions | Heating rate | 20°C/ms |
Pyrolysis temperature | 400, 500, 600°C | |
Cracking time | 15 s | |
Gas flow | 100, 50, 10 ml/min | |
Gas chromatographic conditions | Inlet temperature | 280°C |
Gas loading | He | |
Gas flow rate | 1.0 ml/min | |
Split ratio | 100:1 | |
Heating program | 50°C constant temperature 5 min, warm up to 280°C at 10°C/min, constant temperature 15 min | |
Interface temperature | 280°C | |
Ion source temperature | 250°C | |
Mass spectrometry conditions | EI source electron energy | 70 eV |
Scanning method | SCAN | |
Scan range | (20–450) u |
Conditions and parameters for Py-GC/MS experiments.
Figure 2 shows the yields of fast pyrolysis products of UF resin, two types of wood and particle board at different temperatures. As can be seen from the figure, the effect of temperature on the pyrolysis products of raw materials was basically the same in the experimental temperature range. Wood mainly consists of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, and therefore its pyrolysis behavior can be considered to be the sum of the behaviors of these three components [16]. The pyrolysis products contain such substances as CO, CO2, H2, CH4, C2H4, amine, alcohol, phenol, acid, ketone, sugar, aldehyde, ester, ether, hydrocarbon and heterocyclic. As the temperature rise, the yields of gas product gradually increased, and the rising tendency became more pronounced when the temperature exceeded 550°C. The yields of pyrolytic carbon gradually decreased with the increase of temperature, when the temperature exceeded 550°C, the downward trend tended to be gentle. The yields of pyrolysis oil increased and then decreased with the increase of temperature, which reached a maximum at 550°C. During the pyrolysis process, the carbonization reaction dominated at a lower temperature, and the volatilization was insufficient. At a higher temperature condition, the cracking reaction intensified, a large number of condensable volatiles precipitated, the yield of pyrolysis oil increased subsequently, and the output of pyrolytic carbon decreased. At 600°C, the secondary cracking in the reaction system will gradually strengthen while the components in the condensable volatiles undergo secondary cracking, resulting in the formation of small molecules of non-condensable gases. The sugars, alcohols, ketones and acids in tar contain functional groups such as hydroxyl and carboxyl groups, with the increase of temperature, these functional groups will decompose and produce gases such as CO and CO2, resulting in the increase of gas phase products, which in turn reduced the yield of pyrolysis oil. During wood pyrolysis, lignin produces more fixed carbon than cellulose and hemicellulose, so the char yield of Larch and Poplar is higher than that of UF resin. Because the structure of UF resin is not complicated with wood, the yield change of UF resin in the pyrolysis process is not as obvious as that of wood and particle board, and the products are relatively few, mainly ester and amine substances [16].
Yields of products from fast pyrolysis at different temperature of (a) Larch, (b) Poplar, (c) UF, (d) PBL, and (e) PBP.
Figures 3 and 4 show the cumulative histogram of the yield distribution from fast pyrolysis products of PBL and PBP and their components at different temperatures. From Figure 3, it can be seen that due to the effect of UF resin, the yield of fast pyrolysis carbon of PBL is higher than that of Larch, and it can be inferred that UF resin will prevent the pyrolysis of the particle board at high temperatures. As the temperature rises, this inhibition slows down, at 450°C, particle board fast pyrolysis carbon is 3% higher than Larch, while the pyrolytic carbon from particle board is only 1% higher than that from Larch when the temperature reaches 600°C. The yield of pyrolysis oil from fast pyrolysis of particle board is basically the same as the yield from Larch at 450°C, and the former is less than later when the temperature setting at 500 and 550°C. However, when the temperature exceeds 600°C, the yield of pyrolysis oil from fast pyrolysis of particle board is less than that from Larch. This is because the yield of pyrolysis oil of UF resin is high than that of wood, which resulted in the superposition effect; and on the other hand, it also shows that the introduction of UF resin has an impact on the yield of pyrolysis oil, which is more sensitive to temperature. From Figure 4, it can be seen that the effect of UF resin on the yield of fast pyrolysis products of PBP is similar to that of PBL, which has an inhibitory effect on the pyrolysis process of the particle board, and increases the yield of pyrolytic carbon of the particle board, along with the temperature increased this inhibition slows down.
Distribution of products from fast pyrolysis of PBL at different temperatures.
Distribution of products from fast pyrolysis of PBP at different temperatures.
Figure 5 shows the content comparison diagram of Tar and Char in the fast pyrolysis products from different materials. As can be seen from the figure, the Tar yield of the UF resin is significantly higher than that of other raw materials, and the Tar yield is higher at 550°C than at other temperatures. At 600°C, the decrease in Tar yield of other raw materials is more obvious with increasing temperature except UF resin. The Char yield of all raw materials decreased with the increase of temperature, but the Char yield of UF resin is significantly lower than other raw materials. The fast pyrolysis of wood and particle board yields of Tar and Char are basically the same, indicating that the addition of UF resin has little effect on the fast pyrolysis products Tar and Char.
Tar and char yields from fast pyrolysis of different raw materials at different temperatures.
Figure 6 shows the yields of fast pyrolysis products of raw materials at different carrier gas flows. As can be seen from the figure, the increase in carrier gas flow rate can effectively prevent secondary cracking in the system, therefore, the yields of fast pyrolysis oil has been greatly improved with the increase of gas flow rate, and the production of pyrolytic carbon and gaseous has gradually decreased. When the flow rate of the carrier gas continues to increase, the secondary reaction has been at a relatively low level, and therefore, the effect on the product is relatively small. Compared with temperature, the influence of carrier gas flow rate on the distribution of fast pyrolysis products is relatively low, therefore, as long as gas phase residence time of less than 3 s can be ensured, a higher pyrolysis oil yield can be obtained. Of course, increasing the flow rate of the carrier gas will contributes to the increase of pyrolysis oil yield, where other conditions permit.
Yields of fast pyrolysis products at different carrier gas flow rate of (a) Larch, (b) Poplar, (c) UF, (d) PBL, and (e) PBP.
Figure 7 shows the comparison of Tar and Char contents in fast pyrolysis products of different raw materials. From the figure, we can see that the Tar yield of UF resin increases with the increase of the carrier gas flow rate, which is basically the same as other raw materials, indicating that the degree of secondary pyrolysis of UF resin is equivalent to that of other raw materials. It shows that under the condition of fast pyrolysis, the addition of UF resin has no obvious effect on the wood and particle board product.
Tar and char yields from fast pyrolysis of different raw materials at different flow rates.
Figure 8 changes of the gas composition in fast pyrolysis of raw materials at different temperatures. As can be seen from the figure, at different temperatures, the fast pyrolysis gases of various raw materials are mainly CO and CO2. With the increase of temperature, the CO content increased while the CO2 content decreased, crossover occurred within the experimental temperature range, the temperature at this intersection varies depending on the composition of the raw materials. This aspect shows that the competitive reaction of the gas generated during the fast pyrolysis process is beneficial to the production of CO2 at low temperatures, and is more conducive to the production of CO at high temperatures. It shows that the CO and CO2 generation mode and mechanism are different during the fast pyrolysis process, and the effect of temperature on them is opposite. On the other hand, the cracking of the raw material in the fast pyrolysis process is accompanied by the secondary cracking of the primary volatiles, which means that the secondary cracking of the volatiles will generate more CO at high temperature, but it will not contribute much to the generation of CO2, analysis shows that the CO is mainly produced by the cleavage of organic acids and aldehydes containing carbonyl groups and carboxyl groups. In addition, CO2 reacts with the pyrolytic carbon in the reaction system to convert to CO at higher temperatures. The experimental results are similar to the fast pyrolysis experiments performed on different biomass in the literature.
Gaseous products distribution from fast pyrolysis at different temperature of (a) Larch, (b) Poplar, (c) UF, (d) PBL, and (e) PBP.
As can be seen from Figure 8, the yield of several other gases is very small, with a relatively high H2 content of about 5–10%, while the amount of CH4 and C2H4 is less than 2%. With the increase of temperature, the amount of these gases has increased to some extent, and the overall calorific value of the fast pyrolysis gas has increased. The main reasons for the increase of H2 yield are: the condensation of char; secondary reaction of tar, such as the polycondensation of aldehyde and ketone compounds; cracking of alkanes and alkenes. With the increase of temperature, the polycondensation reaction is enhanced. Some compounds in tar undergo polycondensation reaction to form benzene ring and other structures, and form H·, which eventually leads to the increase of H2 content. For hydrocarbons, the C-H bond and the stability of C-C bond in the order: C≡C > C=C > C-H > C-C, however, at high temperatures alkane content in tar is less, and alkenes, alkynes and aromatic compounds content is higher, compared with the C-H, C-C bond in tar is less, resulting in high temperature tar cracking process of CH4 is less than the H2. The variation pattern of CH4 and C2H4 is similar to that of CO. In the study of biomass thermal cracking, the generation of CH4 is mostly derived from the methoxy group in lignin structure, and the secondary decomposition of the volatile component of cellulose polymer can also produce CH4. The detected unsaturated hydrocarbons are mainly C2H4, the yield of C2H4 is similar to that of CH4, and the content in the gas is also very low. The analysis of its formation may be obtained from the thermal decomposition of unsaturated fatty acids.
Figure 9 shows the comparison of CO and CO2 contents in fast pyrolysis gases of different raw materials. From the figure, we can see that the CO yield of UF with temperature rise is more obvious than that of wood and particle board, but the trend of CO2 falling with temperature is basically the same. It shows that the UF contains a large amount of carbonyl groups which will be pyrolyzed to generate more CO during the fast pyrolysis process. Compared with two types of wood, the amount of CO and CO2 produced from Larch is higher than that produced from Poplar, this is caused by the difference in the composition of the two types of wood. The yields of CO and CO2 produced by pyrolysis of wood and particle board are basically the same, indicating that the addition of UF resin has no obvious effect on the fast pyrolysis of gas products.
CO and CO2 yields from fast pyrolysis of different raw materials at different temperatures.
Figure 10 is the variation diagram of the components of gaseous products from fast pyrolysis at different carrier gas flow rates. From this figure, it can be seen that under different carrier gas flow rates, CO and CO2 are predominant in the fast pyrolysis gas composition of various raw materials. With the increase of flow rate, the content of CO and other gases have decreased to varying degrees, while the CO2 content has increased. An increase in the flow rate of the carrier gas leads to a reduction in the retention time of the gas phase, thereby reducing the secondary cracking of the primary volatiles, so that the overall production of the gas product will decrease. The decrease of CO content and the increase of CO2 content indicate that the secondary cracking of volatiles is more likely to produce CO, but has little effect on CO2. Therefore, the percentage of CO2 will increase as the total amount of gas decreases.
Gaseous products distribution from fast pyrolysis at different carrier gas flow rates of raw materials: (a) Larch, (b) Poplar, (c) UF, (d) PBL, and (e) PBP.
Figure 11 shows the comparison of CO and CO2 contents in fast pyrolysis gases of different raw materials. From the figure, we can see that the CO yield of UF resin decreases with the increase of the carrier gas flow rate, which is basically the same as other raw materials, indicating that the degree of secondary pyrolysis of UF resin is equivalent to that of other raw materials. It shows that under the condition of fast pyrolysis, the addition of UF resin has no obvious effect on the wood gas product.
CO and CO2 contents fast pyrolysis products at different carrier gas flow rates.
Figure 12 is a GC/MS total ion chromatogram (TIC) of the liquid product from fast pyrolysis of Larch, UF, and PBL, at 500°C. Due to the relatively simple structure of the UF resin, the TIC peak of the products from fast pyrolysis of UF resin is significantly lower than the TIC peak of the products from pyrolysis of wood and particle board, and no product peak appears after more than 30 minutes of retention time. When using the NIST library search, about 90 substances can be detected for the pyrolysis liquid phase products of particle board and wood raw materials under different conditions. The UF resin produced the most substances when it was pyrolyzed at 500°C, and only 37 products were found. The main components and relative content of liquid phase products of Larch, UF resin and PBL are shown in the appendix table. The spectral peaks of the PBL are very similar to those of the Larch, indicating that the main components of the pyrolysis products of the waste particle board are the same as the Larch.
TIC spectra of liquid products from fast pyrolysis of Larch, UF and PBL.
By classifying and comparing the pyrolysis liquid product components, the effect of pyrolysis conditions on the main categories of fast pyrolysis products can be analyzed. The products detected by GC/MS are classified into 13 categories, which are amines, alcohols, phenols, aldehydes, acids, ketones, esters, ethers, sugars, hydrocarbons, heterocyclic-N, other-N and others. From the appendix table, it can be seen that nitrogenous substances are the main components of UF resin pyrolysis liquid. UF resin contains amino, carbonyl, methylene and other groups, during the pyrolysis of UF resin, a group of hydroxyl methyl groups first split into formaldehyde and then produce nitrogen-containing volatile components with C-N bond breaking. The relative content of methyl isocyanate reaches up to 39.25%, in addition, other nitrogenous substances, such as ethyleneimine (13.68%), ethyl pyruvate (10.67%), 2,3-diazabicyclo [2.2.1]-hept-2-ene decanols (5.13%), l-alanine ethylamide, (S)-(3.91%), can also be detected in the pyrolysis liquid of UF resin. Compared with the composition of UF resin, the pyrolytic liquid products of Larch and PBL are very complicated. The products of wood mainly include alcohols, ketones, aldehydes, ketone derivatives and carbohydrates. The major constituent is hydroxyacetone and the relative content is 7.43%, other ketone derivatives, such as 1,3-cyclopentadione (3.12%) and 2,3-glutaric ketone (2.53%) can also be detected in the pyrolysis liquid of Larch, these ketone derivatives are generated by the pyrolysis of holocellulose. Lignin structure is rich in methoxy, and most phenolic compounds in the pyrolysis solution have the methoxyl chain. During the pyrolysis, the lignin molecular chain is cracked and the fragments are rearranged. The relative content of cis-isoeugenol and 2-methoxyl-4-vinyl phenol in Larch liquid phase products can reach 4.96 and 3.08%, respectively. In addition, phenolic compounds such as 4-ethyl guaiacol (1.38%), guaiacol (2.76%), 4-methyl guaiacol (2.53%), eugenol (1.32%) and phenol (0.33%) can also be detected. Particle board pyrolysis liquid product variety is one of the most in the three kinds of raw materials, main components of acetic acid (13.04%), (E)-iso-eugenol (5.22%), guaiacol (5.07%), cyclopropylmethyl alcohol (4.81%), 4-methyl hydroxyacetone (4.24%), guaiacol (3.97%), 4-hydroxy-3-methyl acetophenone (3.48%), 3-methyl-1, 2-ring glutaric ketone (2.98%) and furfuryl alcohol (2.75%), and other substances phenols, alcohols and ketones. Compared with Larch pyrolysis liquid phase, more Larch and UF resin synergistic reaction products, such as 1,3,4-trimethyl-1,7-dihydro-6h-pyrazole and [3,4-b] pyridine 6-ketone, were obtained in the pyrolysis liquid phase products of particle board [16].
Figure 13 is a summary of the main components of the fast pyrolysis liquid of Larch, UF and PBL at 500°C. As can be seen from the figure, the type of fast pyrolysis liquid product of PBL is the same as that of Larch, and is mainly based on alcohol, phenol, acid, and ketone, the maximum content of esters in the urea-formaldehyde resin pyrolysis liquid phase product is nearly 50%, which together with amines, nitrogen heterocycles and other nitrogen-containing compounds form the main liquid phase products. Due to the effect of UF resin, the product of PBL has a greater change than Larch, and the nitrogen heterocyclic compound in the PBL has been greatly improved compared to wood. In addition, acid and phenolic substances have also been improved to varying degrees, while amines, alcohols, aldehydes, esters, sugars and other components have been reduced to varying degrees. The change of these components is due to the fact that the introduced UF resin itself is produced during the fast pyrolysis process, for example, the nitrogen heterocyclic compounds are mainly formed by the cyclization of the amide nitrogen from fast pyrolysis of UF resin. However, more compositional changes should result from the complex chemical reactions that occurred between the UF resin and wood components during the fast pyrolysis process, for example, amines and esters are the main products of UF resin, but the content of PBL products is lower than that of wood products. Phenolics and acids were not detected in the UF resin pyrolysis liquid phase product, but the content of PBL products was higher than that of wood. Therefore, during the fast pyrolysis of the particle board, a strong interaction occurs between the wood components and the UF resin component, in other words, chemical reactions occurred between the derivatives from UF resin and wood during fast pyrolysis.
Subtotal amount of different categories of fast pyrolysis liquid products (T = 500°C).
Temperature is one of the main factors affecting fast pyrolysis. Figure 14 is a summary of the main components of liquid products from fast pyrolysis of PBL at different temperatures. From the figure, it can be seen that the content of liquid products from fast pyrolysis of the PBL at 500°C is generally higher than that at 400 and 600°C, such as alcohol, phenol, acid, ketone, etc., this is consistent with the trend of maximum yield of pyrolysis oil obtained at a fixed bed fast pyrolysis experiment at 500°C. When the temperature is lower, the cracking of raw materials is incomplete and the yield of volatiles is low, when the temperature is higher, more secondary cracking occurs in the volatiles and they are converted into small molecules. The effect of temperature on the specific components of the product and its mechanism remain to be further studied.
Subtotal amounts of different categories of liquid products from fast pyrolysis of PBL at different temperatures.
It can also be seen from Figure 14 that the nitrogen-containing compounds account for the most part in liquid phase products from fast pyrolysis of particle board at a lower temperature of 400°C, mainly amines, nitrogen heterocyclic, etc., indicating that at low temperatures UF resin already be decomposed to produce liquid products. When the temperature rises to 500°C, the amines, nitrogen heterocycles and other liquid nitrogen compounds in the product have been significantly reduced, indicating that some low-stability substances undergo secondary cracking to generate small-molecule gas-phase compounds, while the secondary cleavage of nitrogen heterocycles with higher stability is still not obvious. When the temperature continues to increase to 600°C, the nitrogen heterocyclic ring in the product is significantly reduced, indicating that at higher temperatures, a large number of nitrogen heterocycles also undergo cracking reactions. As a result, amines, nitrogen-containing esters, and other nitrogen-containing compounds are produced, making the amount of these substances significantly higher than at 500°C. These changes are similar to the effects of temperature on pyrolysis yields. Therefore, in the fast pyrolysis process, the temperature has a decisive effect on the product yield and composition.
Figure 15 is a summary of the main components of the liquid phase product of the PBL at different carrier gas flow rates. The flow rates were set to 100, 50 and 10 ml/min. It can be seen from the figure that with the decrease of the carrier gas flow rates, the gas phase residence time is prolonged and the secondary cracking of the volatiles is enhanced, more small molecules are produced. From the liquid product search results, it was found that the product types did not change, the content of the higher molecular weight material decreased, and the content of the lower molecular weight material increased. Under different temperature conditions, the yield of the same product is not much different, which indicates that the carrier gas flow rates has little influence on the product quantity, and the overall influence degree is not as obvious as the temperature.
Subtotal amounts of different categories of PBL fast pyrolysis liquid products at different carry gas flow rates.
Figure 16 is a summary of the main components of the liquid phase products from fast pyrolysis of PBL with different adhesive amount.
Subtotal amounts of different categories liquid products from fast pyrolysis of PBL with different adhesive amounts.
As can be seen from Figure 16, the increase in adhesive amount directly results in an increase in all nitrogenous products in the product, including amines, nitrogen heterocycles, and other nitrogen-containing compounds. In addition, the amount of ester products has also been significantly increased, the reason is that many esters contain nitrogen, which means that the amide nitrogen in the raw material is involved in a large number of esterification reactions. When the amount of adhesive is at a little level, UF resin has a promoting effect on the formation of phenol in wood, and plays a similar catalyst effect; when the amount of adhesive increases, the phenolics in the particle board begin to drop; when the amount of adhesive is 20%, it even drops to 4%, which is less than a quarter of the phenol content (20.5%) in fast pyrolysis products of wood. It is speculated that in a fast pyrolysis system, too much UF resin will compete with the phenol-forming reaction, generating more amine and nitrogen heterocyclic structures. In comparison, the effects of UF resin on acid substances are similar to those on phenolic substances, less adhesive amounts contribute to the formation of acids, while an increase in the amount of sizing inhibits acid production and appears to decrease.
Fast pyrolysis experiments of Larch and Poplar, UF, PBL and PBP were carried out, and the yields of pyrolysis products and its composition were analyzed. The results show that when the pyrolysis temperature is between 400 and 600°C, the gas yield steadily increase as the temperature increases, and the pyrolysis carbon yield continues to decrease, while the yield of pyrolysis oil increased at first and then decreased afterwards, and reached a maximum at 550°C. The carbon yield from fast pyrolysis of particle board is higher than that of wood, indicating that UF resin will prevent particle board decomposing, and this impact goes weak with increasing of temperature.
Compared with temperature, the influence of the carrier gas flow rates on the yields of products and its distribution is relatively low. Increasing of carrier gas flow rate can effectively prevent the occurrence of secondary cracking in the system and increase the pyrolysis oil yield. The gas products from fast pyrolysis of waste particle board are mainly CO and CO2, as well as relatively small amounts of CH4, C2H4, H2, etc. With the increase of temperature, the content of CO2 decreased and the contents of other gases increased. Among them, the tendency of CO obviously rose, and the calorific value of gas has increased. Under the conditions of fast pyrolysis, the effect of UF resin on the gas composition of particle board is not obvious.
Compared with wood, the main components of pyrolysis liquid phase products of waste particle board have not changed much, while the nitrogenous substances such as amines and nitrogen heterocycles are mainly increased, which promoted the formation of phenols and acids and prevented the formation of aldehydes, sugars, and alcohols. The temperature has little effect on the product type, but has a great influence on the yields. The carrier gas flow rate has little effect on the product composition. The effect of adhesive amount on the composition of the product is unclear.
The work was supported by the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (2017ZY32).
No. | Name | Molecular formula | Molecular weight | Larch | Area% PBL | UF |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Ethyleneimine | C2H5N | 43 | \\ | \\ | 13.68 |
2 | Formamide | CH3NO | 45 | 0.27 | 1.61 | 0.11 |
3 | Aminoacetonitrile | C2H4N2 | 56 | \\ | \\ | 0.03 |
4 | Methyl isocyanate | C2H3NO | 57 | \\ | 1.23 | 39.25 |
5 | Acetamide | C2H5NO | 59 | 6.53 | 0.57 | \\ |
6 | N-Methylformamide | C2H5NO | 59 | \\ | 0.64 | \\ |
7 | Trimethylamine | C3H9N | 59 | \\ | \\ | 2.56 |
8 | Acetic acid | C2H4O2 | 60 | 2.25 | 13.04 | \\ |
9 | Ethylene glycol | C2H6O2 | 62 | \\ | 0.68 | \\ |
10 | Pyrrole | C4H5N | 67 | 0.42 | 1.83 | \\ |
11 | Allyl cyanide | C4H5N | 67 | \\ | \\ | 0.05 |
12 | 2,5-Dihydrofuran | C4H6O | 70 | 0.3 | 0.13 | \\ |
13 | Cyclopropylmethanol | C4H8O | 72 | 3.34 | 4.81 | \\ |
14 | N-Methylacetamide | C3H7NO | 73 | \\ | 0.52 | \\ |
15 | Hydroxyacetone | C3H6O2 | 74 | 7.43 | 4.24 | \\ |
16 | Methyl acetate | C3H6O2 | 74 | \\ | 1.41 | \\ |
17 | Methylurea | C2H6N2O | 74 | \\ | \\ | 0.09 |
18 | Methyl carbamate | C2H5NO2 | 75 | \\ | \\ | 0.14 |
19 | Pyridine | C5H5N | 79 | 0.14 | \\ | \\ |
20 | Pyrimidine | C4H4N2 | 80 | \\ | 0.47 | \\ |
21 | N-methylpyrrole | C5H7N | 81 | 0.32 | 1.39 | \\ |
22 | 3-Methylpyrrole | C5H7N | 81 | \\ | 0.33 | \\ |
23 | 1,3,5-Triazine | C3H3N3 | 81 | \\ | \\ | 1.21 |
24 | 1,4-Pentadien-3-one | C5H6O | 82 | 0.39 | \\ | \\ |
25 | N-methylimidazole | C4H6N2 | 82 | \\ | 0.56 | 0.06 |
26 | 2(5H)-Furanone | C4H4O2 | 84 | 1.92 | 2.19 | \\ |
27 | N,N-Dimethylaminoacetonitrile | C4H8N2 | 84 | \\ | 1.12 | 0.66 |
28 | Succinaldehyde | C4H6O2 | 86 | 2.01 | \\ | \\ |
29 | 2,3-Butanedione | C4H6O2 | 86 | \\ | 1.05 | \\ |
30 | Beta-butyrolactone | C4H6O2 | 86 | \\ | \\ | 0.21 |
31 | 1-Hydroxy-2-butanone | C4H8O2 | 88 | \\ | 0.98 | \\ |
32 | N,N-Dimethylurea | C3H8N2O | 88 | \\ | \\ | 0.56 |
33 | Carbohydrazide | CH6N4O | 90 | \\ | \\ | 0.2 |
34 | Methyl hydroxyacetate | C3H6O3 | 90 | 0.51 | 0.47 | \\ |
35 | Phenol | C6H6O | 94 | 0.33 | \\ | \\ |
36 | 3-Methylpyridazine | C5H6N2 | 94 | 0.17 | \\ | \\ |
37 | N-Vinylimidazole | C5H6N2 | 94 | \\ | \\ | 0.1 |
38 | 2,3-Dimethyl-1H-pyrrole | C6H9N | 95 | 0.25 | \\ | \\ |
39 | 3-Hydroxypyridine | C5H5NO | 95 | 0.56 | \\ | \\ |
40 | 2,5-Lutidine | C6H9N | 95 | \\ | 0.57 | \\ |
41 | Furfural | C5H4O2 | 96 | 2.21 | 1.34 | \\ |
42 | 4-Imidazole formaldehyde | C4H4N2O | 96 | 0.16 | \\ | \\ |
43 | 4-Cyclopentene-1,3-dione | C5H4O2 | 96 | 0.29 | 0.22 | \\ |
44 | 3-Methyl-2-cycloalkenone | C6H8O | 96 | \\ | 0.3 | \\ |
45 | 2,5-Dimethylfuran | C6H8O | 96 | \\ | 1.24 | \\ |
46 | 2-Amino-1,3,5-triazine | C3H4N4 | 96 | \\ | \\ | 0.27 |
47 | 2,3-Diazabicyclo[2.2.1]-hept-2-ene decanols | C5H8N2 | 96 | \\ | \\ | 5.13 |
48 | Furfuryl alcohol | C5H6O2 | 98 | 2.55 | 2.75 | \\ |
49 | 1,3-Cyclopentadione | C5H6O2 | 98 | 3.12 | \\ | \\ |
50 | 1,2-Cyclopentadione | C5H6O2 | 98 | \\ | 1.51 | \\ |
51 | 2-Ethylene-3-vinyl epoxy-ethane | C6H10O | 98 | 0.41 | \\ | \\ |
52 | Ethyl cyanoformate | C4H5NO2 | 99 | \\ | 0.21 | \\ |
53 | 3-Amino-5-hydroxypyrazole | C3H5N3O | 99 | \\ | 0.22 | \\ |
54 | 2-Methyl-2-pentene-1-alcohol | C6H12O | 100 | 0.5 | \\ | \\ |
55 | 2,3-Glutaric ketone | C5H8O2 | 100 | 2.53 | 0.27 | \\ |
56 | 2-Methyl-3-pentone | C6H12O | 100 | 0.29 | 0.54 | \\ |
57 | Tetrahydro-2H-pyran-3-ketone | C5H8O2 | 100 | 0.47 | 0.52 | \\ |
58 | Succinic anhydride | C4H4O3 | 100 | \\ | \\ | 0.05 |
59 | 2, 2-Dimethyl-1-butanol | C6H14O | 102 | \\ | 0.37 | \\ |
60 | Methyl pyruvate | C4H6O3 | 102 | 2.68 | \\ | \\ |
61 | Acetic anhydride | C4H6O3 | 102 | 0.78 | \\ | \\ |
62 | M-Cresol | C7H8O | 108 | 0.22 | 0.21 | \\ |
63 | 2-Acetylpyrrole | C6H7NO | 109 | 0.18 | 0.25 | \\ |
64 | 2, 3-Diaminopyridine | C5H7N3 | 109 | \\ | \\ | 0.24 |
65 | 2H-Tetrazole-2-ethyl acetonitrile | C3H3N5 | 109 | \\ | 0.41 | \\ |
66 | 5-Methylfurfural | C6H6O2 | 110 | 0.61 | 0.86 | \\ |
67 | 2,3-Dimethyl-2-cyclopentene-1-ketone | C7H10O | 110 | \\ | 0.16 | \\ |
68 | 2-Acetylfuran | C6H6O2 | 110 | \\ | 0.19 | \\ |
69 | 2-Amino-3-hydroxypyridine | C5H6N2O | 110 | \\ | \\ | 0.07 |
70 | Isocytosine | C4H5N3O | 111 | 0.23 | \\ | \\ |
71 | 3-Hydroxypyridine-N-oxide | C5H5NO2 | 111 | \\ | \\ | 0.39 |
72 | N-Ethylidene-1-pyrrolidine | C6H12N2 | 112 | \\ | \\ | 0.83 |
73 | 3-Methyl-1,2-cyclopentanedione | C6H8O2 | 112 | 1.72 | 2.98 | \\ |
74 | 3-Methyl-1,2-cyclopentanedione | C6H8O2 | 112 | 1.2 | \\ | \\ |
75 | Cyclopentyl ethanone | C7H12O | 112 | \\ | 0.14 | \\ |
76 | 3-Isopropoxypropionitrile | C6H11NO | 113 | \\ | 0.11 | \\ |
77 | 2,3-Dimethylene-1,4-butanediol | C6H10O2 | 114 | \\ | 0.51 | \\ |
78 | Trans-2-hexenoic acid | C6H10O2 | 114 | 0.28 | \\ | \\ |
79 | 2,5-Dione piperazine | C4H6N2O2 | 114 | \\ | \\ | 0.25 |
80 | 5,6-Dihydrouracil | C4H6N2O2 | 114 | \\ | \\ | 0.09 |
81 | 2,6-Dimethylpiperazine | C6H14N2 | 114 | \\ | \\ | 0.56 |
82 | l-Alanine ethylamide, (S)- | C5H12N2O | 116 | \\ | \\ | 3.91 |
83 | Acetylacetone peroxide | C5H8O3 | 116 | 0.68 | 1.02 | \\ |
84 | Ethyl pyruvate | C5H8O3 | 116 | \\ | \\ | 10.67 |
85 | 1,4-Dioxane-2,5-diol | C4H8O4 | 120 | 5.66 | \\ | \\ |
86 | 1-Methyl-2-pyrrolethane cyanide | C7H8N2 | 120 | \\ | \\ | 0.11 |
87 | (Ethyleneoxy)benzene | C8H8O | 120 | 0.34 | \\ | \\ |
88 | Guaiacol | C7H8O2 | 124 | 2.76 | 5.07 | \\ |
89 | N-(S-triazolyl)acetamide | C4H6N4O | 126 | \\ | 0.08 | \\ |
90 | 2-Methyl-1,5-heptadiene-4-alcohol | C8H14O | 126 | 0.14 | \\ | \\ |
91 | Maltol | C6H6O3 | 126 | 0.34 | 0.36 | \\ |
92 | 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural | C6H6O3 | 126 | 0.67 | \\ | \\ |
93 | Imidazol-4-acetic acid | C5H6N2O2 | 126 | \\ | 2.65 | \\ |
94 | 3-Ethyl-4-methyl-3-pentene-2-ketone | C8H14O | 126 | 0.39 | \\ | \\ |
95 | 2-Methyl cycloheptanone | C8H14O | 126 | 0.6 | \\ | \\ |
96 | Ethyl cyclopentenolone | C7H10O2 | 126 | \\ | 0.53 | \\ |
97 | 1-Methyluracil | C5H6N2O2 | 126 | \\ | 0.12 | \\ |
98 | 2-(1,1-Dimethylethyl)-1,3-dimethylnitrogen propidine | C8H17N | 127 | \\ | \\ | 1.46 |
99 | 2,3-Dimethylcyclohexanol | C8H16O | 128 | 0.26 | \\ | \\ |
100 | 1-Cyclopropyl-1-pentyl alcohol | C8H16O | 128 | \\ | 0.17 | \\ |
101 | 6-Heptanoic acid | C7H12O2 | 128 | 0.38 | \\ | \\ |
102 | 3-Symplectic ketone | C8H16O | 128 | \\ | 0.43 | \\ |
103 | 1-Methyl-hydrouracil | C5H8N2O2 | 128 | \\ | 1.53 | 0.35 |
104 | 1,3,5-Trimethyl-hexamethyl-1,3,5-triazine | C6H15N3 | 129 | \\ | \\ | 3.16 |
105 | L-Ornithine | C5H12N2O2 | 132 | \\ | \\ | 0.1 |
106 | 4-Methyl guaiacol | C8H10O2 | 138 | 2.53 | 3.97 | \\ |
107 | Hexamethylenetetramine | C6H12N4 | 140 | \\ | \\ | 0.03 |
108 | 3-Oxy-1-cyclopentene-1-acetate | C7H8O3 | 140 | 0.63 | \\ | \\ |
109 | Dipropylene aminoacetonitrile | C8H16N2 | 140 | \\ | \\ | 0.14 |
110 | Heptyl isocyanate | C8H15NO | 141 | 0.43 | \\ | \\ |
111 | (1Z)-2-Ethylcyclohexanone oxime | C8H15NO | 141 | 0.28 | \\ | \\ |
112 | 4-Octyne-3,6-diol | C8H14O2 | 142 | 0.27 | \\ | \\ |
113 | Nonyl aldehyde | C9H18O | 142 | 1.02 | \\ | \\ |
114 | 4-Ethyl-2,2-dimethylhexane | C10H22 | 142 | 0.32 | \\ | \\ |
115 | 4-Amino-N-hydroxy-1,2, 5-oxadiazole-3-carboxyamide | C3H5N5O2 | 143 | 0.94 | \\ | \\ |
116 | N-(2-Hydroxyethyl) hexahydrogen-1H-acheptylamine | C8H17NO | 143 | \\ | \\ | 0.89 |
117 | 2-Methoxy-4-vinyl phenol | C9H10O2 | 150 | 3.08 | \\ | \\ |
118 | 4-Hydroxy-3-methyl acetophenone | C9H10O2 | 150 | \\ | 3.48 | \\ |
119 | 4-Ethyl guaiacol | C9H12O2 | 152 | 1.38 | 2.43 | \\ |
120 | Vanillin | C8H8O3 | 152 | 1.02 | \\ | \\ |
121 | Isoflavin/isovanillin | C8H8O3 | 152 | \\ | 0.11 | \\ |
122 | 2,6-Dimethoxyphenol | C8H10O3 | 154 | 0.46 | \\ | \\ |
123 | 3,4-Dimethoxyphenol | C8H10O3 | 154 | \\ | 0.21 | \\ |
124 | Ethyl 2-heptynoate | C9H14O2 | 154 | \\ | 0.64 | \\ |
125 | Valdetamide | C9H17NO | 155 | 0.55 | \\ | \\ |
126 | Decanal | C10H20O | 156 | 0.2 | \\ | \\ |
127 | Ethyl-2-piperidine formate | C8H15NO2 | 157 | 0.85 | \\ | \\ |
128 | 4-Butyryl morpholine | C8H15NO2 | 157 | \\ | 0.54 | \\ |
129 | 2-Hydroxy cyclohexyl ester | C8H14O3 | 158 | 0.26 | \\ | \\ |
130 | 1,6-Anhydride-B-D-pyran glucose | C6H10O5 | 162 | 6.05 | 1.05 | \\ |
131 | 1-[(1E)-1-Butenyl]-4-methoxybenzene | C11H14O | 162 | 0.2 | \\ | \\ |
132 | 4-Methyl-5-(5-methyl-1H-pyrazol-3-base)-1H-1,2,3-triazole | C7H9N5 | 163 | \\ | 0.25 | \\ |
133 | Eugenol | C10H12O2 | 164 | 1.32 | 1.81 | \\ |
134 | Cis-isoeugenol | C10H12O2 | 164 | 4.96 | 1.15 | \\ |
135 | 2,3-Dihydro-2,2-dimethyl-7-benzofuranol | C10H12O2 | 164 | 0.15 | \\ | \\ |
136 | (E)-Isoeugenol | C10H12O2 | 164 | \\ | 5.22 | \\ |
137 | 3-Allyl-6-methoxyphenol | C10H12O2 | 164 | \\ | 0.19 | \\ |
138 | 3,4-Dimethoxystyrene | C10H12O2 | 164 | \\ | 0.1 | \\ |
139 | Dihydroeugenol | C10H14O2 | 166 | 0.41 | 1.04 | \\ |
140 | Vanilla ethyl ketone | C9H10O3 | 166 | 0.72 | 1.08 | \\ |
141 | 4-Methoxy-3-hydroxyacetophenone | C9H10O3 | 166 | 0.33 | \\ | \\ |
142 | High vanillin alcohol | C9H12O3 | 168 | 0.44 | \\ | \\ |
143 | 3-Hydroxyl-4-methoxybenzoic acid | C8H8O4 | 168 | 0.18 | \\ | \\ |
144 | Vanillic acid | C8H8O4 | 168 | 0.33 | \\ | \\ |
145 | 6-Hydroxy 5-decanone | C10H20O2 | 172 | 0.42 | \\ | \\ |
146 | 2-Heptyl-1,3-dioxy-amyl ring | C10H20O2 | 172 | \\ | \\ | 0.29 |
147 | 1,3,4-Trimethyl-1,7-dihydrogen-6H-pyrazole and pyridine-6-ketone [3,4-b] | C9H11N3O | 177 | \\ | 0.31 | \\ |
148 | Coniferyl alcohol | C10H12O3 | 180 | 1.96 | 1 | \\ |
149 | 2,5-Dimethoxyl-4-toluene formaldehyde | C10H12O3 | 180 | 0.4 | \\ | \\ |
150 | 4-Hydroxyl-3-methoxyphenylacetone | C10H12O3 | 180 | 1.07 | 0.77 | \\ |
151 | 2′,4′-Dihydroxyl-3′-methylphenylacetone | C10H12O3 | 180 | \\ | 0.29 | \\ |
152 | Homovanillic acid | C9H10O4 | 182 | \\ | 2.15 | \\ |
153 | Vanillin ethyl ether | C10H14O3 | 182 | 1.72 | \\ | \\ |
154 | 1-Tridecene | C13H26 | 182 | \\ | 0.09 | \\ |
155 | γ-Dodecane acid lactone | C11H20O2 | 184 | 0.71 | \\ | \\ |
156 | 6-Dodecyl alcohol | C12H26O | 186 | \\ | 0.09 | \\ |
157 | Tetraethylene glycol | C8H18O5 | 194 | \\ | \\ | 0.05 |
158 | 4-Allyl-2,6-dimethoxyphenol | C11H14O3 | 194 | 0.57 | 0.16 | \\ |
159 | α-Methyl glucoside | C7H14O6 | 194 | \\ | 0.21 | \\ |
160 | 2,3-Dimethyl-2-(3-oxobutyl)cyclohexanone | C12H20O2 | 196 | \\ | 0.48 | \\ |
161 | Ethyl-4-(acetylamino)-1,2,5-oxadiazole-3-carboxylate | C7H9N3O4 | 199 | 0.53 | \\ | \\ |
162 | 11-Methyl-12-methylene-tricyclic [5.3.1.1 (2,6)]-dodecane-11-alcohol | C14H22O | 206 | 0.47 | \\ | \\ |
163 | Eugenol acetate | C12H14O3 | 206 | 0.34 | \\ | \\ |
164 | 2,5,5,8a-Tetramethylmethyl-4-methylene-4a,5,6,7,8,8a-hexahydrogen-4h-chromene | C14H22O | 206 | 0.17 | \\ | \\ |
165 | Ethyl oxalate | C11H14O4 | 210 | \\ | 0.17 | \\ |
166 | Tetradecyl alcohol | C14H30O | 214 | \\ | \\ | 0.16 |
167 | 10-Oxo-dodecane acid | C12H22O3 | 214 | 0.16 | \\ | \\ |
168 | 3,5-Dimethyl-1-phenyl-1H-pyrazol-4-carboxylic acid | C12H12N2O2 | 216 | 0.15 | \\ | \\ |
169 | 8-Methoxy[1]benzofuran and [3,2-d] pyrimidine −4(3H)-ketone | C11H8N2O3 | 216 | 0.15 | 0.12 | \\ |
170 | 3,3,4-Trimethyl-4-(4-methylphenyl) cyclopentyl alcohol | C15H22O | 218 | 0.38 | \\ | \\ |
171 | Cubenol | C15H26O | 222 | 0.28 | \\ | \\ |
172 | 7-Pentadecanone | C15H30O | 226 | \\ | 0.29 | \\ |
173 | Pentaethylene glycol | C10H22O6 | 238 | \\ | \\ | 0.52 |
174 | 2-(1,3-Dihydrogen-2h-indene-2-subunit)-2,3-dihydrogen-1h-indene-1-ketone | C18H14O | 246 | 0.18 | \\ | \\ |
175 | (Z)-14-Methyl-8-hexadecene-1-acetal | C17H32O | 252 | \\ | 0.08 | \\ |
176 | Palmitic acid | C16H32O2 | 256 | \\ | 0.22 | \\ |
177 | Dibutyl phthalate | C16H22O4 | 278 | \\ | 0.11 | \\ |
178 | (13R)-8a,13:9a,13-Diepoxy-15,16-dinorlabdane | C18H30O2 | 278 | 0.14 | \\ | \\ |
179 | 3,4,8-Trimethoxy-6H-benzophenol[c]benzopyran-6-ketone | C16H14O5 | 286 | 0.18 | \\ | \\ |
180 | 1-Naphthalenepropanol,.alpha.-ethenyldec ahydro-.alpha.,5,5,8a-tetramethyl-2-methylene-,[1S-[1.alpha.(R*),4a.beta.,8a.alpha.]]- | C20H34O | 290 | \\ | 0.29 | \\ |
181 | 12-Hydroxyandrostane-17-ketone | C19H30O2 | 290 | 0.31 | \\ | \\ |
182 | 5,8-Diethoxy-3-(methoxy carbonyl)-2-quinoline carboxylic acid | C15H16N2O6 | 296 | 0.36 | \\ | \\ |
183 | Di-N-decyl ether | C20H42O | 298 | \\ | 0.27 | \\ |
184 | Vitamin A acetate | C22H32O2 | 328 | \\ | 0.73 | \\ |
185 | Tetracosane | C24H50 | 338 | \\ | 0.1 | \\ |
186 | 14-Heptacosanone | C27H54O | 394 | 0.25 | \\ | \\ |
187 | Lanosterol | C30H50O | 426 | \\ | 0.28 | \\ |
188 | 3′,8,8′-Trimethoxy-3-piperidinyl-2,2’-binaphthalene-1,1′,4,4’-tetraone | C28H25NO7 | 487 | \\ | 0.34 | \\ |
Professional development is the cornerstone for quality education to be realised in every organisation and the teaching fraternity is not an exception to the rule. During the apartheid era, the South African education was organised into racially and ethnically divided sub-systems. Since 1994, the education system was rationalised into one, single education system, introducing new curriculum which required teachers to have new knowledge and applied competence. With the onset of curriculum 2005, learners were expected to be active participants in the classroom. Assessment strategies also moved summative to being more formative in nature. The teacher took the role of facilitator to promote the creation of meaning in classroom instruction [1], in the National Policy Framework for Teacher Education and Development in South Africa states that, the National Teacher Education Audit conducted in 1995 showed that a third of the teaching force at that time was engaged in qualification-driven in-service education, and that in many instances, though there were considerable rewards in terms of salary increases, such qualifications had little or no impact on classroom practice. It was on the basis of this that it was found to be critical that all teachers need to enhance their skills for the delivery of the new curriculum. It is also emphasised in the policy framework that a large majority of teachers need to strengthen their subject knowledge base, pedagogical content knowledge and teaching skills. This was a serious call for priority to be given to educators’ professional development. Replace the entirety of this text with the introduction to your chapter. The introduction section should provide a context for your manuscript and should be numbered as first heading. When preparing the introduction, please bear in mind that some readers will not be experts in your field of research.
\nAccording to Steyn and van Niekerk (2002) in [2] professional development describes an ongoing development programme that focuses on the whole range of knowledge, skills and attitudes required to educate learners effectively. Gulston [2] further explains that professional development emphasises the participation of educators or educational leaders in development opportunities in order for them to be better equipped with knowledge and skills.
\nQuality in education is something that we should focus on as a system of education. It is for this reason that the one most important factor why educators should be professionally developed is based on the conviction that the quality of teachers influences the quality of learners’ performance and achievement. It is true because professional development needs to be prioritised within the education system because it is important in improving or enhancing ones knowledge and skills. Mestry et al. [3] mentioned that raising the quality of teacher performance through teacher development programmes is essential, it is believed, to improve the overall performance of the education system, which makes the debate about school type, school-by-school performance, and class size, among others, look irrelevant. Pitsoe and Maila [4] emphasised this point by mentioning that teacher professional development plays an important role in changing teachers’ teaching methods and assisting teachers to move beyond a comprehension of the surface features of a new idea or innovation, to a deeper understanding of a topic.
\nTeacher professional development should therefore, be looked at as a continuous process. This is true because learning is a lifelong process. If teachers do not keep up with the global changes, especially those that come with technology, then they will not fit in this era. It is on this basis that continuing professional development (CPD) is prioritised.
\nOxbridge Academy [5] defines CPD as a term used to describe learning activities that professionals take part in to develop and enhance their skills. There are many forms of continuing professional development activities available, which include workshops, conferences, consultation, coaching, both peer coaching and expert coaching, and courses which can either be to enhance existing professional qualifications. CPD activities further also consist of demonstrations and peer observation, mentoring, inductions for beginner teachers, job rotation, teamwork and group work, clustering of schools and school visits, as well as designing and executing school improvement projects, communities of practice, lesson studies, reflective supervision and technical assistance [2]. We also see [6] highlighting the method of cooperative or collegial development, cascade or generation method, case study, skills development method, reflection, project method, narrative method, self-development, seminars, workshops, institutes, conferences, courses, observation of excellent practice, teachers’ participation in new roles, portfolio, action research, students’ performance assessment, supervision, coaching and mentoring are forms of Continuing Professional Teacher Development in Great Britain, Canada and USA.
\nAllen [7] defines CPD as a process ‘of tracking and documenting the skills, knowledge and experience that you gain both formally and informally as you work, beyond any initial training. It’s a record of what you experience, learn and then apply’.
\nAccording to [8] CPD encompasses a wide variety of approaches and teaching and learning styles in a variety of setting (inside or outside of the workplace) it is distinguishable from the broader concept of learning. It is primarily related to people’s professional identities and roles and the goals of the organisation they are working for.
\nThe CPD process helps you manage your own development on an ongoing basis. It is function is to help you record, review and reflect on what you learn. It is not a tick-box document recording the training you have completed. It is broader than that. The CPD process helps you manage your own development on an ongoing basis. It is function is to help you record, review and reflect on what you learn. It is not a tick-box document recording the training you have completed.
\nDay (1999) in [9] states ‘Professional development consists of all natural learning experiences and those conscious and planned activities which are intended to be of direct or indirect benefit to the individual, group or school, which contribute, through these, to the quality of education in the classroom’. Based on this definition, they agree that the purpose of CPD is four-fold. Firstly, it is intended to facilitate the implementation of policy or educational reforms. Secondly, it is aimed towards preparation of staff for the new function. It is also serves the aim of school development, and lastly, it is for personal professional development. Professional development of teachers in South Africa is aligned to these four roles to complement whole-school development. Therefore, professional development of teachers is the cornerstone for the provision of quality teaching and learning. It also implies that teachers never cease to learn. It therefore, puts emphasis on lifelong learning.
\nKloosterman [10] mentions that continuing professional development involves maintaining and enhancing the knowledge, skills and experience related to your professional activities following completion of your formal training. Therefore, CPD should be a lifelong (throughout the career of a teacher), systematic, and planned process to maintain and develop professional competence, creativity and innovation. The outcome has value for both the individual and profession. Therefore, professional development of teachers is the cornerstone for the provision of quality teaching and learning. It also implies that teachers never cease to learn. It therefore, puts emphasis on lifelong learning.
\nThe concept of continuing professional development is not peculiar to the South African context alone. Different countries use different policies on CPD for teachers, depending on their context. Guldenhuys and Oosthuizen [11] identify different trends regarding teachers’ CPD. The first trend is that of PD activities are linked to renewing of licences and career advancement or salary benefits or not, and can be optional or not. This is the practice in countries like Germany, United Kingdom, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovania and Spain. In countries like France, Greece, Iceland, etc. CPD is seen as a professional duty, but participation is optional. This is the practice in South Africa where CPD is treated as a duty for teachers, however teachers are given varied options of programmes for participation. They also earn different points for their participation in different activities and programmes.
\nThe second trend identified by Day and Sachs (2004) in [11] is that PD activities can also be initiated by the authorities. This trend is observed in countries such as Australia, America and Japan, although there has not been a success with such trends and South Africa is no exception to this with some of the professional development being unauthorised and non-endorsed and imposed on teachers. The last trend is that of the role of research on professional development as observed in New Zealand where a research was commissioned to see what works and why to improve education outcomes. Such information was used to guide educational policy and practice about the conditions, both necessary and sufficient for professional development that has transformational impact at system level [11].
\nThere are other countries, like the Netherlands that have introduced continuing professional development for their teachers due to changes effected in their curriculum. Seezink and Poell [12] assert that the secondary schools in Netherlands have been granted increasing autonomy by the Dutch central government to reform their curriculum and teaching methods. Reforms were then undertaken to make educational programmes more competence based. Many teachers then had trouble moving into their new roles and tasks associated with competence based education programmes (from an expert into a coaching role). This was experienced by educators in South Africa when outcomes based education moving from content based education with the teacher as a facilitator of currently National Curriculum Statements (NCS). There was a demand to improve the quality of teaching and learning. The Department of Education then realised that there is a need to develop and support educators on a continual basis. Since then, issues relating to effective professional teacher development have been on the agenda of the Department of Education in South Africa. Continuing professional development (CPD) is the means by which professionals maintain, improve and broaden their knowledge and skills and develop the personal qualities and competencies required in their working lives. It is a process for setting yourself objectives for development then charting your progress towards achieving them. It is about where you want to be and how you plan to get there.
\nIn South Africa the continuing professional development of teachers is managed through the implementation of Continuing Professional Teacher Development (CPTD) system. Ref. [13], through the National Policy Framework for Teacher Education and Development, mandates the South African Council for Educators (SACE) to manage the system. Therefore, as stated by [14] in the SACE professional development and research mandate, ‘the South African Council for Educators (SACE), as a statutory body for professional educators has overall responsibility for the implementation, management and quality assurance of the CPTD system’. The OECD report on reviews of national policies for education in South Africa (2008) emphasised the role of SACE in teacher development by mentioning that ‘SACE is one of the most important bodies for the teaching profession in South Africa and it is well positioned to improve the public image of teaching’ [15]. The system encourages educators to engage in professional development in order to achieve maximum benefits, hence the system awards points to the teachers for their development.
\nResearch shows that an inspiring and informed teacher is the most important school-related factor influencing learner performance. Given the poor performance of South African schools in this area, it is critical that we pay close attention to how we train and support both new and experienced educators. Continuing Professional Teacher Development (CPTD) is an integral part of teacher education because only continued learning and training assures a high level of expertise and ensures teachers keep up-to-date with new research on how children learn, emerging technologies for the classroom and new curriculum resources [16].
\nRef. [17] proclaims that The CPTD Management System will be made available to all teachers whether state-employed, employed by School Governing Bodies, or employed by independent schools. Ref. [17] reiterates that ‘The main ideas are to encourage teachers to become better at their jobs and to encourage school communities to become better sites of teaching, learning and development’. The teaching profession is seen here as a revolving profession, especially with changing technology. So educators are expected to learn on a continued basis to be able to meet the global demands. CPTD is one way to encourage this. ‘Professional development is part of SACE’s Code of Professional Ethics for educators’. Each educator pledges to uphold the Code when they register with SACE. Section 7 of the SACE Code says that all educators must ‘keep abreast of educational trends and developments’ and ‘promote the on-going development of teachers as a profession’ [17].
\nAmong the prescripts of SACE is that each educator develops a Personal Development Plan (PDP) file as part of the CPTD system. The PDP is a resource document to assist each teacher with professional growth. It will contain:
Advice on understanding and analysing a teacher’s professional development needs.
The teacher’s analysis of professional development needs (PGP).
Guidance on how the teacher can undertake or access professional development activities.
Information on the CPTD Management System.
A record of the teacher’s PD activities and PD points.
Links between the teacher’s PD activities and quarterly work schedule [17].
The PDP is a resource file in which the teacher is expected to record his or her CPTD activities. The activities have value for professional development. Therefore, teachers will be allocated points on the basis of such activities when they report them through the CPTD system. These include the following:
Type 1 activities: these are teacher initiated activities.
Type 2 activities: these are school initiated activities.
Type 3 activities: these are externally driven activities offered by outside service providers.
Diffusion of innovation theory was adopted for the study. The diffusion of innovation theory is one of the social science theories which was developed by Rogers in 1962. The theory relies on human capital and believes that innovations should be widely adopted in order to attain development and sustainability. The diffusion of innovation theory is regarded as an important change model for guiding technological innovation. Where the innovation itself is modified and presented in ways that meet the needs across all levels of adopters. The diffusion of innovation refers to the process that occurs as people adopt a new idea, product, practice, philosophy, and so on [18]. Rogers believed that in a social system the innovation is communicated by the process of diffusion. This process occurs at different stages. The stages include:
Awareness of the need for an innovation.
Decision to adopt or reject an innovation.
Initial use of an innovation to test it.
Continued use of the innovation.
The other important thing about the theory is about who makes the decision to accept the innovation. Rogers came up with three ways of taking decision about acceptance of an innovation. These include optional wherein individuals made a decision about an innovation in the social system by themselves. The second way is through a collective, wherein a decision to accept an innovation is made by all individuals in a social system. Lastly, the decision to accept an innovation can be made by the authority, wherein few individuals makes a decision for the entire social system.
\nThe CPTD, in line with the theory is new innovation within the education system, and an electronic system, which has been advocated to all teachers at different levels and must be adopted and put to practice for the benefit of their continuing. Professional development. It would be interesting to establish where educators are in terms of the stages in this theory regarding CPTD implementation. It will also be interesting to establish how information on CPTD is communicated and sustained for educators.
\nThe research was conducted through a qualitative interpretivist approach. Qualitative research is viewed by [19], as a paradigm that recognises that researchers bring in their subjectivity (views, perspectives, framework for making sense of the world, their politics and passions). Saving-Baden and Howell Major [20], on the other hand, define it as a social research aimed at investigating the way in which people make sense of their ideas and experiences. They also emphasise that qualitative research focuses on an emic perspective of views of people and their perceptions, meanings and interpretations. The researcher, therefore, focused on the way teachers see their world within the continuing professional development.
\nA case study design was used as the method of research with one school selected for the study. The population interviewed school principals and teachers, district officials and union members. Purposive sampling was used for their selection. All educators selected are the ones who have been trained, and declared ready, to implement Continuing Professional Teacher Development system. The district officials were selected on the basis of their involvement in CPTD training, monitoring and support. Data analysis was conducted through the use of thematic approach. This involved the characterisation of collected data, through the establishment of relationships between concepts and ideas. Common themes were then identified and these were further interpreted to create meaningful findings on the research topic.
\nCPTD has been well received by the department and teacher unions as a system for managing and monitoring teacher professional development, however it has not been without its challenges. In the light of this the following challenges in the implementation of CPTD were identifies in this study.
\nThere is generally non-participation of educators in the system due to inaccessibility of IT and resources (Gadgets), particularly for those schools where network is poor. One educator stated this:
\n‘We are expected to register and make our submissions through the CPTD electronic system, yet our schools do not even have WI-FI. Even in cases where schools have WI-FI, data for the school is limited and is used for administrative purposes. Maybe our principals will manage because they get free data from the department’.
\nOne principal mentioned the following:
\n‘It is true that we get data from the department, however this is not enough to cater for all our needs as a school. Some of us were “born before technology” so we do not even know how to use these gadgets properly’.
\nIt is clear from the inputs of educators above that CPTD implementation is a serious challenge, not unless all educators have access to resources.
\nAgeing profession or those near retirement are reluctant to participate, Educators who are in the retirement brackets, and who are in the majority reluctant to participate. This came out strongly from those educators who are left with 1–3 years of service within the department of education. This is in agreement with the findings from the study conducted by [21] when they stated that in each career cycle teachers vary in their concerns and commitment, including their professional development behaviour and needs. Richter et al. (2011) in [11] emphasised this when they mention that teachers in their final stage of teaching tend to reduce their commitment and career ambition. They focus more on their personal goals. One of these educators responded by saying that:
\n‘What is that CPTD? Will it be of benefit to my retirement? I am too old to start new programmes in the profession. All I want is to retire and go home to rest’.
\nA greater percentage of educators are technophobic and as a result do not participate. This is illustrated in the words of one principal above when he confessed that some of them cannot even use these gadgets properly.
\nThe CPTD Portal’s capacity disadvantages the educators reporting processes. The electronic submission system of SACE also has its challenges and requires upgrading. Teachers have a challenge of accessing or even operating the CPTD system. Educators end up submitting hard copies of their forms, which creates another problem of capturing for SACE and this, leads to resubmission.
\nThere is lack of systematic and regular monitoring of teachers’ reporting progress. This is an area neglected by management in schools. There is no good planning for CPTD activities and programmes at school level. The school management do not allocate time for these activities and the school principals as the driving force in their schools, do not see to it that teachers participate or have the ability to participate in CPTD programmes. The fact that teachers are aware of the 6 years of free punitive measure that has been put in by SACE makes them even more reluctant to participate. This is contrary to the idea of implementing CPTD as a form of duty for teachers. One HOD at school said:
\n‘My main concern is to manage the subjects I am leading, not CPTD. It is not part of my job description. Each educator should manage his/her own CPTD activities. We all have our CPTD to manage. In fact, what is that?’
\nIt is evident that no one wants to take responsibility to mage CPTD activities in schools. As a result, it becomes a neglected programme in the system.
\nReporting by teachers is mostly concentrated around Type 1 activities and Types 2 and 3 are neglected. Most teachers engage in these activities on a daily basis. Most of these activities are not linked to their individual development needs as identified in their appraisal process. This shows that there is a gap between CPTD activities and IQMS activities in schools. This is another factor that leads teachers to a point where they do not value CPTD programmes.
\nCPTD considered a compliance tool than a professional development activity. Although CPTD is part of the code of conduct for educators. Even though teachers are aware of CPTD and know that it is important for their professional development, some of them still have attitude. One educator was asked;
\n‘What is that CPTD of value to my salary? We are interested in programmes that will benefit us financially. We need money to survive in life’.
\nIt is evident from the statement above that some teachers wish CPTD would benefit them like IQMS does.
\nSome teachers are technophobic and would not be encouraged by any system that is technologically driven, particularly those who are old in the system and had little exposure to technology. Lost or forgotten Username and Password is another challenge for such teachers. Some teachers fail access the CPTD electronic system because they do not have the correct username and password. Even when one has computer skills it is easy to forget the Username and Password.
\nThis chapter focussed on the challenges that educators face in the implementation of Continuing Professional Teacher Development with the aim of suggesting the strategies for improvement. The study revealed that CPTD is necessary to guide educators’ professional development, however there are factors that impede educators from implementing it properly, as identified in the themes above. In terms of the challenges identified in the discussion section, the following recommendations were suggested:
ICT literacy programme to be made available for teachers. Supporting the effective application of ITC skills may serve as a foundation for successful CPTD implementation in South Africa. The programme should also be made part of the curriculum for initial teacher training and be made compulsory for all students.
CPTD is limited by issues of time. A link should be established with teacher centres for teachers to access technological resources with ease. The need for warm bodies to support CPTD implementation cannot be underestimated here. Support officers must be appointed at the teacher development centres to help with IT skills.
CPTD should also be part of the curriculum at the initial teacher training programmes in tertiary institutions. There is a need for a module that focuses on CPTD for teacher education in South Africa as CPD participation is understood as a duty for teachers. This will assist in emphasising the value of professional development from the initial process of training and the need for continuity throughout the teaching career.
Teachers who fall within the retirement bracket can be excluded from participation, particularly those who are left with 2 years to retire since the CPTD system run in 3 years cycles.
Advocacy workshops should not be a once off activity. It is important to run such training at least once every year with emphasis being put on the development role of CPTD and how it is linked to other programmes like IQMS. This will help teachers to value CPTD for what it is and not link it to monetary incentive. The emphasis on the developmental value of CPTD will motivate teachers to participate. It will also erase the view that teachers have about CPTD as a SACE thing. They will understand that they also have a responsibility for their individual development.
This study was important in that it gave the educators a voice to raise their concerns about CPTD implementation. They also shared their experiences in the implementation of CPTD programmes and made valuable suggestions for improvement. Teacher professional development is a progressive activity and must be prioritised by all who are involved. It is one form through which quality teaching and learning can be realised as educators improve on their knowledge and skills to keep up-to-date with the global trends.
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Mastitis is responsible for great economic losses to the dairy producer and to the milk processing industry resulting from reduced milk production, alterations in milk composition, discarded milk, increased replacement costs, extra labor, treatment costs, and veterinary services. Economic losses due to bovine mastitis are estimated to be $2 billion in the United States, $400 million in Canada (Canadian Bovine Mastitis and Milk Quality Research Network-CBMQRN) and $130 million in Australia per year. Many factors can influence the development of mastitis; however, inflammation of the mammary gland is usually a consequence of adhesion, invasion, and colonization of the mammary gland by one or more mastitis pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus uberis, and Escherichia coli.",book:{id:"8545",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",fullTitle:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine"},signatures:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",authors:[{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1379",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. 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Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. 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He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. 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