Known lyssaviruses and their association with particular bat species.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83881-922-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-921-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-923-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"dcfc52d92f694b0848977a3c11c13d00",bookSignature:"Dr. Fiaz Ahmad and Prof. Muhammad Sultan",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10454.jpg",keywords:"Agricultural Engineering, Technologies, Application, Sustainable Agriculture, Information Technology in Agriculture, Food Security, Renewable Energies, Precision Farming, Smart Agriculture, Farm Mechanization, Robotics, Post Harvest Technologies",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 25th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 23rd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 21st 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 12th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 11th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"25 days",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Ahmad is a researcher in the field of agricultural mechanization and agricultural equipment engineering, in-charge of Farm Machinery Design Laboratory at Bahauddin Zakariya University, with expertise in modeling and simulation. He applied for two patents at the national level.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Renowned researcher with a focus on developing energy-efficient heat- and/or water-driven temperature and humidity control systems for agricultural storage, greenhouse, agricultural livestock and poultry applications including HVAC, desiccant air-conditioning, adsorption, Maisotsenko cycle (M-cycle), and adsorption desalination.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"338219",title:"Dr.",name:"Fiaz",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"fiaz-ahmad",fullName:"Fiaz Ahmad",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/338219/images/system/338219.jpg",biography:"Fiaz Ahmad obtained his Ph.D. (2015) from Nanjing Agriculture University China in the field of Agricultural Bioenvironmental and Energy Engineering and Postdoc (2020) from Jiangsu University China in the field of Plant protection Engineering. He got the Higher Education Commission, Pakistan Scholarship for Ph.D. studies, and Post-Doctoral Fellowship from Jiangsu Government, China. During postdoctoral studies, he worked on the application of unmanned aerial vehicle sprayers for agrochemical applications to control pests and weeds. He passed the B.S. and M.S. degrees in agricultural engineering from the University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Pakistan in 2007. From 2007 to 2008, he was a Lecturer in the Department of Agricultural Engineering, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan-Pakistan. Since 2009, he has been an Assistant Professor in the Department of Agricultural Engineering, BZ University Multan, Pakistan. He is the author of 33 journal articles. He also supervised 6 master students and is currently supervising 5 master and 2 Ph.D. students. In addition, Dr. Ahmad completed three university-funded projects. His research interests include the design of agricultural machinery, artificial intelligence, and plant protection environment.",institutionString:"Bahauddin Zakariya University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Bahauddin Zakariya University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"199381",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sultan",slug:"muhammad-sultan",fullName:"Muhammad Sultan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199381/images/system/199381.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sultan completed his Ph.D. (2015) and Postdoc (2017) from Kyushu University (Japan) in the field of Energy and Environmental Engineering. He was an awardee of MEXT and JASSO fellowships (from the Japanese Government) during Ph.D. and Postdoc studies, respectively. In 2019, he did Postdoc as a Canadian Queen Elizabeth Advanced Scholar at Simon Fraser University (Canada) in the field of Mechatronic Systems Engineering. He received his Master\\'s in Environmental Engineering (2010) and Bachelor in Agricultural Engineering (2008) with distinctions, from the University of Agriculture, Faisalabad. He worked for Kyushu University International Institute for Carbon-Neutral Energy Research (WPI-I2CNER) for two years. Currently, he is working as an Assistant Professor at the Department of Agricultural Engineering, Bahauddin Zakariya University (Pakistan). He has supervised 10+ M.Eng./Ph.D. students so far and 10+ M.Eng./Ph.D. students are currently working under his supervision. He has published more than 70+ journal articles, 70+ conference articles, and a few magazine articles, with the addition of 2 book chapters and 2 edited/co-edited books. Dr. Sultan is serving as a Leading Guest Editor of a special issue in the Sustainability (MDPI) journal (IF 2.58). In addition, he is appointed as a Regional Editor for the Evergreen Journal of Kyushu University. His research is focused on developing energy-efficient heat- and/or water-driven temperature and humidity control systems for agricultural storage, greenhouse, livestock, and poultry applications. His research keywords include HVAC, desiccant air-conditioning, evaporative cooling, adsorption cooling, energy recovery ventilator, adsorption heat pump, Maisotsenko cycle (M-cycle), wastewater, energy recovery ventilators; adsorption desalination; and agricultural, poultry and livestock applications.",institutionString:"Bahauddin Zakariya University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Bahauddin Zakariya University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"8",title:"Chemistry",slug:"chemistry"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"252211",firstName:"Sara",lastName:"Debeuc",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252211/images/7239_n.png",email:"sara.d@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"58808",title:"The Daubenton’s Bat (Myotis daubentonii, Kuhl, 1817) and Its Role as a Reservoir for Europe Bat Lyssavirus Type-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73206",slug:"the-daubenton-s-bat-myotis-daubentonii-kuhl-1817-and-its-role-as-a-reservoir-for-europe-bat-lyssavir",body:'Europe has 45 bat species considered indigenous to the continent (
Virus species | Bat reservoir | Human infection |
---|---|---|
Rabies lyssavirus | Numerous insectivorous, frugivorous and hematophagous bat species | Yes |
Lagos bat lyssavirus | Various species including Eidolon helvum and Rousettus aegyptiacus | No |
Mokola lyssavirus | Not known | Yes |
Duvenhage lyssavirus | Nycteris thebaica | Yes |
European bat lyssavirus type-1 | Eptesicus serotinus | Yes |
European bat lyssavirus type-2 | Myotis daubentonii | Yes |
Bokeloh bat lyssavirus | Myotis nattereri | No |
Aravan lyssavirus | Myotis blythii | No |
Irkut lyssavirus | Murina leucogaster | Yes |
Khujand lyssavirus | Myotis mystacinus | No |
West Caucasian bat lyssavirus | Miniopterus schreibersii | No |
Australian bat lyssavirus | Various species including Pteropus alecto and Saccolaimus flaviventris | Yes |
Shimoni bat lyssavirus | Hipposideros commersoni | No |
Gannoruwa bat lyssavirus | Pteropus medius | No |
Taiwan bat lyssavirus | Pipistrellus abramus | No |
Lleida bat Lyssavirus | Miniopterus schreibersii | No |
Known lyssaviruses and their association with particular bat species.
All can cause encephalitis in mouse models of infection and it is suspected that all are capable of causing rabies in humans. Of these, five have been reported from Europe. European bat lyssavirus type-1 (EBLV-1), EBLV-2, West Caucasian bat lyssavirus (WCBV), Bokeloh bat lyssavirus (BBLV) and Lleida bat lyssavirus (LLEBV). Despite the close association with bats, the first recognised isolation of EBLV-2 was derived from a human case of rabies. The patient was a bat ecologist working in Finland when he developed rabies [5]. Shortly afterward, a related virus was isolated from the brain of a pond bat (Myotis dasycneme). Since then there has been one further case of EBLV-2 infection in a human [6] and continual reports of the virus infection of Daubenton’s bats (Myotis daubentonii).
The ability to discriminate between different lyssaviruses was only achieved with the advent of monoclonal antibody panels that show different binding patterns to particular viruses. This first alerted researchers that the viruses present in European bats were distinct from RABV found in North American bats [7]. Antigenic typing has now been superseded by genetic discrimination based on genome sequencing [8] and the first complete genome sequence for EBLV-2 was reported in 2007 [9]. Of the other lyssaviruses detected in European bats, WCBV and LLEBV represent single isolations of virus so little is known about the epidemiology of these viruses. The most commonly encountered lyssavirus in European bats is EBLV-1 and almost all detections of this virus are from serotine bats (Eptesicus serotinus) [10]. A more recent addition is Bokeloh bat lyssavirus that is predominantly associated with Natterers bats (Myotis nattereri) from Germany and France [11].
The first report of EBLV-2 in the UK resulted from the discovery of an adult female bat in the cellar of a public house in Newhaven, Sussex in 1996 [12]. Virus was isolated from brain tissue removed from the bat. Subsequently, reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and sequencing confirmed the virus species by comparison with sequences derived from lyssaviruses known at the time. It was speculated that the bat may have flown across the English Channel but subsequent isolations of virus from other locations in England suggested that the virus was actually endemic long before cases were detected [13]. All detections of EBLV-2 in bats in the UK (isolation of virus or detection of virus in a salivary swab) have been from Daubenton’s bats. This pattern has been reflected across Europe with occasional bat-associated cases reported in The Netherlands [14], Germany [15], Switzerland [16], Finland [17] and Norway [18].
The following sections discuss the biology and ecology of the Daubenton’s bat, research on the relationship between EBLV-2 and its reservoir host and a discussion on the transmission of the virus between conspecifics that might explain the persistence of this virus in European bat populations.
The Daubenton’s bat was first described by the German naturalist and zoologist, Heinrich Kuhl [1797–1821] in his monograph, Die deutschen Fledermäuse, published in 1817. The name selected for the species was derived from the French naturalist Louis Jean-Marie Daubenton [1716–1800]. Kuhl went on to take part in an expedition to Java to study the islands fauna but developed a fever that subsequently killed him. He was buried in the Botanical Gardens of Bogor to the south of Jakarta where his gravestone can still be located.
Daubenton’s bats are considered a medium-sized insectivorous bat with an adult wingspan of up to 27.5 cm and a body length up to 5.5 cm. Adults weigh between 7 and 12 g and have a reddish brown pelt. The common name of the species is the ‘water bat’ due to its feeding habit. This involves flying low across the surface of water bodies such as lakes, rivers and canals, feeding on a range of water-associated flies. These include chironomid midges, caddisflies and mayflies. Daubenton’s bats echolocate in a call range between 35 and 85 kHz, and generally feed within 6 km of their roost. Roost sites range from natural sites such as tree holes to man-made structures, including houses [19]. During the summer, there is a degree of segregation between maternity colonies, dominated by a single male and bachelor roosts [20]. Hibernation takes place over the winter months, usually in caves, tunnels and mines.
Daubenton’s bats are found from Ireland in the west, across Europe, Asia and the islands that form the Japanese archipelago. In Europe, the species can be found in the Iberian Peninsula and north of the Alps. Populations are also reported as far north as southern Sweden and Finland, almost as far as the Arctic Circle. Mating occurs in late autumn and is preceded by a behaviour termed swarming where bats congregate and fly near the entrance to a hibernation site. Daubenton’s bats are not the only species that demonstrate this behaviour but they are commonly found early in the swarming season. In Britain, this is typically between August and October [21]. The behaviour is thought to be a form of lecking due to the male bias observed during trapping at swarming sites and may proceed mating.
Investigation into the population structure of the Daubenton’s bat, based on genetic data, between UK bats and those on the European mainland suggests that there is regular movement of bats across the English Channel [22]. This suggests panmixia between the two populations with no barriers to the spread of genetic haplotypes, and in theory to the transmission of EBLV-2. A similar situation has been proposed for the straw-coloured fruit bat, Eidolon helvum, and its association with certain zoonotic viruses across its range in Africa [23].
The first report of EBLV-2 in a Daubenton’s bat occurred in Denmark in 1986 [24, 25]. The virus from this account was not isolated. Subsequently, EBLV-2 was isolated from pond bats from the Netherlands in 1987 [8] and Daubenton’s bats from Switzerland in 1992 [16]. Descriptions of initial encounters with EBLV-2 infected bats typically report grounding, particularly near rivers or canals, although occasionally bats are reported to fly in daylight. Live bats vocalise, show signs of distress and can bite aggressively although this may in part be a result of distress caused by captivity. Infected bats often appear emaciated and dehydrated despite attempts at rehabilitation [26].
Phylogenetic analysis on early isolations of EBLV-2 confirmed that the virus was a lyssavirus related to rabies lyssavirus [27]. However, many questions remained about the transmission of the virus between bats and the pathogenesis in its reservoir host. Early reports indicated that infected bats exhibited signs suggestive of rabies including aggression, inability to fly and vocalisation. One of the earliest questions was the distribution of virus in an infected bat. Rabies lyssavirus is neurotropic, meaning that it targets neurons within the peripheral and central nervous system. The application of sensitive RT-PCR and virus isolation detected virus predominantly in the brain but also in other organs of an EBLV-2 infected Daubenton’s bat [13]. However, quantitative RT-PCR demonstrated that the virus was most abundant in the brain and spinal cord of the bat [28] in a pattern like that observed for RABV. Virus detected in other tissue was likely to be derived from innervating nerves. The presence of virus in salivary glands and tongue suggested that this was likely the point of virus egress and that biting was the means of transmission between bats. A similar conclusion was made for the transmission of RABV in North American bats [29]. Experiments in a mouse model attempting to demonstrate aerosol transmission were unsuccessful for EBLV-2 [30]. However, once in the brain, EBLV-2 shows similar characteristics to rabies lyssavirus, infecting neurons, stimulating innate immune responses [31] and triggering signs of viral encephalitis [32, 33]. In order to confirm some of these observations, a series of experimental studies were established to investigate the methods of EBLV transmission in bats and characterised EBLV-induced disease in the natural host [34, 35, 36]. These studies demonstrated that subcutaneous inoculation was the most efficient means of infecting insectivorous bats with EBLVs. Clinical signs exhibited by infected bats ranged from sudden death with no apparent disease to a spectrum including weight loss and rapid progression to paralysis [35].
Field studies in the UK in response to the human case of EBLV-2 in 2002 provided evidence of virus circulation within the Scottish Daubenton’s bat population [37]. Seroprevalence levels ranging from 0.05 to 3.8% were detected in colonies from across the country although oral swabs taken coincident with blood samples were all negative for EBLV-2. Subsequent surveillance in Daubenton’s bat colonies in England found similar seroprevalence levels [38] suggesting that the virus affects bat populations across the country. This is supported by population genetic analysis of English Daubenton’s bats [22] and the detection of EBLV-2 infected bats from locations across England, Scotland and Wales [39]. One location where EBLV-2 infected bats have been repeatedly detected is Stokesay Castle in Shropshire [40]. The tower of the castle (Figure 1) is known to host a summer maternity roost and there have been three bats found in the castle that have been infected with EBLV-2. Another infected bat was submitted from the nearby location of Newtown. A further practical question, bearing in mind the zoonotic potential of EBLV-2, was whether current vaccines developed against rabies lyssavirus would be protective against exposure following a bat bite. Cross-neutralisation and cross-protection studies in mice indicated that rabies vaccines would be protective [41]. This lead to the public health recommendation that individuals that are in close contact with bats should be vaccinated, in addition to simple measures such as wearing gloves whilst handling bats. Furthermore, post-exposure vaccination could be offered to those that were bitten or had inadvertently been in contact with bats. This could also be extended to domestic animals, particularly cats that catch bats.
A photograph of Stokesay Castle where EBLV-2 infected bats have been repeatedly detected. The site offers a number of features attractive to bats including the main tower where bats were roosting, a large pond in the foreground that could provide a feeding site and extensive woodland that would provide alternative roosts.
All evidence to date suggests that the Daubenton’s bat is the wildlife reservoir for EBLV-2. However, many questions remain concerning the persistence of EBLV-2 within the Daubenton’s bat population in Europe. The virus is only detected sporadically. In the UK, this equates to a single isolation a year but this meagre number is presumably the tip of the iceberg of what must be constant virus transmission events occurring whilst the bats are active. With the exception of two bats submitted in May, the majority of submissions in the UK occur in late summer and early autumn (Figure 2). The incubation period, the time from exposure to the development of disease or death, for lyssaviruses in bats is highly variable. By their nature, this cannot be established in wildlife populations as the timing of the transmission event is not known. In a unique case, EBLV-2 was detected in a bat that had been held in captivity for 9 months [42]. Captive studies in Daubenton’s bats reported an incubation period of 33 days [35] after infection by the sub-dermal route. The later study involving EBLV-1 infection of serotine bats gave incubation periods between 17 and 26 days following sub-dermal or intramuscular infection [36]. This suggests that the incubation period varies from just over 2 weeks to over 9 months, with factors such as virus dose and route of exposure influencing the time to development of disease. The presence of virus in the salivary glands and taste buds of infected bats implicates biting as the main means of transmission. This could presumably occur at a number of points in the Daubenton’s bat life cycle including swarming and mating just prior to hibernation, to the formation of colonies during the summer months. The composition of UK submissions of EBLV-2 bats gives little help in resolving this. Although based on low numbers, 15 cases, there is no gender bias (7 males versus 8 females). There does appear to be a relatively higher proportion of juveniles submitted (8 versus 6 adults, where data is known), perhaps favouring transmission in maternity colonies and shorter incubation periods of 2–3 months. This would be supported by the repeated submission of EBLV-2 infected bats from the colony at Stokesay Castle. However, the means by which the virus persists through hibernation is not known and may rely on long incubation events in a proportion of cases. Modelling of rabies infection in North American bat populations suggests that this is critical for long-term persistence of rabies lyssavirus [43].
Seasonal distribution of EBLV-2 infected Daubenton’s bats submitted for rabies testing in the UK (1996–2017).
The geographical spread of EBLV-2 infected bats in the UK is also a mystery with cases submitted from disparate locations with no obvious link in time or space. A virus such as EBLV-2, which kills its host, should struggle to persist in small populations of bats. It is possible that a virus could persist in areas where Daubenton’s bats are abundant and there is movement of individuals between colonies [44]. Alternatively, the virus could move across the wider landscape moving between populations as observed for rabies lyssavirus in common vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus) populations in Latin America [45]. In continental Europe, similar challenges have been encountered due to the uneven distribution of EBLV-1 in the serotine bat population [10, 46] and the sporadic nature of BBLV in Natterers bats [11]. A better understanding of Daubenton’s bat behaviour, particularly how populations interact and move across the landscape may help in formulating hypotheses that could explain this distribution. Migration and dispersal, particularly by males may be a key feature driving virus persistence within bat populations. This is also considered to be critical for the spread of rabies in European red fox (Vulpes vulpes) populations. Bats may use rivers and valleys to provide corridors for long distance migration [47]. This would seem highly appropriate for a bat species that uses water bodies for feeding.
When the second case of EBLV-2 infection occurred in a human in 2002, very little was known about the biology of the virus and its relationship with its bat reservoir leading some authors to describe the relationship as an ecological enigma [48]. Since then advances have been made in the detection of more lyssavirus species in bat populations, the virus distribution in the bat host, the derivation of the complete EBLV-2 genome and the establishment of clear public health measures aimed at protecting those that handle bats. This includes the wearing of gloves to prevent exposure to virus and the knowledge that current vaccines against rabies will prevent infection with EBLV-2. However, much is not known, in part due to the difficulties in studying a protected, nocturnal, flying mammal. Lyssaviruses form intimate relationships with particular bat species that maintain the virus in the environment [49]. This could imply adaptation to the host that favours continued transmission in that host but limiting the viruses’ ability to infect another species. Alternatively, host behaviour such as roosting, dispersal and mating could be drivers for conspecific transmission. Indeed, both may function to restrict particular viruses to a single bat species. It is clear that further multidisciplinary research will be needed to answer fundamental questions on the maintenance of EBLV-2 in the Daubenton’s bat.
The author acknowledges all the past and present members of the rabies team at APHA and a large number of international collaborators who have contributed to research on lyssaviruses and their relationship with bat reservoirs.
In patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD), parathyroid hyperplasia, high circulation parathyroid hormone (PTH), and hyperphosphatemia characterize secondary hyperparathyroidism (SHPT).
SHPT is a serious manifestation of chronic kidney disease (CKD) with negative effects on patients’ life quality and outcome.
In ESRD, medical treatment for secondary hyperparathyroidism has three main strategies: reduction of P uptake by dialysis, dietary restriction, and/or P-binders; calcimimetics; and vitamin D.
Due to toxicity, aluminum-based P-binders have been replaced by those containing Ca salts. At high doses, Ca-based P-binders may elevate the risk of vascular calcification. Ca-free P-binders with dietary P restriction appear to lower fibroblast growth factor-23 and improve cardiovascular and renal outcomes in patients with SHPT [1].
Despite the availability of several P-binders, the ideal P-binder that combines high efficacy, low pill burden, minimal side effects (including gastro-intestine), and low cost is still not available [2], and the effect on survival is unclear [3].
In EDRD patients, vitamin D may improve an abnormal mineral homeostasis; however, a steady escalation of vitamin D analog dose is not feasible due to hypercalcemia, hyperphosphatemia, and/or parathyroid gland resistance, despite the concurrent use of calcimimetics [4].
Calcimimetics such as cinacalcet therapy are currently a class of agents that activate the Ca sensing receptor and potentiate the effect of extracellular Ca. Literature supports cinacalcet therapy to improve patients’ outcomes, especially with regard to vascular calcifications and presumably the very lethal condition of calciphylaxis [5].
Additional clinical evidence suggests that cinacalcet in combination with low-dose vitamin D is more effective in lower PTH than calcitriol alone. However, cinacalcet is administered orally and has been associated with gastrointestinal intolerance along with hypocalcemia [6].
In addition, poor adherence has been observed among dialysis patients self-administering cinacalcet [5]. Cost effectiveness is another consideration; the addition of cinacalcet contracts an additional US$3000–4000 per year on the top of the costs of vitamin D and P-binders [7].
If calcimimetic side effects are intolerable, some researchers have reported that parathyroidectomy may be more cost-effective than cinacalcet in some patients with ESRD and suffering from uncontrolled SHPT [4].
Parathyroidectomy was required in about 10% of patients after 10 years and 20% after 20 years in dialysis patients [8]. The parathyroidectomy rate was 8.8/1000 patient-years from 1991 to 2009 in the Swedish dialysis and transplant population [9]. A trend toward a dip in parathyroidectomy rate was found during the era of cinacalcet. This change in treatment strategy was accompanied with increased preoperative PTH levels reflecting delayed surgery and increased disease severity [10].
The overall rate of parathyroidectomy in the United States was approximately 5.4/1000 patients between 2002 and 2011. The rate decreased from 2003 (7.9/1000 patients), reached a nadir in 2005 (3.3/1000 patients), increased again through 2006 (5.4/1000 patients), and remained stable since that time. Rates of in-hospital mortality after parathyroidectomy decreased from 1.9% in 2003 to 0.8% in 2011 [11].
In-hospital mortality has seldom happened in Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital during 30 years in over 2000 patients undergoing parathyroidectomy plus autotransplantation for secondary hyperparathyroidism, owing to routine cardiac 2D-echography, thallium-201 myocardial imaging, and EKG examinations before surgery [12]. In recent 5 years, sestamibi parathyroid scintigraphy is also routinely performed preoperatively.
The indications for parathyroidectomy are symptoms of bone pain, skin itching, general weakness, insomnia, and soft tissue calcification with Ca levels ≥10.2 mg/dL, P levels ≥4.7 mg/dL, alkaline phosphatase (Alk-ptase) levels ≥94 IU/L, intact parathyroid hormone (iPTH) levels ≥800 pg./mL, and bone mineral density (T-score) ≤ −2.5 in dialysis patients. All oral medications including calcitriol, sevelamer, and cinacalcet have to be discontinued 1 month before surgery to avoid severe hypocalcemia in the post-operation period.
During surgery, if four or more glands and bilateral thymus are removed (total parathyroidectomy and bilateral thymectomy) (TPX & BT), l00 mg of parathyroid gland with diffuse hyperplasia is autotransplanted (AT) into the subcutaneous tissue of the forearm without harboring the arteriovenous fistula [13]. If less than four glands are found and removed, bilateral thymectomy is performed, but AT is omitted.
Previously, the critical value of hypocalcemia (CVH) was defined as Ca levels ≤6.0 mg/dL within 48 h of total parathyroidectomy, indicating the possibility of life threatening complications [14] or as profound and prolong hypocalcemia (hungry bone syndrome) with corrected serum Ca levels of ≤8.4 mg/dL lasting for 4 or more days, that occurred anytime within 1 month following the parathyroidectomy [15]. Bone hungry syndrome occurred frequently around 25–27.4% after total parathyroidectomy for secondary hyperparathyroidism [4, 15] and CVH around 15.3% [14].
In a recent study, we included 322 patients who were successfully treated with TPX & BT plus AT. They were divided into two groups. Group A (mild hypocalcemia) patients had serum Ca levels ≥6.5 mg/dL at 18 h post-operation and needed ≤4 g i.v. Ca gluconate to keep Ca levels ≥6.5 mg/dL during the post-operative period (7 days). Group B (severe hypocalcemia) patients had serum Ca levels <6.5 mg/dL at 18 h post-operation or needed >4 g of i.v. Ca gluconate during the post-operative period to keep Ca levels ≥6.5 mg/dL. Surgery was considered successful when iPTH levels were lowered to <72 pg./mL within 1 week after surgery [16]. The rate of severe hypocalcemia was 23.3% in our study. It appeared that our study included a larger sample size than previous series did [14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20]; thus, our results were more dependable, but a few risk factors we identified were different from those reported previously.
Using the ROC curve analysis of Ca levels at 18 h post-operation for predicting hypocalcemia that needed i.v. Ca gluconate, the maximal Youden index was 0.415 and the optimal cutoff value was 7.6 mg/dL, with sensitivity of 0.72 (95% CI 0.590–0.839), specificity of 0.695 (95% CI 0.620–0.748), and area under the curve 0.749 ± 0.032 (mean ± SE) (95% CI 0.686–0.812) (Figure 1); patients who met this criterion should be treated with i.v. Ca gluconate. Previous reports suggested that Ca levels of 7.5–8.0 mg/dL at 18 h post-operation could predict severe hypocalcemia, and our results support this finding [18, 20].
Using receiver operating characteristics (ROC) curve, maximal Youden’s index = 0.415, sensitivity = 0.72, 1-specificity = 0.305, area under curve = 0.749 ± 0.032 (SE), 95% confidence interval = 0.686–0.812, and optimal cutoff calcium value = 7.6 mg/dL (at 18 h post-operation) to predict severe hypocalcemia.
Preoperatively, patients were younger in Group B [50 (40–46)] [median (interquartile range)] than in Group A [58 (52–64)] (p < 0.001); serum P, Alk-ptase, and iPTH levels were significantly higher, but serum Ca levels were significantly lower in Group B than those in Group A (Table 1). Same findings were reported previously [14, 15]. There were no significant differences between the two groups in terms of sex, symptoms, body weight, and duration of dialysis (Table 1). The amount of blood loss during surgery was not significantly different between the two groups. The operation time, total weight of removed parathyroid glands, duration of post-operative hospitalization (days), and total amount of i.v. Ca gluconate administered were significantly more, but calcium levels at 18 h post-operation were significantly lower in Group B than in Group A (p = 0.014, p = 0.035, p < 0.001, p < 0.001, and p < 0.001, respectively) (Table 2).
[Normal ranges] | Group A (N=247) Mild hypocalcemia | Group B (N=75) Severe hypocalcemia | p |
Age | 58 (52–64) | 50 (40–64) | <0.001 |
Sex M/F | 96/151 | 37/38 | 0.111* |
Skin itching (+/-) | 161/86 | 54/21 | 0.328* |
Bone pain (+/-) | 176/71 | 53/22 | 1.0* |
General weakness (+/-) | 121/126 | 32/43 | 0.358* |
Insomnia (+/-) | 154/93 | 44/31 | 0.590* |
Body weight (kg) | 57.1 (49.9–64.9) | 59.2 (52.5–69.9) | 0.122 |
Duration of hemodialysis (years) | 10 (6.8–13)(N=207) | 8.0 (5.8–11.3)(N=58) | 0.205 |
Duration of peritoneal dialysis (years) | 6.0 (4.3–8.8)(N=40) | 7.0 (5.0-9.5)(N=17) | 0.629 |
Ca [7.9-9.9 mg/dL] | 10.4 (10–10.9) | 10.3 (9.5–10.7) | 0.007 |
P [2.4-4.7 mg/dL] | 5.6 (4.6–6.7) | 6.4 (5.7–7.1) | <0.001 |
Alk-ptase [28-94 IU/L] | 141 (99–228) | 227 (169–420) | <0.001 |
iPTH [14-72 pg/mL] | 1298 (1025–1750) | 1740 (1295–2359) | <0.001 |
Age, sex, symptoms, body weight, duration of dialysis and preoperative serum calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), Alkaline-phosphatase (Alk-ptase) and intact parathyroid hormone (iPTH) levels. Comparison between mild hypocalcemia (Group A) and severe (Group B) hypocalcemia groups.
Using X2-test.
Using Mann-Whitney U test.
All data = median (interquarter range) (IQR).
Alk-tase = alkaline phostaphatase.
iPTH = intact parathyroid hormone.
Group A (N=247) Mild hypocalcemia | Group B (N=75) Severe hypocalcemia | p | |
Blood loss (cc) | 15 (10–20) | 17.5 (10–21) | 0.560 |
Operation time (min) | 131 (117–156) | 145 (122–166) | 0.014 |
Total weight of removed parathyroid glands (g) | 3.3 (2.3–4.8) | 3.8 (2.8–5.4) | 0.035 |
Days of postoperative hospitalization | 5 (5–5) 5.0 ± 1.1 | 5 (5–8) 6.4 ± 2.5 | <0.001 <0.001* |
Total i.v. Ca gluconate (g) | 0 (0–0) | 12 (8–18) | <0.001 |
Ca levels 18 h after operation | 8.2 (7.5–8.8) | 7.2 (6.6–7.8) | <0.001 |
Blood loss during surgery, operation time, total weight of removed parathyroid glands, days of postoperative hospitalization and total intravenous (i.v.) Ca gluconate and Ca levels at 18 h post-operation. Comparison between mild (Group A) and severe (Group B) hypocalcemia groups.
Using Student’t test.
Using Mann-Whitney U test.
Data = median (interquarter range) (IQR).
Data = mean±SD (standard deviation).
We believe that younger patients have better bone-formation abilities than older patients; thus, they are more likely to have severe hypocalcemia after parathyroidectomy [15, 21, 22].
In our study, severe hypocalcemia occurred in 75 patients (23.3%), which is lower than the rates (27.4–97%) reported previously, likely owing to the definition of severe hypocalcemia [15, 20, 21, 22].
We found that mean preoperative Ca levels were lower in Group B than in Group A but Alk-ptase levels in Group B were higher than in Group A (Table 3). The cause was not very clear, but this had also been reported previously [15, 20, 21, 22].
[Normal ranges] | Group A (N = 247) Mild hypocalcemia | Group B (N = 75) Severe hypocalcemia | p |
Ca [7.9–9.9 mg/dL] | 7.3 (6.8–7.9) | 7.0 (6.6–7.7) | 0.013 |
P [2.4–4.7 mg/dL] | 4.0 (3.2–5.1) | 4.1 (3.2–4.9) | 0.958 |
Alk-ptase [28–94 IU/L] | 192 (113–343) | 349 (191–636) | <0.001 |
iPTH [14–72 ng/mL] | 8.8 (2.9–16.4) | 10.1 (2.8–20.6) | 0.343 |
Serum calcium (Ca), phosphate (P), alkaline phosphatase (Alk-ptase) and intact parathyroid hormone (iPTH) levels at the day of discharge. Comparison between mild (Group A) and severe (Group B) hypocalcemia groups.
Using Mann-Whitney U test.
All data = median (interquarter range) (IQR).
Before patient discharge, Ca levels in Group B were lower than in Group A. Although it was unclear whether serum Ca levels in patients with severe hypocalcemia remained significantly lower throughout the year after operation, as reported previously [15], we found that all patients in our study could maintain Ca levels >8.0 mg/dL after 3 months with the use of oral Ca carbonate <3 g/day and calcitriol <0.5 μg/day. We speculated that the autotransplanted parathyroid tissue might start to function 1–3 weeks later, as reported previously [23].
Preoperative P levels were higher in Group B than in Group A, which had rarely been reported previously [24].
High Alk-ptase levels are characteristic of bone diseases involving increased osteoblastic activity, bone formation, and resorption in secondary hyperparathyroidism. Preoperative Alk-ptase levels were higher in Group B than in Group A. We found that preoperative Alk-ptase levels were an independent risk factor for severe hypocalcemia, similar to previous reports [14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 24].
After TPX & BT plus AT, Alk-ptase levels increased progressively, reflecting increased bone formation, which peaked at 2 weeks [15] and decreased gradually to normal levels at 3 months post-operation (Table 4). Before patients were discharged in our series, the mean Alk-ptase level was still higher in Group B than in Group A showing that oral Ca carbonate and calcitriol should be continually administered for 2 weeks to 3 months, according to serum Ca levels [15].
Risk factors unit | Coefficient | p | Odds ratio | 95% CI |
Age 1year | −0.045 | =0.001 | 0.956 | 0.931–0.982 |
Ca 1 mg/dL | −0.520 | 0.007 | 0.595 | 0.409–0.866 |
Alk-ptase 1 IU/L Operation time 1 min | 0.003 0.010 | <0.001 0.016 | 1.003 1.010 | 1.001–1.004 1.002–1.018 |
Risk factors of severe hypocalcemia after total parathyroidectomy plus auto transplantation.
Using binary logistic regression test.
Ca = calcium levels.
Alk-ptase = alkaline phosphatase.
Preoperatively, high iPTH levels were a clear indicator of the severity of renal hyperparathyroidism and bone disease. Preoperatively, high iPTH levels increased both bone formation and bone resorption; after parathyroidectomy, bone resorption would decrease and bone formation would increase; thus, severe hypocalcemia could develop after surgery [14, 22, 24].
We found that the total weight of the removed parathyroid glands was more in Group B than in Group A, as was the operation time. The total weight of parathyroid glands and the operation time contributed to severe hypocalcemia, might be due to advance disease and extensive dissection during surgery, but were rarely reported before [20, 25, 26].
Multi-variant binary logistic regression test showed that young age, low preoperative Ca levels, high preoperative Alk-ptase levels, and long operation time were independent risk factors for severe hypocalcemia, with associated odds ratio of 0.956, 0.595, 1.003, and 1.010, respectively (p = 0.001, p = 0.007, p < 0.001, and p = 0.016, respectively).
In our study, Ca levels were negatively correlated with P levels (r = −0.255, p < 0.001), and Alk-ptase levels were positively correlated with iPTH levels (r = 0.449, p < 0.001); therefore, preoperative Ca and Alk-ptase levels were finally identified as independent risk factors for severe hypocalcemia combined with young age and long operation time.
Cozzolino et al. [27, 28] proposed a dose corresponding to the rate of 1–2 mg/kg/h for i.v. Ca gluconate, which could be increased or decreased by 25–50% from the initial value. Loke et al. [17] developed a titration regimen in which a 10% Ca gluconate infusion was started at 4.5 mL/h when serum Ca levels were < 8 mg/dL and then increased to 6.5 mL/h and finally to 9.5 mL/h if Ca levels continually declined. The algorithms they proposed were too complicated for clinical applications, and therefore, we modified it into our clinical algorithm (Figure 2). We adopted the clinical algorithm developed by Cozzolino et al. [28], with some modifications.
The clinical algorithm for the treatment of hypocalcemia after total parathyroidectomy plus autotransplantation for secondary hyperparathyroidism.
At 18 h post-operation, Ca, P, and iPTH levels were checked to ensure that the operation had been successful and the levels of iPTH were < 72 pg/mL and P levels were above the normal lower limit (2.4 mg/dL).
If serum Ca levels were > 7.6 mg/dL at 18 h post-operation, oral Ca carbonate 2–4 g/day and calcitriol 0.5–1 μg/day were administered; Ca levels were checked on alternate days.
If serum Ca levels were ≤7.6 mg/dL and >6.5 mg/dL at 18 h post-operation, i.v. Ca gluconate (10%) 4–6 g in 75 mL of 5% glucose in water (D5W) or normal saline was administered for 24 h, concomitant with oral Ca carbonate 4–6 g/day and calcitriol 2 μg/day; Ca levels were checked daily.
If serum Ca levels were ≤6.5 mg/dL at 18 h post-operation, i.v. Ca gluconate 8 g in 150 mL D5W was administered for 24 h, concomitant with oral Ca carbonate 6–8 g/day and calcitriol 4 μg/day; Ca levels were checked daily except Ca levels <6.0 mg/dL. In that situation, Ca levels were checked every 12 h until they reached levels ≥6.0 mg/dL.
If patients had symptoms and signs of hypocalcemia, such as paresthesia of the mouth and extremities, muscle spasms, Chvostek’s sign, Trousseau’s sign, seizure, tetany, EKG abnormalities, arrhythmia, and hypotension, Ca levels were checked immediately and i.v. Ca gluconate 2 g in 15 mL D5W is administered in 15 min; Ca levels are then checked as usual and treated accordingly (Figure 2).
At 5–7 days post-operation, if patients’ Ca levels were > 7.6 mg/dL, they were discharged with oral calcium carbonate 2–4 g/day and calcitriol 0.5–2 μg/day.
If Ca levels were stable and ≥ 6.5 mg/dL, they were discharged with oral Ca carbonate 6–8 g/day and calcitriol 4 μg/day. If Ca levels were < 6.5 mg/dL, they were kept in hospitalization and treated as per the clinical algorithm (Figure 2).
Following the clinical algorithm post-operatively, we administrate i.v. Ca gluconate 4–6 g in 75 mL D5W or normal saline in 24 h for patients with Ca levels <7.6 mg/dL, Ca gluconate 8 g/day in 150 mL D5W or normal saline in 24 h for patients with Ca levels <6.5 mg/dL, and i.v. Ca gluconate 2 g/15 mL D5W or normal saline in 15 min for patients with symptoms and signs of hypocalcemia. More concentrated solution for continuous infusion should be infused via central line [29]. Either 10% Ca gluconate (40 mg of elemental calcium per 10 mL) or 10% Ca chloride (270 mg of elemental calcium per 10 mL) can be used to prepare the infusion solution. Ca gluconate is preferred because it causes less tissue necrosis if extravasated [30].The amount of i.v. Ca gluconate is adjusted by serum Ca levels and duration (days), neither by patients’ body weight nor i.v. speed.
The K/DOQI guidelines and others suggest that serum Ca levels should be measured every 4–6 h post-operation [27, 31], but according to our experience and some other authors [28], this is not necessary except when Ca levels are <6.0 mg/dL. In such cases, we measured Ca levels every 12 h, until they were stable and reached ≥6.0 mg/dL.
In our study, the duration of post-operative hospital stay of Group A (5.0 ± 1.1 days) (mean ± SD) was significantly shorter than that of Group B (6.4 ± 2.5 days, p < 0.001). The duration of post-operative stay in our series was shorter than that reported previously: 7.8 ± 2.9 days (mild hypocalcemia) versus 9.3 ± 3.9 days (severe hypocalcemia) according to Yang et al. [14] and 10.2 ± 2.3 days (mild hypocalcemia) versus 15.6 ± 6.6 days (severe hypocalcemia) according to Ho et al. [15]. It was obvious that the duration of post-operative stay in our series was 3–5 days shorter than that from previous reports of severe hypocalcemia, suggesting that the clinical algorithm we adopted was acceptable.
A total of 2756 parathyroidectomy procedures were performed in patients with CKD, with unplanned readmission rate of 17.2 and 6.8% due to hypocalcemia/hungry bone syndrome. In one study, readmission occurred within 30 days after discharge, but readmission for severe hypocalcemia peaked within just 10 days and decreased thereafter [32].
Post-parathyroidectomy readmission rates for patients with CKD are five times higher than those for general population [32]. Using routing AT in our series, we found that seven patients (2.1%) underwent readmission due to various causes, and only two of them were due to hypocalcemia. One patient was readmitted 3 days after discharge due to gastritis, and the other at 2 days due to hypocalcemia and heart failure. However, no mortality was observed in our series (Table 5).
Causes | Mild hypocalcemia (Post-Op days) | Severe hypocalcemia (Post-Op days) |
Pancreatitis | 1 (24) | |
Bloody stool | 1 (27) | |
Sepsis | 1 (19) | |
Brain infarction | 1 (30) | |
Hypocalcemia [gastritis] | 1 (3) | |
[Combined with heart failure] | 1 (2) | |
Cellulitis [lower extremity] | 1 (4) |
Causes of readmission within one month post operation (Post-Op).
No surgical mortality.
3 months after parathyroidectomy, no one needs calcium carbonate more than 2 g/daily or calcitriol more than 0.5 μg/day to keep calcium levels over 8.0 mg/dL.
After successful TPX & BT plus AT for secondary hyperparathyroidism, severe hypocalcemia occurred in 23.3% of patients in our series. The risk factors for severe hypocalcemia were young age, low preoperative Ca levels, high preoperative Alk-ptase levels, and long operation time. Serum Ca levels <7.6 mg/dL at 18 h post-operation were the optimal cutoff value for hypocalcemia that needed i.v. Ca gluconate. When the suggested clinical algorithm is followed, the mean duration of post-operative hospital stay due to severe hypocalcemia was short (6.4 ± 2.5 days) and readmission rate (0.62%) due to hypocalcemia was quite low.
IntechOpen Compacts provide a mid-length publishing format which bridges the gap between journal articles, book chapters and monographs, and cover content across all scientific disciplines. Compacts are the preferred publishing option for brief research reports on new topics, in-depth case studies, dissertations, or essays exploring new ideas, issues or broader topics on the research subject.
",metaTitle:"IntechOpen Compacts",metaDescription:"IntechOpen Compacts present a mid-length publishing format which bridges the gap between journal articles, book chapters, and monographs and covers content across all scientific disciplines.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/compacts",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Without sacrificing the quality of carefully edited and produced peer-reviewed content, Compacts are published as part of IntechOpen’s book collection but on a faster schedule, typically 4-6 weeks after acceptance. With an average of 132,000 visitors per week, publishing in Compacts not only guarantees high visibility but also facilitates international content sharing. As a fully Open Access publisher, the utilization of a CC BY NC 4.0 license means that other researchers will never have to pay permission fees and can adapt, use, and further build upon the material published in Compacts, eliminating any barriers to the further development of scientific research.
\\n\\nCOMPACTS-SHORT FORM MONOGRAPH
\\n\\nCOST
\\n\\n4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\\n\\nThe final price will depend on the volume of the publication and includes project management, editorial and peer-review services, technical editing, language copyediting, cover design, book layout, book promotion and ISBN assignment.
\\n\\n*The price does not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate applicable in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT by providing us with their VAT registration number. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\\n\\nOptional Services
\\n\\nIntechOpen has collaborated with Enago, through its sister company, Ulatus – one of the world’s leading providers of book translation services. The services are designed to convey the essence of your work seamlessly to readers from across the globe in their own language. Enago’s expert translators incorporate cultural nuances in translations to make the content relevant for local audiences while retaining the original meaning and style. With a high degree of linguistic and subject expertise, Enago translators are equipped to handle all complex and multiple overlapping themes encompassed in a single book to deliver a superior quality of translation.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Authors that wish to use this service will receive a 20% discount on all translation work. For more information or a quote, please visit: https://www.enago.com/intech.
\\n\\nFUNDING
\\n\\nWe feel that financial barriers should never prevent researchers from publishing their research. Please consult our Open Access Funding page to explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication.
\\n\\nBENEFITS
\\n\\nPUBLISHING PROCESS STEPS
\\n\\nSee a complete overview and description of the steps involved in the publishing process here.
\\n\\nSEND YOUR PROPOSAL
\\n\\nIf you are interested in publishing your book with IntechOpen, please submit your book proposal by completing the Publishing Proposal Form.
\\n\\nNot sure if this is the right option for you? Please refer back to the main Publish with IntechOpen page or feel free to contact us directly at book.department@intechopen.com
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Without sacrificing the quality of carefully edited and produced peer-reviewed content, Compacts are published as part of IntechOpen’s book collection but on a faster schedule, typically 4-6 weeks after acceptance. With an average of 132,000 visitors per week, publishing in Compacts not only guarantees high visibility but also facilitates international content sharing. As a fully Open Access publisher, the utilization of a CC BY NC 4.0 license means that other researchers will never have to pay permission fees and can adapt, use, and further build upon the material published in Compacts, eliminating any barriers to the further development of scientific research.
\n\nCOMPACTS-SHORT FORM MONOGRAPH
\n\nCOST
\n\n4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\n\nThe final price will depend on the volume of the publication and includes project management, editorial and peer-review services, technical editing, language copyediting, cover design, book layout, book promotion and ISBN assignment.
\n\n*The price does not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate applicable in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT by providing us with their VAT registration number. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\nOptional Services
\n\nIntechOpen has collaborated with Enago, through its sister company, Ulatus – one of the world’s leading providers of book translation services. The services are designed to convey the essence of your work seamlessly to readers from across the globe in their own language. Enago’s expert translators incorporate cultural nuances in translations to make the content relevant for local audiences while retaining the original meaning and style. With a high degree of linguistic and subject expertise, Enago translators are equipped to handle all complex and multiple overlapping themes encompassed in a single book to deliver a superior quality of translation.
\n\nIntechOpen Authors that wish to use this service will receive a 20% discount on all translation work. For more information or a quote, please visit: https://www.enago.com/intech.
\n\nFUNDING
\n\nWe feel that financial barriers should never prevent researchers from publishing their research. Please consult our Open Access Funding page to explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication.
\n\nBENEFITS
\n\nPUBLISHING PROCESS STEPS
\n\nSee a complete overview and description of the steps involved in the publishing process here.
\n\nSEND YOUR PROPOSAL
\n\nIf you are interested in publishing your book with IntechOpen, please submit your book proposal by completing the Publishing Proposal Form.
\n\nNot sure if this is the right option for you? Please refer back to the main Publish with IntechOpen page or feel free to contact us directly at book.department@intechopen.com
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5681},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5161},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1683},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10200},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:886},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15610}],offset:12,limit:12,total:117095},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"1",sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10231",title:"Proton Therapy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f4a9009287953c8d1d89f0fa9b7597b0",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10231.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10645",title:"TEST Luka EV",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"34c7613d332b05758ea87b460199db54",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/cover.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10646",title:"Rozmari - Test Book - Luka 13102020",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"b96ff714b24bc695b8dceba914430b85",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/cover.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10651",title:"Machine Learning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5806b4efae3bd91c3f56e64e0442df35",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10651.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10652",title:"Visual Object Tracking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"96f3ee634a7ba49fa195e50475412af4",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10653",title:"Optimization Algorithms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"753812dbb9a6f6b57645431063114f6c",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10653.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10655",title:"Motion Planning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"809b5e290cf2dade9e7e0a5ae0ef3df0",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10655.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10657",title:"Service Robots",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5f81b9eea6eb3f9af984031b7af35588",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10657.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10660",title:"Heritage",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"14096773aa1e3635ec6ceec6dd5b47a4",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10660.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10662",title:"Pedagogy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c858e1c6fb878d3b895acbacec624576",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10662.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10673",title:"The Psychology of Trust",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"1f6cac41fd145f718ac0866264499cc8",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10673.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10675",title:"Hydrostatics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c86c2fa9f835d4ad5e7efd8b01921866",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10675.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:13},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:45},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:154},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9279",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7807",title:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"05c608b9271cc2bc711f4b28748b247b",slug:"a-closer-look-at-organizational-culture-in-action",bookSignature:"Süleyman Davut Göker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7807.jpg",editors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7796",title:"Human 4.0",subtitle:"From Biology to Cybernetic",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5ac5c052d3a593d5c4f4df66d005e5af",slug:"human-4-0-from-biology-to-cybernetic",bookSignature:"Yves Rybarczyk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7796.jpg",editors:[{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",slug:"yves-rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9711",title:"Pests, Weeds and Diseases in Agricultural Crop and Animal Husbandry Production",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12cf675f1e433135dd5bf5df7cec124f",slug:"pests-weeds-and-diseases-in-agricultural-crop-and-animal-husbandry-production",bookSignature:"Dimitrios Kontogiannatos, Anna Kourti and Kassio Ferreira Mendes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9711.jpg",editors:[{id:"196691",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitrios",middleName:null,surname:"Kontogiannatos",slug:"dimitrios-kontogiannatos",fullName:"Dimitrios Kontogiannatos"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10178",title:"Environmental Emissions",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"febf21ec717bfe20ae25a9dab9b5d438",slug:"environmental-emissions",bookSignature:"Richard Viskup",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10178.jpg",editors:[{id:"103742",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",middleName:null,surname:"Viskup",slug:"richard-viskup",fullName:"Richard Viskup"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8511",title:"Cyberspace",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c1cdeb133dbe6cc1151367061c1bba6",slug:"cyberspace",bookSignature:"Evon Abu-Taieh, Abdelkrim El Mouatasim and Issam H. Al Hadid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8511.jpg",editors:[{id:"223522",title:"Dr.",name:"Evon",middleName:"M.O.",surname:"Abu-Taieh",slug:"evon-abu-taieh",fullName:"Evon Abu-Taieh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9534",title:"Banking and Finance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"af14229738af402c3b595d7e124dce82",slug:"banking-and-finance",bookSignature:"Razali Haron, Maizaitulaidawati Md Husin and Michael Murg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9534.jpg",editors:[{id:"206517",title:"Prof.",name:"Razali",middleName:null,surname:"Haron",slug:"razali-haron",fullName:"Razali Haron"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"2160",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing and Engineering Applications - Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd9c658341fbd264ed4f8d9e6aa8ca29",slug:"matlab-a-fundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineering-applications-volume-1",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2160.jpg",editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5126},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Sanity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-sanity",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Sanity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-sanity",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9523",title:"Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5eb6ec2db961a6c8965d11180a58d5c1",slug:"oral-and-maxillofacial-surgery",bookSignature:"Gokul Sridharan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9523.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82453",title:"Dr.",name:"Gokul",middleName:null,surname:"Sridharan",slug:"gokul-sridharan",fullName:"Gokul Sridharan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9018",title:"Some RNA Viruses",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a5cae846dbe3692495fc4add2f60fd84",slug:"some-rna-viruses",bookSignature:"Yogendra Shah and Eltayb Abuelzein",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9018.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"278914",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yogendra",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"yogendra-shah",fullName:"Yogendra Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9585",title:"Advances in Complex Valvular Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef64f11e211621ecfe69c46e60e7ca3d",slug:"advances-in-complex-valvular-disease",bookSignature:"Michael S. Firstenberg and Imran Khan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9585.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64343",title:null,name:"Michael S.",middleName:"S",surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. Firstenberg"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10150",title:"Smart Manufacturing",subtitle:"When Artificial Intelligence Meets the Internet of Things",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"87004a19de13702d042f8ff96d454698",slug:"smart-manufacturing-when-artificial-intelligence-meets-the-internet-of-things",bookSignature:"Tan Yen Kheng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10150.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78857",title:"Dr.",name:"Tan Yen",middleName:null,surname:"Kheng",slug:"tan-yen-kheng",fullName:"Tan Yen Kheng"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9386",title:"Direct Numerical Simulations",subtitle:"An Introduction and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"158a3a0fdba295d21ff23326f5a072d5",slug:"direct-numerical-simulations-an-introduction-and-applications",bookSignature:"Srinivasa Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9386.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6897",title:"Dr.",name:"Srinivasa",middleName:"P",surname:"Rao",slug:"srinivasa-rao",fullName:"Srinivasa Rao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"743",title:"Engineering Dynamics",slug:"electrical-and-electronic-engineering-engineering-dynamics",parent:{title:"Electrical and Electronic Engineering",slug:"electrical-and-electronic-engineering"},numberOfBooks:1,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:11,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfDimensionsCitations:4,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"electrical-and-electronic-engineering-engineering-dynamics",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"6017",title:"Switched Reluctance Motor",subtitle:"Concept, Control and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea21009431eeed49e94d3a693d47f09d",slug:"switched-reluctance-motor-concept-control-and-applications",bookSignature:"Ahmed Tahour and Abdel Ghani Aissaoui",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6017.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"26712",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Tahour",slug:"ahmed-tahour",fullName:"Ahmed Tahour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:1,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"55670",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69149",title:"Switched Reluctance Motor Topologies: A Comprehensive Review",slug:"switched-reluctance-motor-topologies-a-comprehensive-review",totalDownloads:3664,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"switched-reluctance-motor-concept-control-and-applications",title:"Switched Reluctance Motor",fullTitle:"Switched Reluctance Motor - Concept, Control and Applications"},signatures:"Mohammad Mahdi Bouiabady, Aliakbar Damaki Aliabad and\nEbrahim Amiri",authors:[{id:"175468",title:"Dr.",name:"Ebrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Amiri",slug:"ebrahim-amiri",fullName:"Ebrahim Amiri"},{id:"203202",title:"Mr.",name:"Mohammad Mahdi",middleName:null,surname:"Bouiabady",slug:"mohammad-mahdi-bouiabady",fullName:"Mohammad Mahdi Bouiabady"},{id:"203203",title:"Dr.",name:"Aliakbar",middleName:null,surname:"Damaki Aliabad",slug:"aliakbar-damaki-aliabad",fullName:"Aliakbar Damaki Aliabad"}]},{id:"55383",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68911",title:"Switched Reluctance Motor Drives for Hybrid Electric Vehicles",slug:"switched-reluctance-motor-drives-for-hybrid-electric-vehicles",totalDownloads:2560,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"switched-reluctance-motor-concept-control-and-applications",title:"Switched Reluctance Motor",fullTitle:"Switched Reluctance Motor - Concept, Control and Applications"},signatures:"Christopher H.T. Lee, James L. Kirtley, Jr. and M. Angle",authors:[{id:"201412",title:"Dr.",name:"Christopher H. T.",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",slug:"christopher-h.-t.-lee",fullName:"Christopher H. T. Lee"}]},{id:"55535",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69228",title:"Four‐Quadrant Control of Switched Reluctance Machine",slug:"four-quadrant-control-of-switched-reluctance-machine",totalDownloads:1054,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"switched-reluctance-motor-concept-control-and-applications",title:"Switched Reluctance Motor",fullTitle:"Switched Reluctance Motor - Concept, Control and Applications"},signatures:"Sandeep Narla",authors:[{id:"201434",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Sandeep",middleName:null,surname:"Narla",slug:"sandeep-narla",fullName:"Sandeep Narla"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"55670",title:"Switched Reluctance Motor Topologies: A Comprehensive Review",slug:"switched-reluctance-motor-topologies-a-comprehensive-review",totalDownloads:3664,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"switched-reluctance-motor-concept-control-and-applications",title:"Switched Reluctance Motor",fullTitle:"Switched Reluctance Motor - Concept, Control and Applications"},signatures:"Mohammad Mahdi Bouiabady, Aliakbar Damaki Aliabad and\nEbrahim Amiri",authors:[{id:"175468",title:"Dr.",name:"Ebrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Amiri",slug:"ebrahim-amiri",fullName:"Ebrahim Amiri"},{id:"203202",title:"Mr.",name:"Mohammad Mahdi",middleName:null,surname:"Bouiabady",slug:"mohammad-mahdi-bouiabady",fullName:"Mohammad Mahdi Bouiabady"},{id:"203203",title:"Dr.",name:"Aliakbar",middleName:null,surname:"Damaki Aliabad",slug:"aliakbar-damaki-aliabad",fullName:"Aliakbar Damaki Aliabad"}]},{id:"55383",title:"Switched Reluctance Motor Drives for Hybrid Electric Vehicles",slug:"switched-reluctance-motor-drives-for-hybrid-electric-vehicles",totalDownloads:2560,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"switched-reluctance-motor-concept-control-and-applications",title:"Switched Reluctance Motor",fullTitle:"Switched Reluctance Motor - Concept, Control and Applications"},signatures:"Christopher H.T. Lee, James L. Kirtley, Jr. and M. Angle",authors:[{id:"201412",title:"Dr.",name:"Christopher H. T.",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",slug:"christopher-h.-t.-lee",fullName:"Christopher H. T. Lee"}]},{id:"55678",title:"Direct Instantaneous Torque Controlled Switched Reluctance Motor Drive for Fan Type Load and Constant Torque Load",slug:"direct-instantaneous-torque-controlled-switched-reluctance-motor-drive-for-fan-type-load-and-constan",totalDownloads:1092,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"switched-reluctance-motor-concept-control-and-applications",title:"Switched Reluctance Motor",fullTitle:"Switched Reluctance Motor - Concept, Control and Applications"},signatures:"Srinivas Pratapgiri",authors:[{id:"193348",title:"Dr.",name:"Srinivas",middleName:null,surname:"Pratapgiri",slug:"srinivas-pratapgiri",fullName:"Srinivas Pratapgiri"}]},{id:"55557",title:"Design, Power Electronics and Torque Control of Switched Reluctance Machines",slug:"design-power-electronics-and-torque-control-of-switched-reluctance-machines",totalDownloads:1183,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"switched-reluctance-motor-concept-control-and-applications",title:"Switched Reluctance Motor",fullTitle:"Switched Reluctance Motor - Concept, Control and Applications"},signatures:"Mircea Ruba and Petre Dorel Teodosescu",authors:[{id:"190371",title:"Dr.",name:"Mircea",middleName:null,surname:"Ruba",slug:"mircea-ruba",fullName:"Mircea Ruba"},{id:"195867",title:"Dr.",name:"Petre",middleName:"Dorel",surname:"Teodosescu",slug:"petre-teodosescu",fullName:"Petre Teodosescu"}]},{id:"55614",title:"Current‐Controlled SRM Fed by Three‐Phase Boost PFC",slug:"current-controlled-srm-fed-by-three-phase-boost-pfc",totalDownloads:1084,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"switched-reluctance-motor-concept-control-and-applications",title:"Switched Reluctance Motor",fullTitle:"Switched Reluctance Motor - Concept, Control and Applications"},signatures:"Erdal Şehirli and Meral Altınay",authors:[{id:"119997",title:"Mr.",name:"Erdal",middleName:null,surname:"Sehirli",slug:"erdal-sehirli",fullName:"Erdal Sehirli"},{id:"119998",title:"Dr.",name:"Meral",middleName:null,surname:"Altınay",slug:"meral-altinay",fullName:"Meral Altınay"}]},{id:"55535",title:"Four‐Quadrant Control of Switched Reluctance Machine",slug:"four-quadrant-control-of-switched-reluctance-machine",totalDownloads:1054,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"switched-reluctance-motor-concept-control-and-applications",title:"Switched Reluctance Motor",fullTitle:"Switched Reluctance Motor - Concept, Control and Applications"},signatures:"Sandeep Narla",authors:[{id:"201434",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Sandeep",middleName:null,surname:"Narla",slug:"sandeep-narla",fullName:"Sandeep Narla"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"electrical-and-electronic-engineering-engineering-dynamics",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/199063/german-alejandro-garcia-lara",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"199063",slug:"german-alejandro-garcia-lara"},fullPath:"/profiles/199063/german-alejandro-garcia-lara",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()