Use of ionic liquids as superficial-integrated static segments.
\\n\\n
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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We aimed to compile information from a diversity of sources into a single volume to give some real examples extending the concepts in organic fertilizers that may stimulate new research ideas and trends in the relevant fields.",isbn:"978-953-51-2450-4",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2449-8",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5436-5",doi:"10.5772/61454",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"organic-fertilizers-from-basic-concepts-to-applied-outcomes",numberOfPages:384,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"93748f3bd6a9c0240d71ffd350d624b1",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",publishedDate:"June 30th 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5179.jpg",numberOfDownloads:35624,numberOfWosCitations:61,numberOfCrossrefCitations:55,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:102,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:4,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:218,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 7th 2015",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 28th 2015",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 1st 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 1st 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 31st 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14764/images/system/14764.jpg",biography:"Marcelo L. Larramendy, Ph.D., serves as Professor of Molecular Cell Biology at the School of Natural Sciences and Museum (National University of La Plata, Argentina). Appointed Senior Researcher of the National Scientific and Technological Research Council of Argentina. Former Member of the Executive Committee of the Latin American Association of Environmental Mutagenesis, Teratogenesis and Carcinogenesis. Author of more than 450 contributions, including scientific publications, research communications and conferences worldwide. Recipient of several national and international awards. Prof. Larramendy is a regular Lecturer at the international A. Hollaender Courses organized by the IAEMS and former guest scientist at NIH (USA) and the University of Helsinki, (Finland). He is an expert in Genetic Toxicology and is, or has been, referee for more than 20 international scientific journals. Member of the International Panel of Experts at the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC, WHO, Lyon, France) in 2015 for the evaluation of DDT, 2,4-D and Lindane. Presently, Prof. Dr. Larramendy is Head of the Laboratory of Molecular Cytogenetics and Genotoxicology at the UNLP.",institutionString:"National University of La Plata",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"20",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"14863",title:"Dr.",name:"Sonia",middleName:null,surname:"Soloneski",slug:"sonia-soloneski",fullName:"Sonia Soloneski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14863/images/system/14863.jpg",biography:"Sonia Soloneski has a Ph.D. in Natural Sciences and is Assistant Professor of Molecular Cell Biology at the School of Natural Sciences and Museum of La Plata, National University of La Plata, Argentina. She is a member of the National Scientific and Technological Research Council (CONICET) of Argentina in the Genetic Toxicology field, the Latin American Association of Environmental Mutagenesis, Teratogenesis and Carcinogenesis (ALAMCTA), the Argentinean Society of Toxicology (ATA), the Argentinean Society of Biology (SAB) and the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC). She has authored more than 380 contributions in the field, including scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and research communications. She has served as a review member for more than 30 scientific international journals. She has been a plenary speaker in scientific conferences and a member of scientific committees. She is a specialist in issues related to Genetic Toxicology, Mutagenesis, and Ecotoxicology.",institutionString:"National University of La Plata",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"338",title:"Arboriculture",slug:"arboriculture"}],chapters:[{id:"50076",title:"Compost Process and Organic Fertilizers Application in China",doi:"10.5772/62324",slug:"compost-process-and-organic-fertilizers-application-in-china",totalDownloads:2162,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Composting is an inexpensive and sustainable treatment for solid wastes. The composting industry has been growing rapidly because of a boom in the animal industry in China over the past decades. In this chapter, we introduce composting process and status in China, especially in Jiangsu Province. Meanwhile, the developed novel spectroscopy techniques are also introduced, which are more suitable for assessment of compost maturity than the conventional techniques in view of ease of sample preparation, rapid spectrum acquisition, and nondestructive nature of the analysis. These novel spectroscopy techniques include near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS)––partial least squares (PLS) analysis and fluorescence excitation–emission matrix (EEM) spectroscopy––parallel factor (PARAFAC) analysis. In addition, organic fertilizer amendments can not only improve soil fertility but also offset chemical fertilizers’ nanoscale changes. Emerging cutting-edge technologies of synchrotron-based X-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS) spectroscopy and nanoscale secondary ion mass spectrometry (NanoSIMS) were used to identify the composition of organic carbon and minerals and their correlations, respectively. Recently, investigators have shown that organic fertilizer amendments could enhance the production of highly reactive minerals, for example, allophane, imogolite, and ferrihydrite, which further benefit for soil carbon storage and soil fertility improvement.",signatures:"Guanghui Yu, Wei Ran and Qirong Shen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50076",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50076",authors:[{id:"179294",title:"Dr.",name:"Guanghui",surname:"Yu",slug:"guanghui-yu",fullName:"Guanghui Yu"},{id:"185610",title:"Prof.",name:"Wei",surname:"Ran",slug:"wei-ran",fullName:"Wei Ran"},{id:"185611",title:"Prof.",name:"Qirong",surname:"Shen",slug:"qirong-shen",fullName:"Qirong Shen"}],corrections:null},{id:"50613",title:"Organic Fertilizers in Alabama: Composition, Transformations, and Crop Response in Selected Soils of the Southeast United States",doi:"10.5772/63084",slug:"organic-fertilizers-in-alabama-composition-transformations-and-crop-response-in-selected-soils-of-th",totalDownloads:2324,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Rapid growth in organic production in the past 20 years is due to consumer concerns about the impacts of conventional agriculture on the environment, food safety, and quality. There are considerable variations in nutrient concentration and the rate of mineralization among organic fertilizers. Some organic fertilizers and application rates are specific to soil types, which affect the nutrient potential. Two organic fertilizers produced in Alabama and added to soils are the chicken or poultry litter (1.8 million Mg annually) and the hydrolyzed liquid fish protein. The under- or overestimation of the total N content of the litter may result in its over- or underapplication with potential environmental consequences to surface waters. The overestimation of the total N may result in its inadequate application. The inorganic forms (ammonium, NH4+–N; nitrate, NO3−–N; and nitrite, NO2−–N) are found in small but sometimes significant amounts especially when broiler litter is stored under environmental conditions favorable to nitrification. Limited information is available on the usefulness of the various modifications of the regular Kjeldahl method in poultry litter analysis and transformations when added to soils. This chapter provides information and our experiences on the sources of organic fertilizers produced in the southeastern United States (Alabama).",signatures:"Kokoasse Kpomblekou-A and Desmond Mortley",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50613",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50613",authors:[{id:"185050",title:"Dr.",name:"Kokoasse",surname:"Kpomblekou-A",slug:"kokoasse-kpomblekou-a",fullName:"Kokoasse Kpomblekou-A"},{id:"185051",title:"Dr.",name:"Desmond",surname:"Mortley",slug:"desmond-mortley",fullName:"Desmond Mortley"}],corrections:null},{id:"50612",title:"Green Manures and Crop Residues as Source of Nutrients in Tropical Environment",doi:"10.5772/62981",slug:"green-manures-and-crop-residues-as-source-of-nutrients-in-tropical-environment",totalDownloads:2569,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Tropical areas have prevalence of soils with low fertility, which makes the management of soil fertility a necessary practice to maintain a farming system economically and environmentally sustainable. The purpose of this chapter is to demonstrate the importance of green manure and the use of crop residues as management for soil fertility. We highlight the potential of these practices to increase/sustain productivity by providing nutrients. First, we made a short review on the main factors influencing the decomposition and mineralization processes. Subsequently, we discuss green manure techniques, presenting the main green manures, criteria for choosing, managements, potential for nutrient accumulation, and advantages and disadvantages of this practice. Finally, we use some examples to demonstrate the potential nutrient supply of crop residues from the main crops grown in the tropics. The difficulties and limitations involved are also discussed.",signatures:"Rafael Vasconcelos Valadares, Lucas de Ávila‐Silva, Rafael da Silva Teixeira, Rodrigo Nogueira de Sousa and Leonardus Vergütz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50612",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50612",authors:[{id:"179932",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Rafael",surname:"Vasconcelos Valadares",slug:"rafael-vasconcelos-valadares",fullName:"Rafael Vasconcelos Valadares"},{id:"183947",title:"MSc.",name:"Lucas",surname:"De Avila-Silva",slug:"lucas-de-avila-silva",fullName:"Lucas De Avila-Silva"},{id:"183948",title:"MSc.",name:"Rafael",surname:"Da Silva Teixeira",slug:"rafael-da-silva-teixeira",fullName:"Rafael Da Silva Teixeira"},{id:"183949",title:"Mr.",name:"Rodrigo",surname:"Nogueira De Sousa",slug:"rodrigo-nogueira-de-sousa",fullName:"Rodrigo Nogueira De Sousa"},{id:"184785",title:"Prof.",name:"Leonardus",surname:"Vergutz",slug:"leonardus-vergutz",fullName:"Leonardus Vergutz"}],corrections:null},{id:"50720",title:"Use of Organic Fertilizers to Enhance Soil Fertility, Plant Growth, and Yield in a Tropical Environment",doi:"10.5772/62529",slug:"use-of-organic-fertilizers-to-enhance-soil-fertility-plant-growth-and-yield-in-a-tropical-environmen",totalDownloads:5024,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:18,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Soils rarely have sufficient nutrient for crops to reach their potential yield. Applying organic fertilizers without prior knowledge of their properties may cause yield decline under low application or pollute the environment with excessive application. Understanding the nutrient variability and release pattern of organic fertilizers is crucial to supply plants with sufficient nutrients to achieve optimum productivity, while also rebuilding soil fertility and ensuring protection of environmental and natural resources. This chapter presents the authors’ experiences with different organic amendments under Hawaii's tropical conditions, rather than an intensive literature review. For meat and bone meal by‐products (tankage), batch‐to‐batch variability, nutrient content/release pattern and quality, and plant growth response to the liquid fertilizer produced from tankage were evaluated. For animal livestock, dairy manure (DM) and chicken manure (CM) quality, changes in soil properties, and crop biomass production and root distributions were evaluated. For seaweed, an established bio‐security protocol, nutrient, especially potassium (K) variability, and plant growth and yield response were evaluated in different tropical soils.",signatures:"Amjad A. Ahmad, Theodore J.K. Radovich, Hue V. Nguyen, Jensen\nUyeda, Alton Arakaki, Jeana Cadby, Robert Paull, Jari Sugano and\nGlenn Teves",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50720",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50720",authors:[{id:"178933",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"amjad-ahmad",fullName:"Amjad Ahmad"},{id:"184973",title:"Dr.",name:"Theodore",surname:"Radovich",slug:"theodore-radovich",fullName:"Theodore Radovich"},{id:"184974",title:"Prof.",name:"Hue",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"hue-nguyen",fullName:"Hue Nguyen"},{id:"184975",title:"MSc.",name:"Jensen",surname:"Uyeda",slug:"jensen-uyeda",fullName:"Jensen Uyeda"},{id:"184976",title:"MSc.",name:"Alton",surname:"Arakaki",slug:"alton-arakaki",fullName:"Alton Arakaki"},{id:"184977",title:"Mr.",name:"Glenn",surname:"Teves",slug:"glenn-teves",fullName:"Glenn Teves"},{id:"184978",title:"MSc.",name:"Jeana",surname:"Cadby",slug:"jeana-cadby",fullName:"Jeana Cadby"},{id:"184979",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",surname:"Paull",slug:"robert-paull",fullName:"Robert Paull"},{id:"184980",title:"MSc.",name:"Jari",surname:"Sugano",slug:"jari-sugano",fullName:"Jari Sugano"}],corrections:null},{id:"50478",title:"Bio-Organo-Phos: A Sustainable Approach for Managing Phosphorus Deficiency in Agricultural Soils",doi:"10.5772/62473",slug:"bio-organo-phos-a-sustainable-approach-for-managing-phosphorus-deficiency-in-agricultural-soils",totalDownloads:2073,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:18,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Sustainable agriculture is essential for a positive relationship between supply and demand of food for the growing world population. This relationship was found to be affected by many environmental factors, including biotic and abiotic. From the point of view of crop nutrition, sustainability in the supply of essential nutrients particularly phosphorus is vital. Due to the energy crisis, the fluctuation in the prices of chemical fertilizers, environmental concerns, and cessation in the supply of high quality rock phosphate (RP) are hindering the use of chemical phosphatic fertilizers for sustainable crop production. Therefore, there is great need for a sustainable solution to this problem. It could be solved by employing a strategy to use native low quality RP. It is only possible by composting of organic material in the presence of RP and phosphate solubilizing microorganisms. During composting, most of organic P is mineralized. Due to release of organic acids, P availability to crop plants increases. In this chapter, the importance of economical and sustainable sources of P and comparative efficacy of the use of organic fertilizer containing RP for legumes is critically reviewed.",signatures:"Allah Ditta and Azeem Khalid",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50478",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50478",authors:[{id:"149636",title:"Dr.",name:"Allah",surname:"Ditta",slug:"allah-ditta",fullName:"Allah Ditta"}],corrections:null},{id:"50233",title:"Integrated Use of Phosphorus, Animal Manures and Biofertilizers Improve Maize Productivity under Semiarid Condition",doi:"10.5772/62388",slug:"integrated-use-of-phosphorus-animal-manures-and-biofertilizers-improve-maize-productivity-under-semi",totalDownloads:2457,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Phosphorus unavailability and lack of organic matter in the soils under semiarid condition are the major reasons for low crop productivity. Field trial was conducted to investigate the impact of different animal manures (poultry, cattle, and sheep manures) and phosphorus levels (40, 80, 120, and 160 kg P2O5 ha−1) on yield and yield components of hybrid maize (CS-200) with (+) and without (−) phosphate-solubilizing bacteria (PSB) seed treatment at the Agronomy Research Farm of The University of Agriculture Peshawar, during summer 2014. Our results confirmed that the application of poultry manure significantly (P ≤ 0.05) increased yield and yield components of maize. Phosphorus applied at the rate of 120 kg P2O5 ha−1 increased ear length, grains ear−1, and shelling percentage, while the highest rate of 160 kg P ha−1 increased grains weight, grain yield, and harvest index. Maize seeds treated with PSB (+) before sowing had produced higher yield and yield components than untreated seeds (−). We concluded from this study that combined application of 160 kg P2O5 ha−1 + poultry manure and seed treatment with PSB (+) could improve crop productivity and profitability under semiarid condition.",signatures:"Dr. Amanullah and Shah Khalid",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50233",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50233",authors:[{id:"178825",title:"Dr.",name:"Dr.",surname:"Amanullah",slug:"dr.-amanullah",fullName:"Dr. Amanullah"}],corrections:null},{id:"50516",title:"Soil Amendments for Agricultural Production",doi:"10.5772/63047",slug:"soil-amendments-for-agricultural-production",totalDownloads:2349,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The word organic, applied to fertilizers, indicates that the nutrients are derived from the remains or by‐products of a once‐living organism. Farmers are continually searching for alternatives to synthetic inorganic fertilizers to alleviate the escalating production costs associated with the increasing costs of energy and fertilizers and the problems of soil and surface water deterioration associated with intensive use and release of inorganic fertilizers such as N and P fertilizers. One of the advantages of organic fertilizers is that they provide their nutrients especially the principal nutrients (NPK) to growing plants over a long period of time in a slow release process. The soil has to be moist and warm enough to allow soil microorganisms to decompose and breakdown the complex forms of organic fertilizers. Generally, the application of organic amendments to agricultural soils makes good use of natural resources and reduces the need of synthetic inorganic fertilizers. Soil structure, nutrient composition, and microbiological activity of soil are usually increased following the application of organic amendments. This is because of the presence of sugars and amino acids as simple molecules in organic amendments that contribute to microbiological activity and fertility and elevated levels of enzymes secreted by soil microbes. To investigate the soil microbiological activity after the addition of soil amendments, three enzymes that control the C, N, and P cycles should be monitored in the plant rhizosphere zone, which is defined as the zone of increased microbial and enzyme activity where soil and root make contact. An increase of organic waste originated from different humans and productive activities is a continuous concern. Waste application (i.e., municipal sewage sludge, chicken manure, horse manure, and cow manure) to soil is proposed as a solution to disposal problem. This practice is popular in the agricultural fields because of the value of this waste as organic fertilizer. At KSU, numerous studies have been conducted on organic soil amendments and their impact on crop yield and quality, soil erosion and nutrient availability, soil enzymes activity, and bioremediation of heavy metals in organic amendments.",signatures:"George F. Antonious",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50516",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50516",authors:[{id:"174916",title:"Dr.",name:"George",surname:"Antonious",slug:"george-antonious",fullName:"George Antonious"}],corrections:null},{id:"50484",title:"Physicochemical Properties of a Red Soil Affected by the Longterm Application of Organic and Inorganic Fertilizers",doi:"10.5772/62528",slug:"physicochemical-properties-of-a-red-soil-affected-by-the-longterm-application-of-organic-and-inorgan",totalDownloads:1843,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Red soils are widespread throughout subtropical and tropical regions and are the most important resources for grain production in South China. Application of chemical fertilizers alone or chemical fertilizers combined with organic amendments is commonly practiced to improve physicochemical properties and fertility for red soils. This chapter summarizes the findings of a 22-year long-term field experiment conducted in the red soil region of south central China. Changes in soil pH, soil organic matter (OM), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and aggregate distribution and stability as affected by the long-term fertilization treatments were examined and discussed. Combined application of chemical fertilizer and rice straw or pig manure significantly increased soil pH in the first 7 years, but soil pH decreased linearly at a rate of 0.04–0.07 unit yearly since then. Soil total N and total P content significantly increased during the long-term fertilization, and the effects of pig manure addition on N and P build-up were greater than that of rice straw addition. In contrast, soil total potassium (K) contents significantly decreased by the long-term fertilization. There was a significant difference between the effect of rice straw addition and pig manure amendment on various aggregate size distribution in the red soil.",signatures:"Yanling Wang and Hailin Zhang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50484",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50484",authors:[{id:"179670",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanling",surname:"Wang",slug:"yanling-wang",fullName:"Yanling Wang"},{id:"180089",title:"Prof.",name:"Hailin",surname:"Zhang",slug:"hailin-zhang",fullName:"Hailin Zhang"}],corrections:null},{id:"50244",title:"An Overview of the Studies on Biochar Fertilizer Carried Out at the Beginning of the Twentieth Century in Japan",doi:"10.5772/62526",slug:"an-overview-of-the-studies-on-biochar-fertilizer-carried-out-at-the-beginning-of-the-twentieth-centu",totalDownloads:2046,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Biochar is a recently coined term for charred organic matter used as a soil amendment. Although the term is relatively new, the substance has been used for a long time throughout the world, including Japan. After we read a Japanese book entitled Nibai Shukaku Tenri Nouhou (How to Double Crop Yield by Almighty Farming System) originally published in 1912, we found that there were conflicting opinions between the author (Mr. Katsugoro Oyaizu) and soil scientists of the time (Dr. Gintaro Daikuhara and others) on the benefits of the use of biochar fertilizer. Previous publications on this topic have been written in Japanese from a sociological viewpoint. By referring to the literature published at the beginning of the twentieth century in Japan, we attempt to shed light on the conflict between traditional knowledge of biochar fertilizer and new concepts of soil science imported from the Western countries. We also describe briefly the socioeconomic impacts on the use of biochar fertilizer in the later generations.",signatures:"Naoki Moritsuka and Kaori Matsuoka",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50244",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50244",authors:[{id:"179714",title:"Dr.",name:"Naoki",surname:"Moritsuka",slug:"naoki-moritsuka",fullName:"Naoki Moritsuka"}],corrections:null},{id:"50686",title:"C‐CO2 Emissions, Carbon Pools and Crop Productivity Increased upon Slaughterhouse Organic Residue Fertilization in a No‐Till System",doi:"10.5772/63123",slug:"c-co2-emissions-carbon-pools-and-crop-productivity-increased-upon-slaughterhouse-organic-residue-fer",totalDownloads:1281,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The use of slaughterhouse organic residues (SORs) as a form of fertilization in no‐till systems could be an alternative to promote their appropriate disposal. This chapter reports a study on a Haplic Cambisol (Inceptisol) regarding the influence of different rates of SORs applied isolated or together with synthetic mineral fertilizers (SMFs) for 5.5 years in a no‐till system with diverse crop rotation. We evaluated crop productivity and several soil organic matter pools affected by the SOR and SMF combinations in a field experiment. In addition, a laboratory incubation experiment was performed with different rates of SORs to evaluate C‐CO2 emissions and C dynamics. The SOR applications provided significant increases in crop productivity, soil organic matter pools and C‐CO2 emissions. The SOR applications provided significant increases in crop productivity, soil organic matter pools and C-CO2 emissions. The treatment with 50% SOR + 50% SMF was the best alternative to provide higher crop productivity, while the higher use of SOR promoted more increments in soil organic matter levels. Despite the increase in C‐CO2 emissions due to the use of SORs, higher C levels were observed as a function of SOR rates. We conclude that the application of SORs combined with SMFs represents an efficient strategy to reduce costs and increase C levels, providing agronomic and environmental benefits.",signatures:"Jucimare Romaniw, João Carlos de Moraes Sá, Ademir de Oliveira\nFerreira and Thiago Massao Inagaki",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50686",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50686",authors:[{id:"76249",title:"Dr.",name:"João Carlos De Moraes",surname:"Sá",slug:"joao-carlos-de-moraes-sa",fullName:"João Carlos De Moraes Sá"},{id:"180642",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Jucimare",surname:"Romaniw",slug:"jucimare-romaniw",fullName:"Jucimare Romaniw"},{id:"185052",title:"MSc.",name:"Thiago",surname:"Massao Inagaki",slug:"thiago-massao-inagaki",fullName:"Thiago Massao Inagaki"},{id:"185069",title:"Dr.",name:"Ademir",surname:"de Oliveira Ferreira",slug:"ademir-de-oliveira-ferreira",fullName:"Ademir de Oliveira Ferreira"}],corrections:null},{id:"50260",title:"Organic Waste as Fertilizer in Semi-Arid Soils and Restoration in Mine Sites",doi:"10.5772/62665",slug:"organic-waste-as-fertilizer-in-semi-arid-soils-and-restoration-in-mine-sites",totalDownloads:1809,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The use of organic waste such as tannery sludge which has high organic matter, N and P content, as organic fertilizer is suitable for improving soil fertility in semi-arid soils and for remediation of abandoned mine sites. Retention of heavy metals on fractional processes of organic matter cannot be generalized, it depends on the chemical characterization of organic waste and soil. Addition of tannery sludge containing high concentrations of Cr and carbonates to semi-arid soils resulted in an increase in Cr loss in infiltration and runoff after 6 months of incubation followed by simulated rainfall. Under these characteristics, results suggest that tannery sludge represents a potential ha\nls amended with organic compost. Chemical characteristics of organic waste such as nitrogen content, humified organic matter, pH, EC, CEC, ESP (interchangeable sodium percent), and SAR (sodium absorption ratio) are important properties to consider in organic matter amendment to semi-arid soils participating on the complexity and leaching of heavy metals and nutrients in the matrix of soil.",signatures:"Martha Barajas-Aceves",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50260",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50260",authors:[{id:"179468",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Martha",surname:"Barajas-Aceves",slug:"martha-barajas-aceves",fullName:"Martha Barajas-Aceves"}],corrections:null},{id:"50413",title:"Use of Pasteurised and N-Organic-Enriched Sewage Sludge (Biosolid) as Organic Fertiliser for Maize Crops: Grain Production and Soil Modification Evaluation",doi:"10.5772/62813",slug:"use-of-pasteurised-and-n-organic-enriched-sewage-sludge-biosolid-as-organic-fertiliser-for-maize-cro",totalDownloads:1517,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Trough plot-field essay, the effects of two pasteurised-N-enriched sludge loading (3000, 7000 kg ha−1) on Zea mays L. crop were studied for grain production and soil modifications evaluation. The results of pasteurised sewage sludge application (Plateau-ASP–Active Sludge Pasteurization-ActiSolids©) showed a more grain production by the two biosolid doses in comparison with mineral fertilization (NPK: 15:15:15, 1270 kg ha−1). The organic fertilization produced 11 tons ha−1 (grain dry matter) by 9 tons ha−1 (grain dry matter) for mineral application. No relationships were found between N and P application and grain production. The bisolid application (just for the large dose) derived in a low pH [with a low-aluminium saturation (%)], and low C: N, C: P and N: P soil ratios too, with a P soil content increment. By other hand, the heavy metal soil contents (Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Zn, Hi, Hg) are below Galiza-Spanish legislation levels (DOG 107/2012).",signatures:"Emilio Carral, Adolfo López-Fabal, Socorro Seoane, Teresa\nRodríguez, Carlos Caaveiro and Elvira López-Mosquera",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50413",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50413",authors:[{id:"138544",title:"Dr.",name:"Emilio V.",surname:"Vilariño",slug:"emilio-v.-vilarino",fullName:"Emilio V. Vilariño"},{id:"140782",title:"Dr.",name:"Elvira",surname:"López -Mosquera",slug:"elvira-lopez-mosquera",fullName:"Elvira López -Mosquera"},{id:"140783",title:"Dr.",name:"Teresa",surname:"Rodríguez",slug:"teresa-rodriguez",fullName:"Teresa Rodríguez"},{id:"179522",title:"Dr.",name:"Adolfo",surname:"López",slug:"adolfo-lopez",fullName:"Adolfo López"},{id:"179523",title:"Dr.",name:"Socorro",surname:"Seoane",slug:"socorro-seoane",fullName:"Socorro Seoane"},{id:"179524",title:"BSc.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Caaveiro",slug:"carlos-caaveiro",fullName:"Carlos Caaveiro"}],corrections:null},{id:"50167",title:"On-Farm-Produced Organic Amendments on Maintaining and Enhancing Soil Fertility and Nitrogen Availability in Organic or Low Input Agriculture",doi:"10.5772/62338",slug:"on-farm-produced-organic-amendments-on-maintaining-and-enhancing-soil-fertility-and-nitrogen-availab",totalDownloads:1615,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Maintaining and enhancing soil fertility are key issues for sustainability in an agricultural system with organic or low input methods. On-farm–produced green manure as a source of soil organic matter (SOM) plays a critical role in long-term productivity. But producing green manure requires land and water; thus, increasing biodiversity, such as by intercropping with green manure crops, could be an approach to enhance the efficiency of renewable resources especially in developing countries. This article discusses soil fertility and its maintenance and enhancement with leguminous intercropping from four points of view: soil fertility and organic matter function, leguminous green manure, intercropping principles, and soil conservation. Important contributions of leguminous intercropping include SOM enhancement and fertility building, biological nitrogen (N) and other plant nutrition availability. Under a well-designed and managed system, competition between the target and intercropping crops can be reduced. The plant uptake efficiency of biologically fixed N is estimated to be double that of industrial N fertilizers. After N-rich plant residues are incorporated into soil, the carbon (C):nitrogen ratio of added straw decreases. Another high mitigation potential of legume intercropping lies in soil conservation by preventing soil and water erosion. Many opportunities exist to introduce legumes in short-term rotation, intercropping, living mulch, and cover crops in an organically managed farm system. Worldwide, long-term soil fertility enhancement remains a challenge due to the current world population and agricultural practices. Cropping system including legumes is a step in the right direction to meeting the needs of food security and sustainability.",signatures:"Yani Nin, Pinchun Diao, Qian Wang, Qingzhong Zhang, Ziliang\nZhao and Zhifang Li",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50167",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50167",authors:[{id:"178869",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhifang",surname:"Li",slug:"zhifang-li",fullName:"Zhifang Li"},{id:"180022",title:"BSc.",name:"Yani",surname:"Ning",slug:"yani-ning",fullName:"Yani Ning"},{id:"184348",title:"MSc.",name:"Pinchun",surname:"Diao",slug:"pinchun-diao",fullName:"Pinchun Diao"},{id:"184349",title:"Prof.",name:"Qian",surname:"Wang",slug:"qian-wang",fullName:"Qian Wang"},{id:"184350",title:"Prof.",name:"Qingzhong",surname:"Zhang",slug:"qingzhong-zhang",fullName:"Qingzhong Zhang"},{id:"184351",title:"MSc.",name:"Ziliang",surname:"Zhao",slug:"ziliang-zhao",fullName:"Ziliang Zhao"}],corrections:null},{id:"50141",title:"Impact of Organic Fertilizers on Phenolic Profiles and Fatty Acids Composition: A Case Study for Cichorium intybus L.",doi:"10.5772/62325",slug:"impact-of-organic-fertilizers-on-phenolic-profiles-and-fatty-acids-composition-a-case-study-for-cich",totalDownloads:2218,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Radicchio (Cichorium intybus L.) is an increasingly appreciated leafy vegetable that exhibits great diversity in appearance, including different colored leaves, rosettes, or heads. Varieties of radicchio (‘Treviso’, ‘Verona’ ‘Anivip’, ‘Castelfranco’, and ‘Monivip’) commonly produced in Slovenia were investigated for their phenolic and fatty acid profiles. Plants were grown under organic and/or mineral fertilizer managements in greenhouse conditions. High-performance liquid chromatography analysis was used to study phenolic compounds in radicchio leaf samples. Thirty-three phenolic compounds were quantitatively evaluated. Significant differences were found between varieties and across different fertilizer managements. The total phenolic amount (TPA) was found in a wide range from 58 to 403 mg/100 g fresh weight (FW). Between varieties, the highest TPA was observed for var. ‘Treviso’ (300 mg/100 g FW) and the lowest TPA was observed for var. ‘Castelfranco’ (125 mg/100 g FW). The main phenolic compounds in radicchio leaves were represented by phenolic acids, chlorogenic acid and cichoric acid, respectively. The fatty acid levels of radicchio leaf samples were determined by the chromatographic analysis of fatty acid methyl esters using gas chromatography with flame ionization detector. The analysis revealed the amounts of C16:0, C18:0, C18:1n9, C18:2n6, C18:3n3, and C20:0 fatty acids. The total fatty acid levels varied from 170 to 500 mg/100 g FW. The highest fatty acid quantity was represented by C18:3n3 (≤63%) followed by C18:2n6 (≤45%) and C16:0 (≤24%). All radicchio samples had a ratio of n-6/n-3 essential fatty acids below 1 and thus in accordance with the current dietary guidelines. Among different fertilizer managements, the highest total fatty acid levels were found for organic fertilizer (384 mg/100 g FW).",signatures:"Lovro Sinkovič and Dragan Žnidarčič",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50141",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50141",authors:[{id:"179063",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",surname:"Znidarcic",slug:"dragan-znidarcic",fullName:"Dragan Znidarcic"},{id:"180975",title:"Dr.",name:"Lovro",surname:"Sinkovič",slug:"lovro-sinkovic",fullName:"Lovro Sinkovič"}],corrections:null},{id:"51108",title:"Productivity and Structures of Marandu Grass Fertilized with Poultry Manure Both with and Without Soil Chiseling",doi:"10.5772/62488",slug:"productivity-and-structures-of-marandu-grass-fertilized-with-poultry-manure-both-with-and-without-so",totalDownloads:1629,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"With annual increase in production poultry the use of manure can be for the fertilization of pastures. The objective of this study was to evaluate the production of Marandu grass fertilized with poultry manure applied to the soil with and without soil chiseling, betweenSeptember 2012 and September 2013. The study design was a randomized block with four replications in a 5 x 2 factorial arrangement with five doses of manure (0, 1.073, 2.074, 4.148, 6.222 t ha-1) both with and without soil chiseling. The cuts were made with light interception of 95% of the canopy with a depth of residue of 0.15 m. With accumulated production during the period there was no interaction (Dose x Management, Cutting Number, Dry Mass (Total and Waste), Leaf Blade (Total and Waste) and Mass Dead of Waste). The application of poultry manure doses caused changes in the stem and the sheath(total and waste) and mass dead total as well asthe production of dry mass, blade blade and stems and sheath. All set to the linear model, and the production of dry mass and blade blade 19.31 and 13.52 Mg ha-1 at the highest dose of manure.Poultry manure can be an alternative fertilizer for productive of the leaf blade recovery of Marandu grass.",signatures:"Edson Sadayuki Eguchi, Ulysses Cecato, Antonio Saraiva Muniz, Luiz Juliano Valério Geron and Murilo Donizeti do Carmo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51108",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51108",authors:[{id:"178996",title:"Dr.",name:"Edson",surname:"Eguchi",slug:"edson-eguchi",fullName:"Edson Eguchi"},{id:"179693",title:"Dr.",name:"Ulysses",surname:"Cecato",slug:"ulysses-cecato",fullName:"Ulysses Cecato"},{id:"179694",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio Saraiva",surname:"Muniz",slug:"antonio-saraiva-muniz",fullName:"Antonio Saraiva Muniz"},{id:"179696",title:"Dr.",name:"Luiz Juliano Valério",surname:"Geron",slug:"luiz-juliano-valerio-geron",fullName:"Luiz Juliano Valério Geron"},{id:"179698",title:"MSc.",name:"Murilo Donizeti Do",surname:"Carmo",slug:"murilo-donizeti-do-carmo",fullName:"Murilo Donizeti Do Carmo"}],corrections:null},{id:"51059",title:"Organic Fertilizers: Public Health Intricacies",doi:"10.5772/64195",slug:"organic-fertilizers-public-health-intricacies",totalDownloads:2716,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:16,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Organic fertilizers are an essential source for plant nutrients and a soil conditioner in agriculture. Due to its sources and the composition of the organic inputs as well as the type, functionality and failures of the applied treatment process, the organic fertilizer may contain various amounts of infectious agents and toxic chemicals, especially the antibiotics that can be introduced to the subsequent food chain. A range of human and animal pathogens of bacterial, viral and parasitic origin have been the cause of food-borne epidemics due to unintended contamination from organic fertilizers. The use of antibiotics by humans and in animal feeds will also end up in the organic fertilizers. These antibiotics and other chemicals, depending on the sources of the organics, will enhance the likelihood of occurrence of resistant and multi-resistant strains of microorganisms in society and have been reported to cause ecotoxicological environmental effects and disruption of the ecological balance. Exposure of microorganisms to sublethal concentration of antibiotics in the organic products induces antibiotic resistance. WHO guidelines for the reuse of excreta and other organic matters identify the risk for the exposed groups to the reuse of the excreta and are applicable in the use of organic fertilizers in agriculture.",signatures:"Anthony A. Adegoke, Oluyemi O. Awolusi and Thor A. Stenström",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51059",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51059",authors:[{id:"175730",title:"Dr.",name:"Anthony Ayodeji",surname:"Adegoke",slug:"anthony-ayodeji-adegoke",fullName:"Anthony Ayodeji Adegoke"},{id:"180623",title:"Dr.",name:"Oluyemi Olatunji",surname:"Awolusi",slug:"oluyemi-olatunji-awolusi",fullName:"Oluyemi Olatunji Awolusi"},{id:"186321",title:"Prof.",name:"Thor Axel",surname:"Stenstrom",slug:"thor-axel-stenstrom",fullName:"Thor Axel Stenstrom"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:[{id:"65",label:"highly cited contributor"}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"923",title:"Herbicides",subtitle:"Theory and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54a8eb808c05a5fe01c676e7047d4576",slug:"herbicides-theory-and-applications",bookSignature:"Sonia Soloneski and Marcelo L. Larramendy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/923.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5184",title:"Environmental Health Risk",subtitle:"Hazardous Factors to Living Species",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"aa20266ad595ce73a9396f4ab0f8112e",slug:"environmental-health-risk-hazardous-factors-to-living-species",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5184.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4637",title:"Toxicity and Hazard of Agrochemicals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6aff74df1ea32df7f1e20e29c8363ff5",slug:"toxicity-and-hazard-of-agrochemicals",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4637.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5362",title:"Toxicology",subtitle:"New Aspects to This Scientific Conundrum",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2061f273c8b3134dffbcb5256969ecab",slug:"toxicology-new-aspects-to-this-scientific-conundrum",bookSignature:"Sonia Soloneski and Marcelo L. Larramendy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5362.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5170",title:"Green Nanotechnology",subtitle:"Overview and Further Prospects",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d4dc551be023ba3525e6126076af90",slug:"green-nanotechnology-overview-and-further-prospects",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5170.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4606",title:"Emerging Pollutants in the Environment",subtitle:"Current and Further Implications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1502287827685f0b71235bd45fe35ae4",slug:"emerging-pollutants-in-the-environment-current-and-further-implications",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4606.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5101",title:"Invertebrates",subtitle:"Experimental Models in Toxicity Screening",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ebef5298af7d87ad3c9c7f5fe808fa2c",slug:"invertebrates-experimental-models-in-toxicity-screening",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5101.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5358",title:"Soil Contamination",subtitle:"Current Consequences and Further Solutions",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e4d136df9f1658ae17f3ba7b3c992460",slug:"soil-contamination-current-consequences-and-further-solutions",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5358.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4616",title:"Nanomaterials",subtitle:"Toxicity and Risk Assessment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a96b5d34ca84aecacbab309ba1e7e563",slug:"nanomaterials-toxicity-and-risk-assessment",bookSignature:"Sonia Soloneski and Marcelo L. Larramendy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4616.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6310",title:"Genotoxicity",subtitle:"A Predictable Risk to Our Actual World",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"14a0966cec5283fdbc781a6bb47ed4e3",slug:"genotoxicity-a-predictable-risk-to-our-actual-world",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6310.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"79043",slug:"corrigendum-the-application-of-electric-drive-technologies-i",title:"Corrigendum: Application of Electric Drive Technologies in City Buses",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/79043.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79043",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79043",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/79043",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/79043",chapter:{id:"41487",slug:"the-application-of-electric-drive-technologies-in-city-buses",signatures:"Zlatomir Živanović and Zoran Nikolic",dateSubmitted:"April 4th 2012",dateReviewed:"July 21st 2012",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"December 19th 2012",book:{id:"3196",title:"New Generation of Electric Vehicles",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"New Generation of Electric Vehicles",slug:"new-generation-of-electric-vehicles",publishedDate:"December 19th 2012",bookSignature:"Zoran Stevic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3196.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"30692",title:"Dr.",name:"Zoran",middleName:"M.",surname:"Stevic",slug:"zoran-stevic",fullName:"Zoran Stevic"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"154524",title:"Dr.",name:"Zlatomir",middleName:null,surname:"Zivanovic",fullName:"Zlatomir Zivanovic",slug:"zlatomir-zivanovic",email:"zzivanovic@vinca.rs",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Belgrade",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Serbia"}}},{id:"164696",title:"Dr.",name:"Zoran",middleName:null,surname:"Nikolic",fullName:"Zoran Nikolic",slug:"zoran-nikolic",email:"zor.nikolic@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"41487",slug:"the-application-of-electric-drive-technologies-in-city-buses",signatures:"Zlatomir Živanović and Zoran Nikolic",dateSubmitted:"April 4th 2012",dateReviewed:"July 21st 2012",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"December 19th 2012",book:{id:"3196",title:"New Generation of Electric Vehicles",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"New Generation of Electric Vehicles",slug:"new-generation-of-electric-vehicles",publishedDate:"December 19th 2012",bookSignature:"Zoran Stevic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3196.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"30692",title:"Dr.",name:"Zoran",middleName:"M.",surname:"Stevic",slug:"zoran-stevic",fullName:"Zoran Stevic"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"154524",title:"Dr.",name:"Zlatomir",middleName:null,surname:"Zivanovic",fullName:"Zlatomir Zivanovic",slug:"zlatomir-zivanovic",email:"zzivanovic@vinca.rs",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Belgrade",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Serbia"}}},{id:"164696",title:"Dr.",name:"Zoran",middleName:null,surname:"Nikolic",fullName:"Zoran Nikolic",slug:"zoran-nikolic",email:"zor.nikolic@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"3196",title:"New Generation of Electric Vehicles",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"New Generation of Electric Vehicles",slug:"new-generation-of-electric-vehicles",publishedDate:"December 19th 2012",bookSignature:"Zoran Stevic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3196.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"30692",title:"Dr.",name:"Zoran",middleName:"M.",surname:"Stevic",slug:"zoran-stevic",fullName:"Zoran Stevic"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11433",leadTitle:null,title:"Human Migration in the Last Three Centuries",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tIn March 2022, another book on human migration seems important when the events or tragedies unfolding in Eastern Europe are considered. People have always migrated and have moved, but, specifically looking at the last three hundred years, involuntary migration is on the rise. Involuntary migration does not only affect Europe; Asia, Africa, and North as well as South America, have had their fair share of natural catastrophes, invasions, and wars.
\r\n\tThis book will intend to look at different migrant patterns, voluntary and involuntary migration, over the last three centuries. What influenced people to leave their home countries, family, and friends and settle somewhere else? The book may include histories of the 19th century, consider tragedies and movements activated by political events in the 20th century, and/or look at recent events of the 21st century. Push and pull factors are important points. While most of us may be influenced in a negative way by the current happenings in Eastern Europe, the Russian invasion and resulting tragedies also demonstrate some very positive human traits – the preparedness of Ukraine’s surrounding countries to help those in need and to provide a safe place for the present.
\r\n\tWhether one looks at voluntary or involuntary migration into any country, after a period of adjustment, migrants do play a positive role. The research found that migrants contribute to the economy (food, shelter, employment, tax) and enrich a country’s cultural norms. Prerequisites for successful settlements are that the host society adopts a tolerant approach and that the migrants recognize the law and the language of the host country. Nothing is ever easy or without controversy, but I am a migrant (German Australian), and life in Australia has been relatively harmonious. Issues that could be considered in the book are multicultural societies (do monocultural societies still exist?) and theories of acculturation versus integration (settlement processes).
\r\n\tTwo further issues are very important in relation to human migration. There is climate change, global warming, and the environment, which clearly affect people’s movement. Small island populations are very concerned about rising sea levels. 2021 has also seen floods costing human lives: Turkey (August 2021), Brazil (December 2021), Chile (January 2021), and South India (November 2021), to name but a few. In Australia (March 2022), farms and whole townships in New South Wales and Queensland have been flooded for the second time in five years, and plans to resettle these towns are considered. Official and social media provide ample coverage of the events, which leads me to the next issue. There is today’s very important role of the media, of the official and social media. We are constantly bombarded with images of human war tragedies and flood victims. People in industrialized, western countries must be the best-informed populace. How far do the images and up-to-date TV news influence us, make us change our behavior, and perhaps even consider us more generous than we have been?
\r\n\tClimate change and the media are relatively new to the human migration debate, but both issues play important parts, and some interesting discussions are appreciated.
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The FAO-organized Food Summit in Rome in 1996 recognized the need to ensure physical and economic access to safe and nutritious food, if the nutritional needs of any population have to be met and for them to lead an active and healthy lifestyle [1]. However, the FAO World Food Summit of 2001 refined the definition to include health care and sanitation aspects in the context of the environment in which the food is consumed. Thus food security can be defined in six dimensions that are interrelated, which are: physical availability of food, economic and physical access to food, affordability of the food supply, availability of adequate and safe food, the utilization or the ability of the body to make use of the nutrients and the stability of the dimensions; in summary, the dimensions are access, availability, adequacy, safety, affordability and stability. Even though food is recognized as a universal human right due to its central role in human development, it is currently unmet for billions of people in the world. The state of food and nutrition insecurity is a daily experience in many parts of developing countries, with most countries of Africa being victims of the situation. From the above definition, the United Nations Steering Committee on Nutrition opined that the link of food sufficiency and nutrition status of the consumer should be clearly brought out whenever the subject of food security is discussed. This is because when we consume food, it is supposed to supply the right nutrients in the proportions and form that the body needs for optimal metabolic, physical and physiological functioning. Thus the improved definition that brings out both aspects includes: “access by all people, at all times, by any physical, social and economic means to food that is consumed in adequate quantity and quality, to be able to meet their dietary preferences and needs, and is supported by a sanitary environment, where access to health services and care is assured in order for the consumer to live a healthy and active lifestyle”. It therefore follows that any discussion on food and nutrition security, should consider physical access, availability, affordability, adequacy, quality and stability of the food supply. Quality in this respect encompasses not only physical fitness for purpose of the food item, but its being safe and in the form expected for it to be acceptable to the consumer [2]. The food consumed must meet the quality and quantity requirements of age, gender, occupation and health status of the consumer [3]. Adequate and proper nutritional quality of the food supply is an essential prerequisite for maintaining good health status. The critical role nutrition plays in health and human development, warrants greater commitment to the attainment of good nutritional status. The member states of the East African Community (EAC) have ratified a wide range of international covenants and committed themselves to ending hunger and malnutrition among their populations. Building on these commitments, the current article examines the status and prospects for Food and Nutrition Security in the Member States of the East African Community (EAC). It discusses some basic facts of the Region and delves into the subject matter of the thesis, with the situation in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, being examined in some detail. The current chapter also provides a set of recommendations for improving the food and nutrition security situation in the future for each country.
The EAC existed as an important trading block up until its break up in 1977 (it was then made up of Kenya, Uganda and Tanganyika-i.e., Tanzania, but without Zanzibar, Pemba and the smaller Islands in the Indian Ocean); It was revived on 30th November 1999, but the instruments for its re-establishment came into effect in 2000. It has a larger country composition, comprising of Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi, and South Sudan. On 14th June 2019, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) requested to join the trading bloc, but the request is yet to be discussed and determined. The region has a current population of over 150 million people, but is likely to surpass 240 million, if the DRC is formally admitted as a member. The EAC as currently constituted is made up of over 200 ethnic groups. The current 6 member states of the EAC appear in Figure 1.
Member states of the EAC (shaded).
This part of the continent is composed mainly of plateaus, most of the highest elevations on the African continent and the largest lakes in Africa. In Kenya and parts of Tanzania, the highest elevations in the highlands reach as high as 2000–3000 feet above the mean sea level. The twin Rift Valley Systems run across the Region. The Great or Eastern Rift Valley runs from the Red Sea down through Ethiopia and Kenya going downward towards Tanzania, where the faulting activity created Lake Turkana and Tanganyika. The Western Rift System curves around western Uganda and Tanzania and includes Lake Victoria, the largest tropical lake and the largest and second largest fresh water lake in Africa and the World by surface area, respectively. Africa’s highest mountain, Mount Kilimanjaro stands on the edge of the Great Rift Valley at above 19,340 feet (5895 metres above sea level) in northeastern Tanzania. Rwanda and Burundi sit on the edge of the western side of the Western Rift System and are a conflagration of hills and valleys that mesh into the fertile tropical forests of the DRC in the west. South Sudan sits between the dry northern Kenya plains, the semi-arid eastern Uganda and western Ethiopia. South Sudan is made up of tropical forests, swamps and grassland. The Imatong Mountains contain South Sudan’s highest point, Mount Kinyeti at 10,456 feet above sea level.
The climate of the Region is generally tropical, but the high temperatures are tempered by the high elevations, the valleys and hills of Rwanda, Burundi and western Uganda. Precipitation depends on altitude, with western Kenya, South Sudan, most of Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda and Burundi receiving high amounts of rainfall. Northern Kenya and the Karamoja Region of Uganda, receive low amounts of rainfall ranging from 5 to 40 inches annually, though Karamoja receives slightly hjgher than 40 inches annually. These low rainfall areas have low food production potential and are associated with high poverty indices and therefore poor food and nutrition security. Nomadic pastoralism based on livestock keeping is the major mode of production and livelihood in these semi-arid areas. The region’s vegetation is composed of thick woodlands and grassland in the high and wetter elevations, to scanty, thorny shrub and vegetation to desert terrain in the arid and semi-arid plains, respectively. South Sudan is hot with seasonal rainfall as influenced by the annual shift of the Inter-tropical Convergence Zone. Rainfall is heaviest in the southern highlands and reduces towards the north as it merges into the Republic of Sudan.
This chapter examines the economic, food and nutrition security situation in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. For each country, some recommendations that are likely to improve food and nutrition security in the long-term are provided.
Although the agricultural sector continues to dominate Kenya’s economy, only 15–20% of Kenya’s total land area has sufficient fertility and rainfall to be farmed, but only 7–8% of the land can be classified as first-class agricultural land. A considerable number of Kenyans make their living off the land, but this trend has continued to decline from the 1980s for various reasons including: rural–urban migration, the low economic gains from the sector, population growth and conversion of agricultural land to residential land, and, sub-division for purposes of inheritance, etc.
Agriculture is the second largest contributor to Kenya’s gross domestic product (GDP) after the service sector and fundamentally drives the country’s economy, as about 75% of Kenyans earn all or part of their income from the sector. Agriculture generally accounts for 33% of the nation’s GDP, but its contribution to the country’s GDP has continued to fluctuate over the years as agricultural productivity has either stagnated or declined. This has been observed for major food crops such as wheat and rice. Furthermore, the 15–20% of Kenya’s land area that is regarded as suitable for farming is not also utilized efficiently.
Recurrent crises such as drought add to the agriculture-related challenges which largely contribute to the high malnutrition levels in the country. In 2005, agriculture, including forestry and fishing, accounted for 18% of wage employment and 50% of revenue from exports. For decades, the principal cash crops have remained tea, horticultural produce and coffee, with horticultural produce and tea being the major earners of foreign exchange. Horticultural produce and tea accounted for 23% and 22% of total export earnings, respectively. Coffee which has declined in importance due in part to depressed world prices and the decline of land under the crop, accounted for just 5% of export receipts in 2005. The production of major food staples such as maize is subject to sharp weather-related fluctuations. Declines in maize production often times leads to the need for Government to appeal for food aid, as was witnessed in 2004, and even lately in 2016–2017, when as many as 1.8–2.0 million people needed food relief. The expansion of credit to the agricultural sector by the financial sector has enabled farmers to better deal with the large risk of agriculture based on seasonal rainfall and dramatic fluctuations of the prices of agricultural commodities. The expansion of the area under irrigation is another major food policy issue for government as it works to find ways of increasing food production.
Tea, coffee, sisal, pyrethrum, maize, and wheat are grown in the fertile Kenya highlands, which is one of the most successful agricultural production regions in Africa. However, the production of sisal and pyrethrum is declining to levels where there may be no production of these two crops in the near future for various reasons which are outside the realm of the current discussion.
Local livestock breeds (Boran and Zebu) predominate in the semi-arid savanna to the north and east of the country, but exotic dairy breeds such as Friesian, Ayrshire, Sahiwal and crosses of the exotic and local Zebu cattle are kept in the highlands and mid altitudes, with the latter region sustaining the beef breeds. Cash and food crops including coconuts, pineapples, cashew nuts, sugarcane, and maize are grown in most parts of the country.
Kenya Vision 2030, the development blue print for the country, was initiated in 2013 by Emilio Mwai Kibaki, the 3rd President of Kenya. It has the economic, social and political pillars as its anchors; the economic pillar aims at improving the prosperity of all Kenyans through an economic development programme, covering all the regions of Kenya. It aimed to achieve a GDP growth rate of 10% per annum beginning in 2004, but the country has consistently fallen short of the target every subsequent financial year. However, to work towards achieving the target, Kenya is continuing with the tradition of macro-economic stability that has been established since 2002. The New Administration of President Uhuru M. Kenyatta has picked up some key economic deliverables in the Vision, in what in 2018, it has characterized as “The Big Four.”
These are:
Universal Healthcare,
Manufacturing,
Affordable Housing and
Food Security,
Through the economic pillar and strategy, Kenya aims to build a just and cohesive society with social equity available to all its citizens and enable them live in a clean and secure environment. The vision presents comprehensive social interventions for improving the quality of life of all Kenyans and Kenyan residents. The strategy contains special provisions to help persons living with various disabilities and previously marginalized communities, who may lack a good education, are unemployed and experience poor nutritional status due to high poverty prevalence among them. These policies (and those in the economic pillar) are equally anchored on an all-round strategy of adopting science, technology and innovation (STI) as the implementation tool. The STI concentrates in certain areas for it to contribute to the success of the initiative, including:
Education and vocational/technical training
Healthcare
Water and sanitation
The environment
Housing and urbanization
Gender, youth and vulnerable groups
Equity and poverty elimination, and,
National reconciliation, integration and cohesion
Kenya has a current population of 47.6 million [4] and is generally regarded as water-deficient and food and nutrition insecure. It suffers from frequent droughts and famines with as many as 2–3 million people affected every time a famine or drought occurs, and, about 10 million suffering from chronic food insecurity and poor nutrition. Most of those affected live in the pastoral, semi-arid and arid areas of the country located in the North, Northeast and Northwest of the country, although parts of the Upper Eastern that include the Counties of Kitui, Makueni and Tana River County in the Coastal Region (Figure 2), are often also affected. Some of these arid and semi-arid zones receive as little 5–30 inches or more of rain annually. The other category of consumers that is often affected by food and nutrition insecurity is the slum dwellers, who constitute a considerable percentage of the country’s population, and, live in the inner cities of the major urban settlements. The Cities of Nairobi, Mombasa, Kisumu, Nakuru and Eldoret hold about 20% of the country’s population and will therefore require significant attention in the effort to reduce food and nutrition insecurity in the country. Malnutrition is a public concern and is the single most important contributor to child mortality which stood at 30.6% in every 1000 births by 2018 down from 33.3% in 2015. Malnutrition is mainly due to inadequate food intake and disease, with the underlying factors being poor child care practices, household food insecurity, and inadequate sanitation and health care services, among others. Most of the indicators on food availability, access and affordability, poverty levels and nutritional status are obtained through statistics generated from the Integrated Household Budget Surveys (IHBS) and the Kenya Household and Dietary Surveys (KHDS). The latest IHBS and KHDS were done in 2011 and 2014, respectively. The IHBS surveys show different levels of food poverty across the former eight Kenyan Administrative Provinces, which were abolished after the promulgation of the new Kenya Constitution in 2010 [5]. They were replaced by 47 Counties, which came into being in March 2013. The IHBS of 2011 showed food poverty levels of 31, 45, 46, 50, 51, 64 and 66% for the then Central, Eastern, Nyanza, Rift Valley, Western, Coast and Northeastern Provinces, respectively. It is likely that the indicators have declined in some of the regions between then and now. Low indicators are normally apparent in the Provinces where nomadic pastoralists are a significant percentage of the population. The pastoralist, semi-arid and arid areas that compose about 70% of the country’s land mass and hold about 30% of the human population, are some of the poorest regions of the country, with the worst food poverty, nourishment, health and sanitation indicators. In the counties where nomadic pastoralism dominates as a form of resource use and production, the factors that seem to be major drivers of food and nutrition insecurity include weather anomalies, water scarcity, ethnic resource-based conflicts and displacements, high food prices, depressed livestock sales prices, hardships associated with migration in search of water and pasture for livestock herds by the nomads, cross-border conflicts and livestock pest and disease outbreaks. Climate variability is an ongoing phenomenon that is affecting food production. The rest of the country falls under the agrarian belt, where arable farming is practised. In the agrarian belt, the major drivers for food and nutrition insecurity include poor transport infrastructure, poor market access for farm produce, climate variability, late arrival of government subsidized fertilizer and agro-chemicals, late payments to farmers for crop delivered to depots of the National Cereals and Produce Board, poor management of farmers’ cooperatives, depressed food sales prices and crop pests and livestock diseases. Grossly inadequate storage facilities and poor handling and storage practices for cereal grain, pulses and oil seeds, also contribute to food and nutrition insecurity as considerable amounts of produce is lost through microbially-mediated deterioration and pest infestation. Poor purchase prices, delayed payments of deliveries to National Government grain depots, often encourage sales of surplus harvest to middlemen, who despite offering modest prices compared to government agencies have the advantage of on-the-spot cash payments for produce bought. It is envisaged that the provision of storage facilities through the National Cereals and Produce Board, Co-operatives, improvement in road infrastructure, the expansion of rural electrification programmes, adoption of climate-smart agriculture, diversification of the food supply and diets, especially an increase in consumption of fruits and vegetables will lower food and nutrition security indicators and improve consumer nutritional status and health.
GHI for Kenya’s regions.
The mortality rate of Kenyan children under age five has fallen steadily since 2000 [6], but remains of grave concern. On the positive side, the level of undernourishment among Kenya’s children fell in 2001–2003 and again in 2013–2015, but recurring droughts have led to a noticeable rise in levels. A decline was also recently observed after the 2016–2017 drought which affected Kenya and her neighbors, and which resulted in drops in agricultural production, increases in food prices [7, 8], and the consumption of inadequate food of low calorie and protein content. The impact of the current COVID-19 pandemic is expected to be disastrous as agricultural production is expected to fall arising from the lengthy lockdowns and restrictions of movement of goods, people, the imposed curfews and the closing down of businesses.
Kenya’s child stunting and child wasting levels have also fallen considerably, with the stunting rate dropping from 35.2–26.0%, and the wasting rate falling from 7.0–4.0% in 2008–2009 and in 2014 [9, 10]. Levels vary substantially between regions and counties, with some having values significantly higher than the national averages. The highest child stunting percentages were found in Kitui County and West Pokot at 45.8% and 45.9%, respectively [10]. Although these Counties have high poverty levels (48 and 57%, respectively, based on national poverty indicators), stunting in Kenya is not perfectly associated with poverty levels. Rather, it seems to be influenced by a complex set of factors that include dietary diversity, feeding and caregiving practices, access to appropriate sanitation and disease prevalence [11, 12]. Wasting is highest in Kenya’s northernmost counties: with a value of 22.9% in Turkana, 16.3% in Marsabit, 14.8% in Mandera, 14.3% in West Pokot, and 14.2% in Wajir [10]. These Counties are arid or semi-arid, and are dominated by pastoralism as a form of livelihood and production and therefore have high poverty levels [13, 14]. Moreover, rates of contraception use and women’s education levels in these counties are low and fertility rates are high [10]. It has been observed that children’s nutritional status is associated with mothers’ education and literacy rates [15], both globally and in Kenya, specifically. A study from urban settlements of Nairobi found that maternal education strongly predicts children’s nutritional status, when controlling for other socio-economic and demographic factors [16]. Some recent data from Kenya shows that the stunting rate of children whose mothers had no formal education was 31%, while that of children whose mothers had secondary education or higher was 17% [10]. Children’s nutrition is also associated with mothers’ nutritional status and therefore income. A study from rural Kenya showed a positive correlation between maternal nutrition and children’s nutritional status in terms of anthropometric measures [17]. As Kenya attempts to further reduce child undernutrition, albeit with persistent challenges, any gains will be achieved if it addresses infant and young child feeding practices in the Counties. Breastfeeding practices have improved substantially in Kenya, with 61% of children under 6 months exclusively breastfed in 2014, compared with just 32% in 2008–2009 [10, 9]. Meanwhile, in 2014, just 22% of children between 6 and 23 months of age received a minimum acceptable diet [10]. Figure 2 gives global hunger indicators (GHI) for Kenya’s regions.
Although most food and nutrition analyses of Kenya have traditionally focused on rural areas, where rates of child undernutrition tend to be higher than in urban areas, Kenya’s population is increasingly urbanizing, and urban food insecurity and undernutrition, are emerging concerns [10, 18, 19]. Urban dwellers are highly vulnerable to food price spikes, which affect their access to affordable food, especially the unemployed, casual labourers who mainly live in the sprawling informal settlements of Nairobi, Kisumu, Nakuru, Mombasa and Eldoret, and increasingly in every major urban centre in the country. Moreover, urban populations live in crowded, poor accommodation, and often lack adequate water, sanitation and therefore live in unhygienic conditions are subject to illness and disease [18, 19]. Child mortality declined much more slowly in urban than in rural areas of Kenya between 1993 and 2008, perhaps because of the deplorable living conditions in urban settlements [20]. In 2014, Nairobi had the second highest child mortality rate among Kenya’s regions (Figure 2).
Agriculture is considered to have considerable potential to increase household food security and nutrition. Although evidence of the impact of agricultural technologies on relevant outcomes is limited, some studies have shown promising results in Kenya [21]. Dairying and pastoralism play important economic roles among Kenyan smallholder farmers, with significant implications for nutrition. Roughly a quarter of Kenyan households engage in small-scale dairy activities. Studies of pastoralism in four of Kenya’s northern, and arid counties–Mandera, Marsabit, Turkana, and Wajir (Figure 3) showed that livestock is the main source of livelihood for not less than 57% of households [13, 22]. For pastoralist households, the animals provide the milk consumed by families, and as livestock assets decrease, so does milk consumption affecting children’s nutritional status and well-being. Milk consumption at the household level was found to be positively associated with higher body mass index among Samburu youth [23]. Consumption of animal-source foods by Kenyan schoolchildren has also been shown to be positively associated with height and weight gains. A school-feeding programme that tested the effect of different types of snacks given to children found that meat and milk snacks contributed the most to children’s arm muscle growth. Figure 3 shows the current Counties of Kenya.
The counties of Kenya.
Kenya is engaged in cash transfer initiatives as a way to lift the poor out of food and nutrition insecurity. The unconditional cash transfer programme for Orphans and Vulnerable Children increased households’ food expenditures and dietary diversity, and the consumption of food produced by households themselves. The unconditional cash transfer programme in rural Kenya also increased households’ food security and food expenditures, particularly when the transfers are made monthly rather than in a lump sum [24]. Kenya’s Hunger Safety Net Programme, an unconditional cash transfer programme, boosted beneficiaries’ food consumption relative to controls and increased dietary diversity for poorer households in the project [25, 26].
Nutrition education can also help improve diet quality for children and adults in Kenya. A pilot study in western Kenya showed that providing nutrition education to fathers and grandmothers on proper complementary feeding practices for children raised social support for mothers, and, resulted in the adoption of beneficial child feeding practices [27]. Despite the need to continue addressing malnutrition in the country, micronutrient deficiencies of Vitamin A, Folic acid, Iron, Zinc and Iodine are widespread, with the re-emerging rise in rickets. However, the iodization of salt and fortification of many processed foods, especially the staples with most of the above micronutrients will alleviate the problem. Emerging issues include child obesity, where female children appear more obese and overweight than their male counterparts.
The operationalization of the Food and Nutrition Security Policy of 2011, the placement of access to quality and adequate food access for citizens in the new Kenya Constitution of 2010 [7] as a human right, and support programmes arising thereof, are providing a firm foundation for the country to effectively address the issues of food and nutrition insecurity in a planned and focused manner. This is backed by an increasing number of interventions from the National and the County Governments and International non-Governmental Organizations, with the most notable being the World Food Programe (WFP) and UNICEF, with the focus for the latter being women and children. The Food and Nutrition Policy of 2011 is themed on 3 areas:
Optimizing the health of Kenyans through good nutrition
Ensuring access and the availability of good quality and affordable food, all the time to consumers
Using cost-effective safety nets to protect the vulnerable populations in order to achieve long-term development
The policy broadly recommends providing specific crops for specific agro-climatic zones of the country. With the focus being on the child, one intervention and recommendation from the policy is providing food subsidy and food aid to vulnerable groups and children, in the latter case by strengthening and making school feeding programmes work. The WFP has for many years sustained the school feeding programmes in the semi-arid and arid parts of the country, despite the programme facing logistical as well as policy difficulties. There are other policy instruments that are currently either being finalized or implemented. Major areas of focus that can boost agricultural production and eventually reduce food and nutrition insecurity in Kenya include but are not limited to:
Enhancing access to agricultural financing: While Kenya represents a vibrant and enabling market for agricultural produce, the enthusiasm by the banking sector to service commercial agriculture is lacking, as only about 4% of commercial bank lending is for agribusiness, despite most Kenyans being employed in agriculture or agriculture-related businesses.
Increasing the use of fertilizer: Fertilizer use remains inadequate in Kenya as the Government’s fertilizer subsidy programme is inefficient, and often disproportionately benefits more medium/large scale famers than small-scale farmers. Small-scale farmers are the backbone of the country’s agriculture sector. Making the scheme work for small-scale farmers and ensuring that it is efficient, transparent, and targets them, has the potential of raising agricultural output and productivity.
Establishing private sector-led commodity trading: Similar to the situation in most Africa countries, the Kenya government retains a big role in marketing agricultural outputs, especially maize, the staple cereal crop for a majority of the country’s population, thereby leaving little room for private sector participation. Further, the National Cereals and Produce Board buys maize at a premium above the price determined by market forces. These interventions edge out private sector players somewhat, resulting in reduced availability of public finance for other potentially more useful expenditures, e.g., extension services and farmer training.
Investing in irrigation: While over 80% of Kenya’s land area is arid and semi-arid, 2% of the arable land is under irrigation compared to an average of 6% in Sub-Saharan Africa and 37% in Asia [28]. The low usage of irrigation means Kenya’s agriculture is fully rain-dependent and susceptible to shocks due to droughts. Investing in irrigation and water management for farmers, can reduce productivity shocks and raise the sector’s total productivity, potentially improving food and nutrition security in the country.
Supporting stronger farmer organizations: Kenya has many geographically dispersed smallholders who are not integrated into key agriculture value chains. Dispersion increases production costs and reduces small-scale farmers’ competitiveness. It is envisaged that building stronger farmer-organizations fosters economic inclusion of smallholders and increase their market power, thereby raising their incomes and productivity. Further, while value addition to agricultural commodities remains low in the country, increasing the value addition of agricultural commodities can create more jobs and reduce poverty. A set of recommendations that mirrors the above discussion is provided below.
In conclusion, a decade of rapid economic growth from 2003 to 2013, the inclusion of food and nutrition security in the government’s ‘big four’ priorities in 2018, constitutional changes that devolved administrative responsibilities to county governments since 2013, and the country’s openness to innovation, offer
The National and County Governments should minimize climate variability effects on the agriculture sector by expanding viable irrigation schemes, emphasizing the adoption of drought tolerant crops including cassava, sorghum, millet, potatoes and the adoption of small dairy stock by households. These animals are potential sources of income and high biological value protein in the form of meat and milk
The country should continue scaling up programmes for treatment of malnutrition among vulnerable groups as well as implementing common public health measures such as vaccination, deworming, supplementation and water and sanitation in pastoralist counties, where livestock keeping is a major economic activity
Prioritize policies and programmes that increase farm and crop productivity, food and nutrition security, and resilience of small-scale farmers and pastoralists. Such steps will be increasingly vital for Kenya’s future food and nutrition security improvement as the percentage of the population that is dependent on nomadic pastoralism and rain-fed agriculture is large and highly vulnerable to climate change and droughts
Continue promoting education for women and girls, particularly in areas dominated by pastoralism that are characterized by low female education attainment rates and high child wasting scores. Women’s education and child nutrition have been shown to be positively linked
Strengthen support for improvements in the WASH environment in Kenya, including implementation of the provisions of the Kenya Environmental Sanitation and Hygiene Policy, 2016–2030. Urban settlements, rural areas, and informal settlements have the lowest levels of improved sanitation, sometimes lacking it completely, compared with planned urban areas [29]. Inadequate WASH facilities and practices are detrimental to human health and nutrition, especially for children
Strengthen political and educational support to the production, distribution, and consumption of nutritious crops such as vitamin A-rich orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and green and yellow leafy vegetables, and ensure that low income households have access to these products, either by way of them being subsidized or as food aid, where the households are extremely poor, single, and living with disabilities and/or are unemployed
Ensure that food security and good nutrition are given priority at the national and county levels, recognizing the vital role that County Governments must play given Kenya’s devolved government structure. Food and nutrition security decisions should be guided by the data that exists at the county level.
The Food Security Bill, 2017, and the National Nutrition Action Plan, 2018–2022, are largely still under consideration for implementation [30, 31]. Their implementation would ensure that food and nutrition security is prioritized in Kenya
Enforce the provisions of “The Breastfeeding Mothers Bil”l (2017), which aims to protect women’s right to breastfeed in the workplace and public places. This bill once enforced should further promote breastfeeding in Kenya, which is critical to infant health and development
Strengthen community capacity to prepare for future nutrition crises by providing staffing, training, and resources for community-based management of acute malnutrition
Support innovative programmes that provide the support of the integrated management of acute malnutrition, with contributions from local and international partners to deter food and nutrition insecurity
Uganda’s economy has in recent years grown at a slower pace, thus reducing its impact on incomes and poverty reduction. Average annual growth rate was 4.5% from 2011 to 2016, compared to the 7% achieved during the 1990s and early 2000s [32]. The slowdown was mainly driven by adverse weather, unrest in South Sudan, private sector credit constraints, and the poor management of public sector projects. However, the economy rebounded in the second half of 2017, driven largely by growth in information and communication technology services and favorable weather conditions for the agricultural sector. GDP growth adjusted for inflation was above 5% in 2018 and rose further to about 6% in 2019 [33]. For better performance, the outlook would require continued good weather, favorable external conditions to boost demand for exports and an increase in foreign direct investment (FDI) and inflows as oil production draws closer, and capital investments are executed as planned. Reliance on rain-fed agriculture, however, remains a downside risk to growth, personal incomes and export earnings from the agriculture sector.
In the long-run, delays and poor management of public investment programs could prevent the productivity gains expected from enhanced infrastructure, while acceleration in domestic arrears may have an adverse impact on private investment which may further limit the extension of credit. Finally, regional instability and a continued influx of refugees is likely to undermine exports and disrupt growth in refugee hosting parts of Uganda. The intensifying conflicts in South Sudan and the Democratic Republic of Congo, currently Uganda’s 2nd and 4th top export destinations, respectively, is likely to negatively affect the growth of Uganda’s exports.
Uganda has a population of close to 42 million by 2019 estimates [34] and has an equatorial type of climate with rainfall in most of the country standing annually at 1000 to 1500 mL, but which can be as high as 2000 mL in the Lake Victoria basin [35]. Karamoja Region, parts of Teso and Acholi Regions in the north, receive much less rainfall with a tendency to be unpredictable and unreliable. The Official Government report issued in 2014 showed that about 83% of the Ugandan population can be classified under Phase 1 Category of minimal or no food insecurity threats, and, was able to meet their dietary and non-food requirements without stress [36]. The report showed wide access and affordability of the food available in the markets with the majority of the population being able to obtain three meals a day of a diversified diet. Only about 1% of the general Ugandan population qualified to be in IPC category 3-a situation of food crisis. Uganda like other EAC member states faces similar food insecurity threats such as livestock and crop diseases. The common crop diseases include: banana bacterial wilt, cassava brown streak disease, stalk borer disease and recently, maize necrosis which was first spotted in Kenya. Regional cooperation would be required to find solutions to most of these economic and food security threats. In the livestock sector, Food and Mouth Disease often breaks out, as well as a number of other common livestock diseases that affect the livestock trade across the EAC trading bloc. They are a constant hindrance to planned improvements to food security in the livestock sub-sector.
After the end of the armed conflict in 1986, the Government formed by the National Resistance Movement introduced a host of structural reforms and investments, most of which led to the long and sustained period of high growth and poverty reduction between 1987 and 2010. Policy and legal frameworks continue to improve, notably through the operationalization of the Public Financial Management Act, 2015 [37], though gaps in implementation in procurement and anti-corruption remain major concerns, with consequences for development indicators and directly for public sector-led enablers of food availability and access.
Uganda surpassed the
Regions of Uganda (note that Teso, Acholi and Karamoja are in eastern and northern regions, respectively).
Despite producing a variety of food crops and animal food products, malnutrition remains a problem and therefore pockets of under-nourishment and hunger co-exist. Micronutrient deficiencies are common and are exhibited as goiter, vitamin A deficiency and iron-deficiency anemia in the general population, though more common in the poor, children and women of child-bearing age. High malnutrition and under-nutrition rates are generally due to predisposing diseases, HIV/AIDS, inadequate food intake, ignorance, cultural taboos, poverty, etc. The Uganda Food and Nutrition Policy of 2003 emphasized the promotion of good nutritional status of Ugandans through multi-sectoral and coordinated interventions that focused on food security, improved nutrition and increased incomes [40]. The country conducts periodic national income and expenditure surveys, with the latest being the 2009/2010 Uganda National Household Survey. The survey estimated that the incidence of income poverty in Uganda fell by 6.6% points in the 2005/2006 financial year from 31.1 to 24.5% in 2010 [41]. The incidence of income poverty in rural and urban areas was estimated at 27.2 and 9.1, respectively [41].
Although Uganda currently produces sufficient food to meet the needs of its growing population, the absolute number of Ugandans unable to access recommended calories still remains significant in all regions due to the uneven distribution of food, access constraints related to seasonality factors, poverty, inequality in regional wealth distribution and the burden of diseases. The proportion of the population unable to access adequate calories decreased nationally from 23% in 1997 to 15% in 2006 [40]. However, the persistent high rates of malnutrition in children under 5 are symptomatic of the underlying problems of inadequate access to food, suboptimal infant feeding practices, poor health care and sanitation and hygiene practices within the different regions of the Country. It is estimated that more than 30–38% of children suffer from chronic malnutrition (stunting), while about 15% are underweight and 6% suffer from acute malnutrition [42]. Malnutrition in all its forms remains largely a “hidden problem” since a majority of children affected are moderately malnourished and identifying malnutrition in these children without regular assessments is difficult [42]. Increasingly, Uganda similar to other developing countries is experiencing the double burden of malnutrition where high levels of under-nutrition co-exist with a growing prevalence of overweight and obesity. Malnutrition plays a major role in child morbidity and mortality as wasting and underweight have been shown to significantly increase the risk of both morbidity and mortality in children [42]. Vitamin A and iron deficiencies also carry an increased risk of morbidity and mortality in children [43]. Vitamin A deficiency seems to be linked with an increased risk of mortality from measles and severe diarrhoeal diseases [43], while iron deficiency carries significant adverse consequences for child development [44]. Malnutrition starts early in infancy for children in Uganda. The substantial proportion of children born with low birth weight suggests that high fertility rates, short birth intervals, young maternal age and maternal malnutrition are likely factors that contribute significantly and adversely to child malnutrition from birth. High childhood disease infection rates may be attributable to poor feeding practices, where liquids other than breast milk might be introduced early, such that these foods, if not sanitary enough and safe to eat, serve as avenues for disease spread. As the prevalence of stunting increases with age in children, it is a reflection of continuous nutritional deprivation of children from an early age and as they grow. The prevalence of stunting is highest in northern and southwest Uganda, although the rate of decline since 2001 is fastest in the western region and slowest in the northern and eastern regions. The prevalence of underweight is highest in the East, Central, Northern and Southwest regions, and the rate of decline is slower than the rate of change for stunting. Wasting is rising in all regions, with the smallest increase in Central Region [42]. In women, chronic energy deficiency was 12% in the 2006 Uganda Demographic and Health Survey and has been rising across all regions [42].Overweight and obesity in women is also rising, but most rapidly in urban areas, Western and Central Regions [42]. Deficiencies in Vitamin A and Iodine, and Iron-deficiency anemia (IDA) remain significantly prevalent as discussed earlier. Vitamin A deficiency affects 20% of women and children, and IDA affects 73% of preschool children and 49% of women of child-bearing age [42]. The immediate causes of malnutrition for children in Uganda continue to be the high disease burden resulting from malaria, diarrhoeal diseases and acute respiratory infections, as well as inadequate dietary intake resulting from suboptimal infant feeding practices, as is commonly found in other developing economies. While breastfeeding is nearly universal, exclusive breastfeeding tapers off rapidly and by six months, only 11% of infants are exclusively breastfed. In addition, late initiation of breastfeeding (86%) and the use of pre-lacteal feeds (54%) are common [42]. Early introduction of foods and liquids and inappropriate complementary feeding are also widespread. Adequate feeding practices are used for only 28% of children under two, when considering continued breastfeeding, appropriate frequency of feeding and diet diversity, three key indicators of adequate complementary feeding. Infant and young child feeding (IYCF) practices are suboptimal, and while social and behavior change communication (SBCC) is one response to address this, SBCC alone will not adequately improve feeding practices. Poverty and food insecurity at the household level play a significant role, but women’s lack of control over their time, their competing household and reproductive roles may undermine their IYCF capabilities. To succeed, SBCC efforts must engage men as partners in change. The underlying causes of malnutrition in Uganda remain inadequate water and sanitation, lack of dietary diversity, inadequate health infrastructure and access to health care and food insecurity [42]. Although access to health services has improved in the past decade, the quality of the services has remained generally poor [42]. From casual observations by this author on a recent trip to Uganda (December, 2019), sanitation and hygiene has not improved, if not worsened in marginalized areas like Karamoja and northern Uganda, and is exacerbated by increasing urbanization and population rise. Food insecurity varies regionally, with the Northern Region suffering from the highest levels of food insecurity, followed by parts of East and East Central Regions and parts of Southwest Uganda. Common causes of food insecurity across Uganda are the lack of diversification in livelihoods, high dependence on agriculture and wage labour, declining wages and rising food prices. While poverty declined across Uganda from 56% in 1992 to 31% in 2006 [42], improvements in the prevalence of poverty are largely attributable to economic growth rather than income distribution and welfare improvement. In fact, income inequality between the wealthy and the poor has steadily widened. Gender inequality seems to be significantly intertwined with poverty and food insecurity in Uganda and has been identified as a primary reason for the persistent poverty. Poverty may be gendered as income inequality seems to be rising as a high percentage of women lack access to resources such as capital. Gender inequality may therefore exacerbate food insecurity for women and children. While 80% of women contribute labour for food production, they own less than 8% of the land on which to farm [42]. Men may earn significantly more than women but spend more of their income on non-food items, while women are left to close the household food security gap. Women are the primary caregivers in families, but may have the least decision-making power; as a result, they have less control over their family care role and time, than they should. In Uganda, women’s low involvement and high fertility rates are two critical factors that undermine health and nutrition outcomes in their children. Taking the multiplicity of factors into account, gender inequality substantially undermines women’s capabilities to achieve and ensure food security for their families. This situation calls for approaches that improve the design and delivery of nutrition services to prevent, reduce and control malnutrition at the policy, leadership and programme levels, as well as to promote coordination and resource mobilization. Despite the above gloomy picture, Uganda’s nutrition situation is better than many other countries in eastern and southern Africa, as Uganda currently produces sufficient food to meet the needs of most of its growing population. Nationally, the proportion of the population unable to access adequate calories decreased from 15% in 2006 to 11% in 2015 [45], and the country is likely to meet the SDG 2 with robust policies in place. Figure 4 presents a Map of Uganda showing the regions of the country.
Due to the increasing population and deforestation of the country, more arable land is being brought under cultivation for more food production. However, the continuing influx of refugees from South Sudan due to the civil war in that country, political instability further north in the Republic of Sudan and a host of internal factors, are likely to impact negatively on the country’s food production capacity. Although indicators of food poverty, malnutrition and under-nutrition are yet to rise significantly, the increasing population and depressed economic growth are likely to negatively affect the food security and nutrition status in the country in the long-term. Rainfall in 2019 remained erratic in most of Uganda as influenced by Cyclone Idai that affected much of southern Africa, and whose effects spilled into parts of Central and Eastern Africa. The effects of this and other natural factors are largely unpredictable, but the outlook does not seem beyond redemption as Uganda can largely feed its people. Recent trade deals with Kenya and the opening of the Kenya-Uganda border with the aim of minimizing interruptions in trade and travel, is already increasing food trade between Uganda’s border Counties and Kenya’s Counties of Trans Nzoia, Bungoma, Busia, Kakamega and Turkana. Uganda is the net gainer from these commercial transactions, and its economy is bound to benefit from the increased trade and the likely increased local agricultural output to meet the increasing demand for more food in Kenya. The analysis of the food and nutrition outlook in Uganda indicates that:
Nutrition indicators are generally improving, but the rate of change is slow
Under-nutrition which coexists with over-nutrition is increasing
Food and nutrition security is being undermined by large family sizes,
Changing gender roles are affecting food and nutrition security in families
Poor health infrastructure is undermining nutrition outcomes
Income and wealth disparities are increasing between regions, classes and genders
In conclusion, 89% of Uganda’s population is food secure. This population still has normal access to food from their own production and in the market. Food prices in the markets are affordable, and consumers can experience an acceptable food consumption score as most can afford at least three meals per day of a diversified diet. They also have adequate energy intake. Eleven percent of the total population in the country is chronically food insecure. These are scattered in the Karamoja, Teso and Acholi districts and in the slums in the major cities of Kampala and Entebbe. The food security prospects for Karamoja are expected to remain volatile and unpredictable. Food availability is not a limiting factor in most regions of Uganda except in Karamoja, East, Central and West Nile, where production and productivity, frequent dry spells and lack of extension services constrain food production. Although food is largely available, food access and utilization are major limiting factors in the three regions but minor limiting factors in other regions. This has been attributed to the low level of incomes, poor storage practices, lack of awareness of what constitutes good nutrition, cultural food preferences, poor sanitary and food preparation practices and wastage of food during harvest periods due to festivities.
The semi-aridity of Karamoja, parts of Teso and Acholi Regions, the inevitability of negative effects of climate variability on food production and the increasing food demand by the increasing country’s population means that, there is urgent need to put in place different strategies to secure food for all Ugandans. Some workable recommendations include:
Establishing programmes and mechanisms for slowing down population growth
Developing a comprehensive national system based on enabling enhanced and sustainable, efficient food production through the use of modern technologies throughout Uganda’s arable regions. The new technologies should be research and innovation-driven
The formation of collaborative partnerships that diversify food sources, as well as implementing legislation and policies that are geared to improving nutrition, while reducing food waste
Developing a national agriculture strategy that encourages the production of crops well suited to the various local environments and promotes a production strategy that builds on the country’s comparative advantages
More efficient use of the available arable land for food production and semi-arid lands for better livestock farming systems.
Reducing the rate of deforestation as it impacts negatively on food production, food security and therefore economic growth. Re-afforestation is recommended to replenish the declining forest cover
Creating a well-planned international trade and investment strategy, that can help hedge against volatility and food shortages, while spurring economic growth. Creating trading and processing hubs should help the country gain access to food supplies whenever necessary, either internally or through imports
Planning for efficient domestic markets, and transport systems that emphasize reduction of food waste and curbing shortages
The formation of cooperatives which can make it easier for farmers and other entrepreneurs to obtain credit
Creating strategic reserves of food and water to take care of year-to-year variations in rainfall and food output, as well as any man-made disruptions in food supply across the country and those due to the vagaries of nature
Reducing the influence of gender inequality on food security for women and children, by empowering more women and women more
With a population of 55–56 million people (2016 estimates), Tanzania has had a good economic growth run over the last decade averaginga 6–7% annually [46]. Although the absolute poverty index for the country decreased, the number of those living in abject poverty has not reduced noticeably due to the high populat2ion growth rate. Depending on weather patterns, the country can be split into two main climatic zones-the drought prone bimodal rainfall zone, situated mainly in the north and west of the country and the Unimodal zone in the south and east of the country [46]. In the bimodal rainfall zones, vulnerability to food insecurity is caused by such factors as water shortages, high food prices and the effects of drought on households. Levels of food poverty and malnutrition are higher in these areas than in the unimodal rainfall areas.
Tanzania ranked 152 out of 187 countries in the 2011 UN Human Development Index and number 54 out of 79 on the 2012 Global Hunger Index. While Tanzania has been a low-income country (though it has from early 2020 ascended to low-mid-income status) for quite long, it has experienced relatively stable economic growth in recent years, accelerating from 3.5% in the 1990s to approximately 7% in the 2000s. Effective fiscal and monetary policies largely insulated the country from recent international shocks; the maintenance of such policies, as well as investment in infrastructure and high profit yielding businesses are needed for such growth to continue [47]. Despite its economic growth, poverty remains prevalent in the country, particularly in rural areas, similar to any developing country. Approximately 30 million people, or 75 percent of the population, live in rural areas, with the rural households making up 80% of the country’s poor [47]. Agriculture accounts for 45% of Tanzania’s GDP and provides livelihoods for up to 80% of the country’s population [48]. While Tanzania’s food self-sufficiency has ranged from 88 to 112% over the past 8 years, localized food deficits are rampant. The low agricultural productivity makes it difficult to achieve significant strides towards poverty reduction and food security. Tanzania’s agriculture is characterized by low adoption of new and functional technologies, limited infrastructure and high transportation costs, a lack of adequate market access, and high rates of taxation and non-tariff trade barriers. The Government has made recent commitments to agricultural reform and improvement, such as the “Agriculture First Program”, and considerable budgetary allocation to agriculture. Similarly, agribusiness development is being encouraged under such programmes as the “Southern Agricultural Growth Corridor of Tanzania”. Tanzania has some of the highest levels of malnutrition among African countries. Approximately 42% of children under five suffer from malnutrition and stunting [48]. Despite sustained and steady growth, over the past two decades, and the achievement of significant progress in economic, social and human development, the resultant progress has not benefited all sectors of society and inequality has widened.
The country currently produces enough food to feed its population, but the poorest and most marginalized families–including refugees have limited access to it. The agricultural sector is largely dominated by smallholder farmers but production is stagnant, while the population is expected to double by 2050. The effects of climate change are deepening the vulnerability of agriculture to disasters. Households in the bimodal rainfall zone feel steep food prices which on comparison can be as high as 60% higher than those felt by families in the unimodal zones of the country. Economic growth for the country has been on the upsurge for most of the 2000–2010 decade [49], though the improvement in food and nutrition security has not proportionately benefitted from the economic growth experienced in the decade. The Tanzania National Bureau of Statistics reports that real GDP growth was 7.0% in 2018, slightly higher than the 6.8% in 2017.
Zanzibar and Pemba Islands have a population of about 1.3 million people with an estimated annual growth rate of 2.8% (estimates for 2016). Of this number, an estimated 14% may fall into the severely food insecure IPC Phase 3-Crisis level or at worst into the Phase 4-Emergency situation and require immediate food assistance in the dry season which comes normally between July and September [50]. This may happen when below normal rains fall in the previous year. This number is normally expected to decrease slightly to about 12% of the population in the October to December period [50]. The most food insecure districts are Kaskazini A, Micheweni and Magharibi. Of main concern is the population in IPC Phase 4 (Emergency) in Kaskazini A and Micheweni in the October to December period. This requires urgent action to protect livelihoods, reduce gaps in food requirement in order to reduce the potential for acute malnutrition in the group. The majority of the population (69%) mainly live in IPC Phase 2 (stressed) and is only able to afford minimally adequate food consumption, but are unable to afford essential non-food expenditures without engaging in irreversible coping strategies [50]. Households who would be most affected are those who depend on agriculture in both Unguja and Pemba. The main driver of food insecurity is reduced harvest caused by poor Vuli rainfall in October to December and a prolonged dry season that would be experienced in January to March or heavy rainfall experienced towards the end of Masika (resulting in flooding and water logging of soils). These weather shocks often lead to shocks in livelihoods and acute food insecurity, especially for poor households particularly in Micheweni. Shortage of Vuli rainfall significantly affects food availability in farming households. The Vuli season is the most important season for food security in Zanzibar as most of the annual crops are planted in the season. The outcome of poor performance of Vuli rains lowers production below normal production levels, leading to low production of cassava, sweet potatoes, fruits and vegetables. These crops are not only important for household food security, but are also the main source of income for households who depend on the sale of these food crops to meet other basic family needs.
Despite any significant reduction in crop production, food availability at national level is not an issue given the opportunity Zanzibar has of importing food commodities from Mainland Tanzania. The biggest problem is, however, the price of these commodities that usually goes up significantly. Food prices in Zanzibar are always on an increasing trend, resulting in reduced household purchasing power and consequently affecting access to adequate and nutritious food. Although in the Micheweni and Kaskazini A Districts there are numbers of people who may not afford enough food, their situation will normally improve as these areas will be in the Clove harvesting season from October to December. Usually during this season, opportunities for income generation rise as short term jobs abound along the clove picking value chain. However, to avert the situation, it is recommended that the Government and implementing partners support the affected communities by provide farming inputs during the subsequent planting season.
It is envisioned that through Vision 2025, Tanzania agriculture will be transformed from a low productivity industry to a modern and semi-industrialized one that is supported by integrated services that would be available equally in the urban and rural areas [51].
Agriculture generates 30% of the country’s export earnings [52]. Approximately 46% of Tanzania’s total land mass is suitable for agricultural production, and the country can be a net exporter of food, if appropriate and functional food production strategies are put in place. However, only part of this arable land is marginally suitable for food production due to such factors as infertile soils, soil erosion, land degradation, and droughts. Moreover, 25% of the land is under wildlife reserves and protected forests. The country also has over 23% of its land mass being suitable for irrigated agriculture, thus demonstrating the potential for higher food security, if the land was put to such use. The country has a self-sufficiency ratio of 123 for maize, implying surplus production in this staple crop. Livestock keeping is the most important agricultural activity in most parts of the country, including the marginally-endowed agricultural areas and engages about 36% of households. The share of the livestock sector to the GDP was more than 7% in 2015, while its contribution was more than 30% to the agriculture-related contribution of the GDP in the same period [53]. Generally, the self-sufficiency ratio for food for the country between 2012/2013 and 2015/2016 FY has been over 100%, but variations exist at regional, district and household levels. According to the Tanzania Household Nutrition Survey of 2015–2016,the rate of stunting in children under the age of 5 years was 35% (reflecting cumulative effects of acute malnutrition), with 5% of children being wasted (too thin for their age), while 4% are overweight and 14% being under-weight [54]. The mixed news is that the extent of stunting and underweight in children declined over the period 1999–2016, but wasting remained unchanged over the same period. Paradoxically for unexplained reasons, all the three nutritional/health indicators are highest in children in the major food production areas of the southern and southwestern highlands, an observation that requires addressing. They are lowest in children in the highest wealth quartile, but are highest in children in the lowest wealth quartile.
Despite efforts between 2007 and 2016 that have reduced the country’s poverty rate from 34.4% to 26.8%, the absolute number of poor people has held at about 13 million (approximately 27–28% of the population) [55] partly due to the high population growth rate. Based on the Household Budget Survey of 2017/18, it seems likely that the downward trend in the poverty rate will continue despite it becoming gradual. Government efforts to expand access to social services like education, health, and water have been undermined by their declining quality. This implies that the slowing of factors that contribute most to improved GHI, and any gains in food and nutrition security in the short-term, will therefore be gradual. Real GDP growth is projected to remain in the range of 5–6% over the medium term. This outlook will depend on favorable weather conditions, the steady implementation of reforms to improve the business environment, good fiscal management, and the ability of the Government to address vulnerabilities in the financial sector. The maintenance of low inflation will be underpinned by favorable food supplies and stable global energy prices. The COVID-19 breakout may, however, complicate matters for the country’s economy and food security as expected of other Countries of the EAC Region, though the fact that the country did not go into lockdown may mean that it comes off better than its neighbors.
As agricultural productivity remains low and poses a significant challenge to poverty reduction and food security, Government should endeavor to remove challenges related to low adoption of new technologies and improve infrastructure in order to reduce transportation costs and market access
Government should effect medium and long term interventions to reduce the wasting trends of children in the southern and southwestern highlands, which are also the best agriculturally-endowed regions of the country
It is critical for the country to arrest the observed overweight trends in children through school education and more physical activities, while simultaneously executing parental education
The Ministry of Agriculture should embark on irrigated agriculture in marginal areas by the use of appropriate and research-driven investments and technologies
The Food industry should explore the potential for value addition of crop and livestock sector production for export to the EAC and other regional food-deficient countries
Government requires to manage population growth so that it is in tandem with food production and services provision
The Government of Tanzania and Development Partners require to take care of any food short falls that may be experienced in Zanzibar and Pemba islands due to short rains in the Vuli season during which period families face food shortages and are therefore likely to experience IPC 2–3 classification of food and nutrition insecurity.
Support the affected communities by provide farming inputs during the subsequent planting seasons
Improve the under-execution of public development projects, and,
Create policies that raise FDI inflows and improved private sector credit growth
Ensure that any economic growth benefits all sectors of society and social inequality is reduced
EAC | East African Community |
FAO | Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |
FDI | Foreign Direct Investment |
FY | financial year |
GDP | gross domestic product |
GHI | global hunger indicators |
GoK | Government of Kenya |
GoU | Government of Uganda |
IFPRI | International Food Policy Research Institute |
IPC | Integrated Food Security Phase Classification |
SDGs | sustainable development goals |
UN | United Nations |
UNICEF | United Nations Children’s Fund |
WFP | World Food Programme |
WASH | water, sanitation and hygiene |
Ionic liquids are the utmost promising liquid green solvents with wide applications in separation science. The effect of the IL organic configuration as well as the stimulus of tributary factors, for example the IL temperature, pH, concentration, analysis time and voltage, are compatibly rationally talked concerning the accomplished parting enlargements. Gas chromatography is unique and extreme proficient, dependable, as well as stout methods for the study of unstable plus semi-volatile composites. Effective along with rapid gas chromatographic investigation of objective analytes is mostly reliant on the enactment of the gas chromatography column. Though here have be present main active developments, there quiet a solid claim of extremely choosy, indolent, polar also thermally constant gas chromatography pillars intended for critically stimulating composites for example polychlorinated biphenyls, unrestricted fatty acids and unstable amines [1]. Furthermore, the physicochemical characteristics for instance surface tension, viscosity and melting point are too acute to yield extremely proficient gas chromatography columns. The viscosities of furthermost ionic liquids are frequently 1–3 remits of scale greater than outmoded biological diluents [2]. In demand for an ionic liquid to be measured as a immobile stage, the solid must have great viscosity that rests fixed above a comprehensive high temperature choice. Van der Waals as well as Hydrogen bonding kind interfaces amongst the anion plus cation of Ionic liquids rule the viscosity-properties. Furthermore, it is imperative to ruminate the surface tension of the Ionic liquids. Its values extending as of 30 to 50 dyne/cm usually display bigger wettability on the barrier of unprocessed tube pillars [2]. Ionic liquids establish an assembly of biological salts which are fluid lower than 100 °C, moreover, the ionic liquids that are fluid at room temperature are generally recognized as room temperature ionic liquids [3]. Ionic liquids are easy to manufacture, thermally steady, flameproof, chemically inactive, retain small vapor density, polar, and their discernment can be simply regulated by means of fluctuating the component anion or cation; and from now they have been extensively recycled as static stages in conservative gas chromatography (Figure 1) [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10].
Applications of ionic liquids in various fields.
Ionic liquids can also be recycled as diluents for the suspension of various resources for example fiber [11], chitin [12], etc. The outstanding solubility of biological/inert composites in ionic liquids as well as a extensive variety of it as the fluid state brand them noble diluents for several responses. Furthermore, they displayed modest produces when related with conservative biological diluents [13, 14]. Thermodynamic factors of these ionic liquids were studied through chromatographic methods. ILs are centered on the numerous method, in company with the utmost extensively considered are N-alkylpyridinium, alkylammonium, N’N-dialkylimidazolium, and alkylphosphonium.
Owing to the ever-developing mandate for the great determination, high sympathy, as well as statistics amusing investigation of composite models for instance aromas, smells, petrochemicals, plus pharmacological uncooked supplies, continuous expansions of gas chromatography supports through exclusive discrimination, squat bleed, high dullness, and in addition varied high temperature operational series are desirable. Because of the high polarization then exceptional thermal constancy, IL-centered stationary stages have been employed to decide an extensive series of methodically stimulating complexes typically precise polar complexes with high steaming facts also fundamental resemblances comprising lengthy sequence oily acids, vital oils and polycyclic aromatic sulfur heterocycles [15, 16]. ILs are characteristically organized with a phosphorous- or nitrogen-comprising biological cation as well as an inorganic or else organic anion. Meanwhile the chief outline of IL-centered GC supports in 1999, ILs have been effectively engaged as stationary stages because of their trivial high polarity, tunable selectivity, high thermal stability and vapor pressure [17]. The ILs can be altered through diverse efficient collections to endure countless solvation interfaces in addition to display exclusive chromatographic discernment such as GC immobile phases. ILs have been exposed to have exclusive solvation competences plus discernment’s on the distinctive solvent/solute interfaces [18]. Imidazolium-centered ILs be able to as per contrived to discrete equally non-polar and polar analytes [17]. As, by means of varying the anionic lot of the imidazolium IL since chloride [Cl]- to hexafluorophosphate [PF6]-, a substantial variance in discernment was perceived for polar analytes equaled to the non-polar complexes (Figure 2).
Common cations and anions.
Additional examination of dissimilar modules of ILs, containing monocationic imidazolium, pyridinium, as well as pyrrolidinium exposed that the hydrogen contributor capability of the IL immobile phases was subjugated through IL cation. In contrast, the anionic lot was create to adopt the part of hydrogen acceptor anion as of proton giver analytes for example carboxylic acids plus alcohols [2]. Consequently, dicationic [19], tricationic [20], as well as phosphonium-centered cations [21] were oppressed to expand great thermal constancy plus fluid variety of ILs equated to customary monocationic static levels. Lately, in an effort to extend the applicability of IL static phases, task-specific ionic liquids (TSILs) were familiarized by functionalizing the IL cation with numerous agents [22]. For instance, the integration of aromatic segments in the IL cation improved the discernment for scented complexes, for example polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). This is owing to enriched π-π sort communications amongst analytes as well as the aromatic clusters of the IL cation [4]. Overview of polar efficient clusters, for example hydroxyl segments, can effect in enlarged discernment for hydrogen compliant analytes [23]. Consequently, tweaking the IL-centered GC static phase configuration might augment choosiness essential for parting of precise compound model elements with comparable polarizations.
One of the important physical property of static stage is melting point as it basically commands the least effective high temperature of the ensued GC column. ILs with short melting points are extremely required as well as are usually acquired via integrating proportion-flouting sections also alkyl sideways chains with diverse dimensions [24, 25, 26]. Analytes naturally intermingle using IL-centered stationary segments over moreover partition- or adsorption-kind contrivance [6, 27, 28]. Better parting efficacies existed usually providing through the partition-kind retaining contrivance. Once the furnace temperature is lesser than the melting point of the IL-centered static stage, the molecular interface amongst the analytes as well as static stage is to be expected to be controlled by means of adsorption. Variance perusing calorimetry is usually operated to define the melting point of IL-centered stationary stages [25].
Multidimensional gas chromatography is an influential method to accomplish progressive parting of impulsive as well as quasi-impulsive composites in compound environments [29, 30, 31]. By means of Multidimensional gas chromatography method, two or else extra gas chromatographic partings are engaged in a consecutive manner [29]. The paramount requirement to effectively enhance peak capacity in the composite system is to employ a combination of GC stationary phases possessing different selectivities. It was presented to the chromatographic state compromises advanced ultimate ability than conservative one-dimensional gas chromatography, permitting on behalf of the determination of model elements by means of comparable polarizations otherwise instabilities [32]. In this method, analytes are evaporated then exposed to a sequence of gas chromatography supports by means of chemically diverse static stages attached over an edge. In multidimensional gas chromatography analyte parting is preserved on both column, prominent to an upsurge in the parting control associated to the one [33]. Two types of multidimensional gas chromatography are usually engaged, specifically, core-wounding also inclusive. In core-wounding multidimensional gas chromatography, merely a choice rare portions of overflow after the first support are transported to the second support for extra parting [34].
Diverse support selectivity, which can be characterized using a liberated parting procedure, is the significant requisite to acquire advanced top capability in multidimensional gas chromatography methods [35]. Several customary non-ionic gas chromatography static segments are categorized as both non-polar and polar segments. These supports display a deficiency of variety in positions of solvation abilities, which can bound their capacity to decide composite models through gas chromatography× gas chromatography. Because of this hitch, ionic liquids centered supports have appeared as alternate gas chromatography × gas chromatography static stages. Utilizing ionic liquids centered stakes can permit exclusive solvation abilities in addition selectivities, moreover to advance thermal constancies comparative to customary segments. Ionic liquids have been applied as existing segments combined with customary non-ionic segments in numerous gas chromatography× gas chromatography partings [36]. Meanwhile maximum gas chromatography × gas chromatography partings can be controlled constructed on analyte instability in the first measurement monitored through involvement of dissimilar relations in the second measurement, it is collective to practice ionic liquids supports as the second measurement to estimate their enactment in relations of retaining contrivances. Presently, a huge amount of profitably accessible ionic liquids supports, for example the Supelco Low Bleed community, comprise numerous phosphonium and imidazolium grounded di cations which are typically combined with frequently tri fluoromethanesulfonate and bis[(trifluoromethyl)sulfonyl]imide anions [2, 20]. Economical ionic liquids static stages have been engaged in the parting of total of analytes for instance savor plus fragrance amalgams [36], aromatic hydrocarbons [37], alkyl halides [38], alkyl phosphonates [39], fatty acid methyl esters [40], as well as additional polar analytes (nitrogen, sulfur as well as oxygen-comprising composites). These analysis specify that ionic liquids supports establish considerable advanced selectivity plus retaining in the direction of commonly polar analytes associated to non-polar analytes owing to hydrogen-bonding interaction, electrostatic interactions and dipole–dipole relations, amongst ions [41].
Polymeric ionic liquids are stimulating family of composites that can be recycled as sorbent coverings in solid phase micro extraction. Polymeric ionic liquids are artificial polymers manufactured after ionic liquids monomers. Furthermore, Polymeric ionic liquids can be basically modified to display greater sensitivity and selectivity nearby diverse section of analytes. Polymeric ionic liquids are characteristically manufactured through functionalizing a polymerizable practical cluster on the cationic component of the ionic liquid by free radical polymerization in the attendance of a thermal originator. Polymeric ionic liquids reveal greater thermal constancy in addition to a confrontation to viscosity decrease at greater temperatures. These valuable structures can develop fiber lifespan, toughness plus eligibility of Polymeric ionic liquids while retentive the discrimination relics the intrinsic to ionic liquids. Polymeric ionic liquids have been displayed to extant extraordinary possessions as well as exhibitions [42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48], assisting novel plus stimulating parting procedures [49, 50, 51]. Ionic liquids have drawn abundant consideration in latest centuries as constituents for static stages in gas chromatography, because of stuffs similar their capability to create concurrent nonpolar as well as polar interfaces with the analytes, their extraordinary thermal constancy, before their insignificant air compressions then extensive fluid series [52, 53, 54, 55, 56]. Also, it is price revealing that these things can be effortlessly well-adjusted over minor fluctuations in the assembly of either the anion or cation, which, also, can intensely modify the choosiness or else the parting capability for the analyte of concern [36, 57, 58, 59]. The concern in ionic liquid-covered gas chromatography supports has enlarged afterward their marketable outline in 2008, also today, numerous ionic liquids glazed supports with dissimilar features are viably accessible. Though, one main task for the growth of static stages built on ionic liquids is the research of extremely standardized coverings, which would service decent ultimate regularities as well as extremely active complex partings, also concurrently, deliver extraordinary thermal constancies for the subsequent gas chromatography supports [60, 61, 62]. At extraordinary temperatures, identical ionic liquid-glazed silica supports can practice flick commotion prominent to a diminution in the analyte retaining periods as well as efficacy. In this respect, polymerized ionic liquids can offer the compulsory replies, preserving the outstanding thermal constancy of the supports, in addition to uniting the chief structures of an ionic liquid as well as the distinctive polymer characteristics for example better automated constancy plus development capability [62, 63, 64, 65].
Zwitterions, consequent after ionic liquids have inimitable characteristics for example reasonably small crystal conversion temperature, slight ion conductivity as well as exclusive stage conduct afterward partying with water. Moreover, the combination of convinced zwitterions plus negligible quantity of water can be observed as an exceptional liquid ideal of cell tissues. Zwitterionic liquids can be chemically precise like to predictable aprotic ionic liquids, excluding that the negative as well as positive charges exist in on the similar particle. Zwitterionic complexes are elements that have an entire clear charge of zero as well as are therefore electrically impartial. They transmit proper electrical charges of reverse symbol contained on diverse particles as well as formerly can be measured as internal salts. The utmost collective zwitterionic-kind ionic liquids are nitrogene heterocycles with sulfonate component. These Zwitter ionic Liquids have been competently considered as designable electrolyte constituents for fuel cells [66] as well as lithium batteries [67]. Not as much of discovered Zwitter ionic Liquids are configurations founded on imidazoliums with carboxylate occupations. They have been cast-off as forde sulfurization of fuels [68], Bronsted acidic catalytic agent [69], as liquid crystals [70] or for metallic oxides solubilization [71]. Therefore amino acids be existent typically as per zwitterions in a definite variety of pH then the pH at which the regular charge is zero is known as the particle’s isoelectric fact (Figure 3).
Zwitter ionic liquids.
Through zwitterionic composites, anions as well as cations are roped covalently. Imidazolium sulfonate is one of the example of zwitterionic liquids. The production of room temperature zwitterionic liquids in which both sulfonate anion as well as imidazolium cation elements attribute to the parental particle was conveyed in literature (Figure 4) [72, 73].
Imidazolium sulfonate Zwitterionic liquids.
Motivated via means of the proclamation that these composites can be organized as fluids at room temperature, three zwitterionic liquids integrating alkyl side chain and oligoether substituents were intended then inspected as gas chromatography static stages. The fundamentally-regulated zwitterionic liquids -centered static stages offer distinctive choosiness, robust retaining, exceptional top regularity, also a reasonably widespread employed series appropriate for the study of volatile carboxylic acids. This comprising volatile fatty acids for instance lactic acid as well as butyric acid are significant for the construction of cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and fuels [74, 75, 76]. Gas chromatography is furthermost usually recycled for the quantification as well as parting of specific acids in acylated lipids. Derivatization of volatile carboxylic acids by means of numerous approaches for example alkylation plus acylation is characteristically accomplished to upsurge the explosive nature of these composites in addition to mark their investigation viable through gas chromatography (Table 1).
S. No | Embattled Composites | Ionic liquids | Uses | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
1. | Methyl esters / Fatty acids | 1,9-di(3-vinyl-imidazolium)nonane bis(trifluoromethyl)sulfonylimidate | Gas chromatography stage | [77] |
2. | Aromatic Composites /Alcohols | [BMIM][NTf2], [BMIM]Cl | Gas chromatography stage | [78] |
Use of ionic liquids as superficial-integrated static segments.
The adjustable physicochemical properties of ionic liquids have prolonged their usage addicted to a wide variety of diverse uses. Ionic liquids have an abundant prospective in biological amalgamation, electrochemistry, mass spectrometry, green chemistry as well as partings [79, 80]. In the field of analytical chemistry, ionic liquids have been recycled as static segments as well as diluents for headspace gas chromatography [80], movable segment extracts plus external-attached static segments in liquid chromatography [79, 81] for liquid–liquid abstractions as well as solid-phase micro abstraction [79, 80, 82]. Several “green-engrossed” manufacturing have originate that ionic liquids are outstanding applicants for their uses because of their precise small vapor compression [83, 84]. The overview of ionic liquids such as static segments has released up and around novel outlooks in this arena by means of their exclusive solvation features outcome in unusual discernment, which is entirely dissimilar to that of typical polyethylene glycol as well as poly dimethyl siloxane centered supports. Since of their atypical discernment plus extraordinary unresponsiveness, ionic liquids centered supports have previously establish numerous solicitations in the normal item for consumption ground in and multidimensional as well as mono gas chromatography in addition to preparative gas chromatography, prominent to the comprehensive investigation of composite sections (containing aqueous resolutions), plus the parting of stimulating sets of complexes. The speedily growing usage of Ionic liquids equally in educational plus manufacturing arenas have created an increasing apprehension approximately their effect on the environs. Meanwhile Ionic liquids are extremely solvable in liquid however are not continuously ecofriendly, a discharge of ionic liquids into the atmosphere might clue to substantial water contamination complications. Furthermore, Ionic liquids could develop insistent contaminants in discarded water seepage because of their great constancy in water. Intended for this purpose, research inspecting Ionic liquids biodegradability are of inordinate significance. The rising character of Ionic liquids in production as well as study plus the growing alarm nearby their green influence have advised a requisite for the progress of profligate, dependable as well as reproducible techniques for the classification plus investigation of Ionic liquids [85].
Ionic liquids have solicitations in various areas in chemistry. The applications of ionic liquids as extracts in chromatography displays abundant rewards equated to further extracts. Ionic liquids have been realistic in diverse extents of parting, for instance ionic liquid sustained tissues, as moveable segment extracts as well as external-joined static stages in chromatography partings also as the abstraction diluent in model provisions, since they can be collected from numerous anions in addition to cations that alter the things as well as stage conduct of fluids. The inflammable, non- explosive environment of ionic liquids marks them an outstanding optimal for the expansion of nontoxic methods. A substantial benefit of ionic liquids-centered stationary segments is their capability to have adequate to high updraft solidity though similarly unveiling a comprehensive host of solvation proficiencies, specific of their inimitable selectivities. In spite of their attainment, viable Ionic liquids-centered immobile segments dearth the solving authority for non-polar analytes, predominantly unsaturated as well as saturated hydrocarbons, cycloalkanes. This nonexistence of discernment has diminished fervor amongst certain parting experts who might modulate the feature of fundamental fine-tuning (in relations of anion/cation combining in addition to operational structures of every constituent) while emerging ionic liquids to display great discernment also robust solving influence. Ionic liquids have strained substantial consideration as gas chromatography immobile segments as of their tunable chemical plus physical properties. Conversely, profitable Ionic liquids-centered gas chromatography supports have not reconnoitered entirely of the solvation characteristics that can be obtainable through ionic liquids.
Moreover, their polarization, viscosity, hydrophobicity plus further physical and chemical properties can be designated by means of selecting the anionic and cationic component. Ionic liquids are considered as “exclusive diluents” as of this adjustable environment, which rises their prospective solicitations. The consumption of ionic liquids is maiden innovative prospects in diverse regions of parting discipline, with novel countless solicitations. Additional uses in partings are linked to the ecological, pharmacological, biomedical as well as various manufacturing trades. Ionic liquids have been discovered in partings for abstraction, reinforced fluid membranes, as extracts then as static segments in chromatography.
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Due to its advantages of abundant resources, less in cost, great workability and high physical properties, fly ash leads to achieving high mechanical properties. Fly ash is considered as one of the largest generated industrial solid wastes or so-called industrial by-products, around the world particularly in China, India, and USA. The characteristics of fly ash allow it to be a geotechnical material to produce geopolymer cement or concrete as an alternative of ordinary Portland cement. Many efforts are made in this direction to formulate a suitable mix design of fly ash-based geopolymer by focusing on fly ash as the main prime material. The physical properties, chemical compositions, and chemical activation of fly ash are analyzed and evaluated in this review paper. Reference has been made to different ASTM, ACI standards, and other researches work in geopolymer area.",book:{id:"9916",slug:"zero-energy-buildings-new-approaches-and-technologies",title:"Zero-Energy Buildings",fullTitle:"Zero-Energy Buildings - New Approaches and Technologies"},signatures:"Aissa Bouaissi, Long Yuan Li, Mohd Mustafa Al Bakri Abdullah, Romisuhani Ahmad, Rafiza Abdul Razak and Zarina Yahya",authors:null},{id:"73729",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93500",title:"Solar Energy and Its Purpose in Net-Zero Energy Building",slug:"solar-energy-and-its-purpose-in-net-zero-energy-building",totalDownloads:599,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"The Net Zero Energy Building is generally described as an extremely energy-efficient building in which the residual electricity demand is provided by renewable energy. Solar power is also regarded to be the most readily available and usable form of renewable electricity produced at the building site. In contrast, energy conservation is viewed as an influential national for achieving a building’s net zero energy status. This chapter aims to show the value of the synergy between energy conservation and solar energy transfer to NZEBs at the global and regional levels. To achieve these goals, both energy demand building and the potential supply of solar energy in buildings have been forecasted in various regions, climatic conditions, and types of buildings. Building energy consumption was evaluated based on a bottom-up energy model developed by 3CSEP and data inputs from the Bottom-Up Energy Analysis System (BUENAS) model under two scenarios of differing degrees of energy efficiency intention. The study results indicate that the acquisition of sustainable energy consumption is critical for solar-powered net zero energy buildings in various building styles and environments. The chapter calls for the value of government measures that incorporate energy conservation and renewable energy.",book:{id:"9916",slug:"zero-energy-buildings-new-approaches-and-technologies",title:"Zero-Energy Buildings",fullTitle:"Zero-Energy Buildings - New Approaches and Technologies"},signatures:"Mostafa Esmaeili Shayan",authors:[{id:"317852",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mostafa",middleName:null,surname:"Esmaeili Shayan",slug:"mostafa-esmaeili-shayan",fullName:"Mostafa Esmaeili Shayan"}]},{id:"67105",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86279",title:"Social Innovation and Environmental Sustainability in Social Housing Policies: Learning from Two Experimental Case Studies in Italy",slug:"social-innovation-and-environmental-sustainability-in-social-housing-policies-learning-from-two-expe",totalDownloads:1008,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"This chapter critically examines approaches and solutions developed by social housing to sustainably respond to the housing emergency plaguing contemporary cities and Italian cities in particular. In a broader perspective, we also investigate how housing has become ‘difficult’ in Europe and the poorest segments of the population run the risk of having their right to housing dramatically denied. Analysing housing in terms of its procedural dimension, we focus on two Italian case studies that evoke a new way of inhabiting the city, cases in which high standards characterised social housing and yet remain accessible to all. The Sharing hotel residence in Turin and Zoia social housing in Milan combine housing with other socially innovative measures in a framework of sustainability and avant-garde construction. These are significant examples that speak to issues such as temporariness, flexibility and the coordination of measures. These two cases both pursued objectives having to do with social, planning, architectural and environmental quality, albeit each in their own way. There are by now numerous examples of social housing in Europe and these have recently attracted growing interest in Italy as well; in this country, however, such projects represent valid instances of experimentation but are not at all widespread.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Rossana Galdini and Silvia Lucciarini",authors:[{id:"281246",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvia",middleName:null,surname:"Lucciarini",slug:"silvia-lucciarini",fullName:"Silvia Lucciarini"},{id:"282958",title:"Prof.",name:"Rossana",middleName:null,surname:"Galdini",slug:"rossana-galdini",fullName:"Rossana Galdini"}]},{id:"67084",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86278",title:"Comprehensive Strategy for Sustainable Housing Design",slug:"comprehensive-strategy-for-sustainable-housing-design",totalDownloads:1359,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Sustainable housing needs to be designed to maximize occupants’ well-being and minimize the environmental load. The pursuit of combining these two different aspects toward sustainability is a goal-oriented task. The science of control can be applied to all goal-oriented tasks. Therefore, applying control science, we have been progressing in research on sustainable housing design. Our previous study has produced the control system for promoting sustainable housing design in which sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist are incorporated. Based on these accomplished results, this study has comprehensively visualized the process of producing and revising the sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist. Following this visualized process, also this study has concretely shown the production and revision processes of the sustainable design guidelines. The study results suggest that the comprehensive visualization can make these processes more manageable and help system designers to produce and revise the guidelines more efficiently. Furthermore, these results have led to indicating how to adjust the guidelines to different countries or regions as well as changing situations over time.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Kazutoshi Fujihira",authors:[{id:"69662",title:"BSc.",name:"Kazutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Fujihira",slug:"kazutoshi-fujihira",fullName:"Kazutoshi Fujihira"}]},{id:"57401",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71325",title:"Basic Schemes: Preparations for Applying Control Science to Sustainable Design",slug:"basic-schemes-preparations-for-applying-control-science-to-sustainable-design",totalDownloads:1218,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"It is the ultimate goal for humankind to deal with various problems and achieve sustainability. Control science can be applied to all goal-oriented tasks and has already produced remarkable results. Accordingly, applying control science to the task of achieving sustainability is a rational and reliable approach. In order to apply control science to sustainability issues, our first study has shown the “basic control system for sustainability” as well as the “model of sustainability.” After that, in order to identify system components of practical control systems for promoting sustainable design, we have devised “two-step preparatory work for sustainable design.” The two steps of this preparatory work are “determining the relationships between the standard human activities and sustainability” and “sustainability checkup on human activities as an object.”",book:{id:"5692",slug:"sustainable-home-design-by-applying-control-science",title:"Sustainable Home Design by Applying Control Science",fullTitle:"Sustainable Home Design by Applying Control Science"},signatures:"Kazutoshi Fujihira",authors:[{id:"69662",title:"BSc.",name:"Kazutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Fujihira",slug:"kazutoshi-fujihira",fullName:"Kazutoshi Fujihira"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"71982",title:"Net-Zero Energy Buildings: Principles and Applications",slug:"net-zero-energy-buildings-principles-and-applications",totalDownloads:2214,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Global warming and climate change are rising issues during the last couple of decades. With residential and commercial buildings being the largest energy consumers, sources are being depleted at a much faster pace in the recent decades. Recent statistics shows that 14% of humans are active participant to protect the environment with an additional 48% sympathetic but not active. In this chapter, net-zero energy buildings design tools and applications are presented that can help designers in the commercial and residential sectors design their buildings to be net-zero energy buildings. Case studies with benefits and challenges will be presented to illustrate the different designs to achieve a net-zero energy building (NZEB).",book:{id:"9916",slug:"zero-energy-buildings-new-approaches-and-technologies",title:"Zero-Energy Buildings",fullTitle:"Zero-Energy Buildings - New Approaches and Technologies"},signatures:"Maher Shehadi",authors:null},{id:"57400",title:"Case Study: Detached House Designed by Following the Control System",slug:"case-study-detached-house-designed-by-following-the-control-system",totalDownloads:1542,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The previous chapter has demonstrated the control system for promoting sustainable housing design in which the sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist are incorporated. Following this control system, we have actually designed and constructed a detached house. To be concrete, the homeowner and the architects of the housing manufacture have designed the home’s parts, or elements, so that as much as possible the elements’ variables meet their desired values. The sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist have been readily accepted because the material and spatial elements are equivalent to real parts of the home. After the home started to be used, we have obtained external evaluations of the home’s sustainability performance. For example, CASBEE for Detached Houses, a comprehensive assessment system, has readily ranked the house in the highest “S.” An energy-saving performance assessment has shown that this home has reduced energy consumption by over 70%, as compared with the average home. On the other hand, the reactions of the occupants and visitors have indicated the comfort, healthiness and safety of this house. Furthermore, this home has received a sustainable housing award, especially due to its extremely high sustainability and energy-saving performance.",book:{id:"5692",slug:"sustainable-home-design-by-applying-control-science",title:"Sustainable Home Design by Applying Control Science",fullTitle:"Sustainable Home Design by Applying Control Science"},signatures:"Kazutoshi Fujihira",authors:[{id:"69662",title:"BSc.",name:"Kazutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Fujihira",slug:"kazutoshi-fujihira",fullName:"Kazutoshi Fujihira"}]},{id:"67084",title:"Comprehensive Strategy for Sustainable Housing Design",slug:"comprehensive-strategy-for-sustainable-housing-design",totalDownloads:1359,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Sustainable housing needs to be designed to maximize occupants’ well-being and minimize the environmental load. The pursuit of combining these two different aspects toward sustainability is a goal-oriented task. The science of control can be applied to all goal-oriented tasks. Therefore, applying control science, we have been progressing in research on sustainable housing design. Our previous study has produced the control system for promoting sustainable housing design in which sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist are incorporated. Based on these accomplished results, this study has comprehensively visualized the process of producing and revising the sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist. Following this visualized process, also this study has concretely shown the production and revision processes of the sustainable design guidelines. The study results suggest that the comprehensive visualization can make these processes more manageable and help system designers to produce and revise the guidelines more efficiently. Furthermore, these results have led to indicating how to adjust the guidelines to different countries or regions as well as changing situations over time.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Kazutoshi Fujihira",authors:[{id:"69662",title:"BSc.",name:"Kazutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Fujihira",slug:"kazutoshi-fujihira",fullName:"Kazutoshi Fujihira"}]},{id:"65804",title:"Effects of Street Geometry on Airflow Regimes for Natural Ventilation in Three Different Street Configurations in Enugu City",slug:"effects-of-street-geometry-on-airflow-regimes-for-natural-ventilation-in-three-different-street-conf",totalDownloads:1392,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Efficient natural ventilation is dependent on the micro climate conditions of an urban environment. This is affected by ambient wind flow, radiation and air temperatures. The airflow within the urban street can be cultivated into two regions. The first is a recirculation region, which forms in the near wake of each building. The Second is a ventilated region downstream of the recirculation region, formed when the street is sufficiently wide. The development of the flow into these two regions depends on geometry. This chapter looks at the impacts of street geometry on these regions of airflow cultivation in three different street configurations in high density residential settlements in Enugu city. It utilized schematic analysis of airflow regimes to identify the behaviors of flow in these street configurations relative to the height and width ratios of the street canyon. This schematic analysis can be utilized in preliminary design studies by city and building designers for justifying street dimensions and configurations in tropical regions where natural ventilation is paramount.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Jideofor Anselm Akubue",authors:[{id:"139659",title:"Dr.",name:"Akubue",middleName:"Jideofor",surname:"Anselm",slug:"akubue-anselm",fullName:"Akubue Anselm"}]},{id:"66000",title:"Fundamentals of Natural Ventilation Design within Dwellings",slug:"fundamentals-of-natural-ventilation-design-within-dwellings",totalDownloads:961,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Along with acoustical and lighting comfort, indoor air quality (IAQ) and thermal comfort upon households are essential to maintain a proper indoor environment, therefore ensuring a welfare toward the occupants. Nevertheless, sometimes, these features are neglected by building designers and constructers, causing problems such as the so-called sick building syndrome (SBS) and thermal discomfort, among others. Although there are short-term solutions such as purifiers, extractors, fans, and air conditioning, eventually these methods become not sustainable activities that consume energy and emit polluting gases such as chlorofluorocarbons. One alternative to this is natural ventilation, understood as the airflow throughout a building caused by changes of pressures naturally produced. In this chapter, the role of the early-stage building design as well as the correct occupant behavior is presented as essential to develop a naturally ventilated dwelling, which is an excellent alternative to achieve proper levels of indoor environment in a sustainable manner.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Ivan Oropeza-Perez",authors:[{id:"282172",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Oropeza-Perez",slug:"ivan-oropeza-perez",fullName:"Ivan Oropeza-Perez"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"852",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:17,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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