\r\n\tb) how a concentrated attention focus on screens (i.e., tablets and smartphones) could result in a total activity absorption and a flow experience; \r\n\tc) teens' preference for media social interaction appears to be closely associated with impaired modes of mood regulation; \r\n\td) the web activities as factors of externalized and/or internalized risks; \r\n\te) the implementation of health promotion interventions by Internet Apps; finally, \r\n\tf) the cross-cultural differences and similarities about teen approaches to the web around the world.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with an overview of studies with a research topic that is crucial today: the need to integrate teens' use of the web into the processes contributing to determine adolescents' developmental trajectories and Quality of Life.
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1. Introduction
Digital distribution has been considered by researchers since four decades ago [1, 2, 3]. With the growth of available bandwidth in the telecommunications infrastructures, it gradually appeared as one of the main purposes of communication during two decades. This encouraged a lot of research on different aspects of digital distribution over internet [4, 5, 6]. Digital distribution brings about several challenges among which one can refer to performance, but in this chapter, we are more interested in security. Security of digital distribution has been investigated from different aspects [7, 8, 9]. One of the most challenging aspects in digital distribution security is digital rights management, which has been the topic for several research works [10, 11]. With the emergence of internet, online digital distribution found its applications in a variety of environments [12, 13, 14]. Meanwhile, the public access to internet made security more and more challenging [15].
Content delivery is a branch of digital distribution, which is growing very fast in different aspects [16, 17]. The more content delivery systems grow, the more complex security their security management becomes [18]. Among advances in content delivery, one may mention CDNs [19, 20, 21]. These networks serve to high-performance delivery of digital contents as well as streaming of audio and video in collaboration with other technologies such as cloud computing [22, 23]. Different aspects of security in CDNs such as privacy [24], digital property management [25], intrusion detection [26], trust [27], and eavesdropping protection [28] have been studied by researchers.
Digital cinema is a service that can be provided using CDNs. It is an online video streaming and projection service gaining a research focus in recent years [29, 30, 31]. Security is a serious challenge in digital cinema [32, 33, 34] like other services provided over CDNs. One of the most important aspects of digital cinema security is digital rights management [35, 36], which is about preserving the publication rights for the generator of contents. Counterfeit protection is one of the most challenging problems in the area of digital cinema rights management.
Digital property management and especially counterfeit protection mostly depend on watermarking in a variety of environments [37, 38, 39]. Digital watermarking has been finding its applications in digital cinema in recent years [40, 41]. But, there is a delicate challenge faced by watermarking systems used in digital cinema. In the absence of proper protective measures, counterfeit copies of movies can be recorded by handheld cameras in the cinema hall. Movie theater holders are obliged to take preventive measures in this regard. This creates two problems, which need to be taken into consideration while designing watermarking schemes for digital cinema. These problems are explained in the following.
The first problem is faced by movie providers. When a pirate copy is distributed, providers would like to identify the theatre where the copy has been recorded. Then they can sue the identified theatres as they have not fulfilled their legal obligations. One way to approach this problem is to add watermarks to the movie by the projector in projection time. This watermark carries some identification information about the cinema hall as well as the projection time. This makes it possible to identify the hall in which a counterfeit copy has been recorded. But, the distortions made by hand vibrations and point of view angle, makes it difficult to recover the watermark from the movie. Thus, watermarking schemes designed for digital cinema should be specifically resistant against these distortions.
The second problem is to locate the seat on which the camcorder has been recording. This problem is to be solved by cinema holders as they are legally responsible for illegally recorded copies. Solving this problem requires digital cinema watermarking schemes to be able to calculate distance and angle.
There are some surveys on techniques used to solve the two problems mentioned above. But, they are outdated for such a fast-growing area [42, 43]. This motivates our work in this chapter, which is a comparative review on watermarking schemes used in digital cinema and the methods used by these schemes in order to achieve the mentioned goals.
The rest of this chapter is organized as follows. Section 2 presents an introduction to digital cinema. Section 3 discusses watermarking and related concepts. Section 4 presents a survey on watermarking in digital cinema. Section 5 concludes the chapter and suggests further research.
2. Digital cinema
Digital cinema refers to the set of processes, tools, and components which aim at the preparation, transmission, and projection of digital movies in cinema. This system is taking the place of traditional cinema which depends on reels of film being projected by film projectors.
In digital cinema, 2K (2048 × 1080 or 2.2 megapixels) or 4K (4096 × 2160 or 8.8 megapixels) resolutions are commonly used.
Among the advantages of digital cinema, we can point out reduction in time to market, reduction in cost per print, greater reach, and piracy control.
A digital cinema system consists of three main processes. In the first process, the film is converted to a digital print called DCP (Digital Cinema Package). The DCP is then delivered to the theatres and ingested (stored) by the related servers. This can be done through physical transportation of hard disks or through a digital distribution system. A content delivery network can serve to this purpose [44]. The DCP is often encrypted, and the keys required to decrypt the file are ingested in the screening tools to prevent theater owners from illegal screen extensions. In the third process, the movie is played back using a digital video projector. The aforementioned three processes are shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
A typical digital cinema system.
The first system specification for digital cinema was published in 2005 by a consortium of six major studios. This specification is referred to as DCI (Digital Cinema Initiatives) and uses JPG 2000 video encoding with XML playback standard.
3. Digital watermarking
Watermarking is a copyright ownership identification method used for noise-tolerant media such as video, image, and audio. In this technique, an intentional noise is added to the signal in the form of covertly embedded information. In most cases, the hidden information is normally not perceptible. Rather it requires some revealing process to be extracted from the carrying content file. However, in some cases, it can be perceptible. For example, it can be visibly added to a film or image in order to encourage the user to buy the original version without the mark.
The hidden information should be robust (resistant) against simple modifications normally used to the media type. For example, a marker hidden in an image should not be removed when the image is converted from Bitmap to JPG.
Steganographic techniques such as watermarking and steganography are evaluated using measures like robustness, imperceptibility, and capacity. In watermarking, the main objective is robustness. It should not be confused with steganography where imperceptibility is the main goal [45].
Figure 2 shows how the character “a” can be watermarked in a video using a simple watermarking scheme.
Figure 2.
Watermarking the character “a” in a movie.
In the example shown in Figure 2, the video is first decomposed into n segments. Then two different variants of the video represented by A and B are prepared which are imperceptibly different in each segment. Each segment can be chosen from the variant A or B. The choice of A for a segment watermarks the bit value “0,” and choosing B means watermarking “1.” In this example, the ASCII code “01000001” assigned to the character “a” has been watermarked to the video by choosing segments 2 and 8 from the variant B and the others from A.
4. Survey on watermarking in digital cinema
Illegal recording from the cinema screen using handheld cameras is a serious problem encountered by film makers. Watermarking, as a fingerprinting method aiming at piracy protection is a promising method for attacking this problem in the context of digital cinema. The watermarking process can be performed in show time and embed information regarding the projector and the playback time into the video. Since theatre owners are obliged to prevent handheld cameras in their premises, they are responsible for the pirate copies, and the watermark extracted from the pirate copies can specify the theatre where the copy has been recorded.
One of the most serious problems in the application of watermarking in digital cinema is that perspective, zoom, and some other parameters can be changed by the handheld camera, which leads to geometrical distortions. These distortions make it difficult to recover the watermark. This problem is faced by movie providers as they need to identify the theatre from which the pirate copy has been recorded. A watermarking system should guarantee distortion resistance in order to be capable of being used in digital cinema. In fact, old correlation-based watermark schemes are unable to prevent piracy because they are not robust to geometric distortions created by the handheld camera [46, 47].
The second challenge, which is faced by theatre owners, is locating the pirate in the theatre. Since theatre owners are sued when a pirate copy is distributed, they need mechanisms to identify the person who has recorded the illegal copy. To do this, they need to locate the camcorder. This way, they can identify the criminal using their ticket databases. This raises the need for watermarking methods capable of locating the camcorder.
The two aforementioned challenges have been part of the topic in several research works since early 2000s [48, 49], and they are still considered as research concerns in this area [42, 50]. In the following, we separately review the methods used by different watermarking schemes in order to attack each of the problems.
4.1 Identifying the theatre
In this section, we study the methods used in order to identify the theatres wherein hand camera copies are recorded. These methods mainly depend on geometric process while storing or detecting the watermark.
4.1.1 Temporal watermarking
One solution to the aforementioned problem is to design methods which use only the temporal access to embed the watermark. A watermarking scheme of this kind was proposed in [51, 52], which modifies the mean luminance value in each frame of the video according to the samples of the watermark. In this research report, it has been taken into consideration that the human visual system is sensitive to flickers in low spatial frequencies. Thus, the proposed scheme attempts at avoiding this kind of flickers. To do this, the same watermark is applied to a certain number of consequent frames.
In the aforementioned scheme, the watermark is considered as a pseudo-random sequence of length n consisting of 1 and −1 values. Embedding the watermark causes the luminance of each pixel to increase or decrease. But the change depends on a local scaling factor which has higher values for moving textual areas and lower values for non-moving flat areas. This scaling factor is defined as the minimum of a spatial scaling factor and a motion scaling factor. Moreover, there is a maximum allowable change that cannot be violated.
The motion scaling factor for each pixel is calculated as the difference from the corresponding pixel in the previous frame. On the other hand, the spatial scaling factor is calculated using a Laplacian filter. Figure 3 shows this watermarking scheme.
Figure 3.
The watermarking scheme presented in [51, 52].
In Figure 3, TTexture and TTexture are predefined thresholds and ∣ABS∣ represents the absolute operator. Moreover, 0≤q<1,k is the number of the frame among the selected set of consecutive frames for embedding the watermark, and K is the number of consecutive frames.
The authors of this report successfully tested the robustness of their watermark under several conditions such as changing the zoom and angle of the camera in addition to handheld camera recording and people walking between the camera and the screen.
4.1.2 Compensation
Compensation is another solution to the geometrical distortion problem. In this method, a pre-process is used to restore the geometrical distortions before watermark extraction. A method based on compensation was proposed in [53]. The authors of this report made a simplifying assumption in order to make it easier to model the nonlinear distortions. They assumed that the handheld camera is located far from the screen at the back of the movie theatre but not so far from the center line of theatre.
The authors of [53] present a parameterized mathematical model that compares the pirate copy with its original in a general case. For each specific pair of pirate-original pair, the compensation method tries to find the values for the parameters such that the model best matches the case. They modeled the distortions with four mathematical transformations as follows.
Affine transformations: there is assumed to be six degrees of parameters for this kind of transformations, which model rescaling (zooming), translation (shifting caused by shakes of the camera), rotation (caused by the angle of the camera), and shearing (caused by cropping).
Bilinear transform: this kind of transform can convert a square to an ordinary quadrilateral with eight degrees of freedom.
Curved transform: tt is a simple mathematical transform that models the impacts of the lens properties such as short focal length.
Curved-bilinear transform: it has been designed to compensate the bilinear transform as well as the curved transform.
They tested their method via simulating a handheld camera. The simulation process applies a curved-bilinear transformation along with converting from 1920 × 1980 resolution to 1024 × 576 and then cropping to 720 × 576. Figure 4 shows this transformation. Their method successfully recovered a 64-bit watermark from the transformed video.
Figure 4.
The curved-bilinear transformation in [48].
4.1.3 Hardware-based additional watermarking
A hardware-based watermarking scheme named “Additional Watermarking” was presented in [54, 55, 56], which does not require the original movie for the recovery of the watermark. This method uses DWT (Discrete Wavelet Transform) instead of the Laplacian transforms. In this scheme, watermarks are added to the video in both the encoding and the decoding processes. This method uses CRC32 as a hash function for selecting random places in the video to embed the watermark. This method places the mark in the lowest frequency components of the video. It was shown in the research that the proposed method does not make any perceptible change in the original video and it is robust to a variety of signal processing transforms.
4.1.4 Spread transform dither modulation
The problem of tradeoff between fidelity and robustness was posed in [57]. A watermarking scheme based on STDM (Spread Transform Dither Modulation) was proposed in this research which uses the HVS (Human Visual System) properties of wavelet in order to resolve the tradeoff. These properties include the following facts.
Noise in high resolution bands is not clearly perceptible to human eyes.
HVS is less sensitive to changes to very high or very low brightness portions of the video.
HVS is not very sensitive to changes in highly textured portions unless they are close to the borders.
In this scheme, the watermark is embedded during the JPEG2000 decoding phase. Figure 5 shows a screen shot from Big Buck Bunny film before and after watermarking with this method.
Figure 5.
A screenshot from Big Buck Bunny before and after watermarking (Courtesy to [57]).
4.1.5 Spread spectrum watermarking
In [53] another application for watermarking in digital cinema was proposed. This report proposes a watermarking method based on spread spectrum. This method is not only robust to geometric distortions, but also able to estimate the position of the handheld camera that has recorded the pirate copy. This may help identifying the ticket number and the credit card number of the person.
The method proposed in [58] embeds the watermark in the payload in a way that the geometric transformation applied by the handheld camera can be identified in addition to the position of the camera. This method requires the watermark payload to follow a periodic pattern. A basic pattern is generated using a secret key in a way that it follows a periodic Gaussian distribution with the mean equal to zero and the variance equal to one. Then the payload, which contains the serial number of the projector as well as a time stamp is embedded into the video after the modulation process using an additive spread-spectrum method.
The authors of [58] tested the accuracy of their method in a small seminar room as well as a large auditorium. The mean absolute error was at maximum 6.87 cm for the small-scale test and 50.38 cm for the large-scale test.
Another watermarking scheme based on spread spectrum techniques was introduced in [59]. This method stores the watermark in the YCbCr color space using translation, rotation, scaling or composite operations.
Table 1 compares the methods used to identify the theatre. The parameters used in this comparison are as follows.
Resistance against hand vibrations
Resistance against perspective drifts
Resistance against obstacles such as people’s heads or people walking between the handheld camera and the screen
A comparison among watermarking schemes used in digital cinema.
One point to note here is that the distortion factors studied in Table 1 are not the only factors that make it complex to recover the projection time watermark from pirate copies. For example, it was shown in [60] that the lamination flickers, induced by the interplay between an LCD and a camcorder can cause some difficulties in the recovery of the watermark. In addition to temporal luminance variations studied in [60], spatial luminance variations induced by camcorder recording have been studied in [61].
4.2 Locating the camcorder
In this section, we study the methods that can be used by cinema owners in order to locate the pirate camera.
4.2.1 Audio watermarking
An approach to estimating the camcorder location has been proposed in [62]. In this method, unlike previous methods, audio is watermarked in the movie soundtrack instead of images, numbers or text messages being watermarked in the video itself. Most of the methods introduced in the literature avoid audio watermarking because of its complexity. In fact, it is difficult to hide any audio in soundtracks as they contain different types of audio such as voices, sound effects, and music.
The method proposed in [62] depends on a stochastic analysis in the watermark detection process. This method uses the audio watermarking technique introduced in [63]. The idea behind this method is that the attenuation of an audio signal depends on the distance. Thus, a few watermarked audio signals played from different locations can provide adequate information for locating the pirate. The advantage of this method is that audio is not prone to geometric distortion.
4.2.2 Hybrid audio-video watermarking
Some recent research works such as the one reported in [50] have combined video watermarking and audio watermarking in order to achieve the advantages of both methods. Audio watermarking is not affected by geometric distortions resulting from perspective, zoom, and vibrations. On the other hand, video watermarking is not affected by distance. Thus, it looks pertinent to combine them to achieve better results.
In the method proposed in [50], audio is watermarked in the video itself instead of the soundtrack. This way, there is no need for the watermarked audio to be played from different sources.
Another hybrid audio-video watermarking scheme was introduced in [64]. In this method unlike the one presented in [50], audio and video are separately watermarked in the soundtrack and in the movie itself.
5. Conclusion
In this chapter, we introduced the challenges faced by watermarking schemes in digital cinema. Then, we presented a review on watermarking methods specifically designed to confront these challenges. We focused on two main problems, first of which is the geometric distortion problem which and the second is camcorder location estimation. Our work in this chapter can be continued by studying other security and performance aspects of digital cinema.
\n',keywords:"watermarking, piracy, digital cinema, copyright, survey, digital distribution",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/71851.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/71851.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71851",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71851",totalDownloads:206,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"December 13th 2019",dateReviewed:"April 8th 2020",datePrePublished:"April 27th 2020",datePublished:"August 26th 2020",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Watermarking is used in several areas such as CDNs (Content Delivery Networks), as part of the rights management system for counterfeit prevention. Watermarking schemes need some additional features in order to be used in digital cinema. In fact, extra watermarks are added to movies by cinema projectors in projection time, which help identify the cinema hall in which the illegal copy has been recorded. But distortions caused by hand vibrations and the point of view angle make it difficult to recover the watermark. This makes it necessary to be distortion-resistant for the watermarking schemes used in digital cinema. On the other hand, theatre owners would like to locate the camcorder that has recorded the pirate copy. This requires watermarking schemes to be able to estimate the distance and angle using the distributed pirate copy. In this chapter, we present a review on watermarking techniques specifically designed to attack the aforementioned problems.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/71851",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/71851",signatures:"Behrouz Zolfaghari and Pinaki Mitra",book:{id:"9219",title:"Recent Trends in Communication Networks",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Recent Trends in Communication Networks",slug:"recent-trends-in-communication-networks",publishedDate:"August 26th 2020",bookSignature:"Pinaki Mitra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9219.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"89103",title:"Prof.",name:"Pinaki",middleName:null,surname:"Mitra",slug:"pinaki-mitra",fullName:"Pinaki Mitra"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"89103",title:"Prof.",name:"Pinaki",middleName:null,surname:"Mitra",fullName:"Pinaki Mitra",slug:"pinaki-mitra",email:"pinaki@iitg.ac.in",position:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"320578",title:"Dr.",name:"Behrouz",middleName:null,surname:"Zolfaghari",fullName:"Behrouz Zolfaghari",slug:"behrouz-zolfaghari",email:"zolfaghari@iitg.ac.in",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Digital cinema",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Digital watermarking",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Survey on watermarking in digital cinema",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1 Identifying the theatre",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"4.1.1 Temporal watermarking",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"4.1.2 Compensation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"4.1.3 Hardware-based additional watermarking",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"4.1.4 Spread transform dither modulation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.2 Locating the camcorder",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"4.2.1 Audio watermarking",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"4.2.2 Hybrid audio-video watermarking",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Hata M, Fukazawa A, Bessho M, Makino S, Higuchi M. A new 40 GHz digital distribution radio with single local oscillator. 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International Journal of Security and Its Applications. 2015;9(1):283-294'},{id:"B60",body:'Hajj-Ahmad A, Baudry S, Chupeau B, Doerr G, Wu M. Flicker forensics for camcorder piracy. IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security. 2017;12(1)'},{id:"B61",body:'Kelkoul H, Zaz Y. Registration methods for nonblind watermark detection in digital cinema applications. International Journal of Computer, Electrical, Automation, Control and Information Engineering. 2003;11(2):2107'},{id:"B62",body:'Nakashima Y, Tachibana R, Babaguchi N. Watermarked movie soundtrack finds the position of the camcorder in a theater. IEEE Transactions on Multimedia. 2009;11(3)'},{id:"B63",body:'Tachibana R, Shimizu S, Kobayashi S, Nakamura T. An audio watermarking method using a two-dimensional psuedo-random array. Signal Processing. 2002;82(1):1455-1469'},{id:"B64",body:'Gosavi CS, Mali SN. Secure, robust video watermarking to prevent camcorder piracy. Indian Journal of Science and Technology. 2017;10(18):1-10'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Behrouz Zolfaghari",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, India
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, India
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"9219",title:"Recent Trends in Communication Networks",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Recent Trends in Communication Networks",slug:"recent-trends-in-communication-networks",publishedDate:"August 26th 2020",bookSignature:"Pinaki Mitra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9219.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"89103",title:"Prof.",name:"Pinaki",middleName:null,surname:"Mitra",slug:"pinaki-mitra",fullName:"Pinaki Mitra"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"198235",title:"Dr.",name:"Olivia",middleName:null,surname:"Allende-Hernández",email:"oallende.mx@gmail.com",fullName:"Olivia Allende-Hernández",slug:"olivia-allende-hernandez",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:{name:"Technological University of the Mixteca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Usages and Customs of the Indigenous Communities in Favour of the Reduction of the Digital Divide: A Case Study of the Ñuu Savi People",slug:"usages-and-customs-of-the-indigenous-communities-in-favour-of-the-reduction-of-the-digital-divide-a-",abstract:"This research is of ethnographic nature, focusing on the study of the Ñuu Savi people (people of the rain), also called the Mixtec people, of pre-Columbian origin belonging to the Mixteca Region of the state of Oaxaca, Mexico. On the basis of sociocultural theory and the theory of the diffusion and adoption of technological innovations, the study on the cultural identity of the ethnolinguistic group, whose social platform is the “uses and customs,” is carried out. As a result of this research, the descriptive analysis is presented, detailing the effect of information and communication technologies (ICTs) on the situation of the vulnerable and disadvantaged group. Likewise, cultural elements have been identified that allow the formulation of a model for the development and inclusion of the ethnic minority. An educational strategy is designed and implemented through the model. However, in the process of implementing the educational strategy, it was observed that the Ñuu Savi people experience a conjunctural stage where technological adoption coexists with some beliefs, aptitudes, and attitudes, characteristic of its form of government of “uses and customs,” which create sociocultural barriers that make social and digital inclusion difficult.",signatures:"Olivia Allende-Hernández and Jesús Salinas",authors:[{id:"198235",title:"Dr.",name:"Olivia",surname:"Allende-Hernández",fullName:"Olivia Allende-Hernández",slug:"olivia-allende-hernandez",email:"oallende.mx@gmail.com"},{id:"201435",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesús",surname:"Salinas",fullName:"Jesús Salinas",slug:"jesus-salinas",email:"jesus.salinas@uib.es"}],book:{title:"Indigenous People",slug:"indigenous-people",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"110034",title:"Dr.",name:"Wilfred",surname:"April",slug:"wilfred-april",fullName:"Wilfred April",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110034/images/5175_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Southern Namibia, Wilfred\\'s moto is your background is no excuse, the only excuse for success is the limitations you set for yourself. He holds a PhD in Entrepreneurship from Australasia and aspires to study for an Intellectual Property Law degree soon. Currently he is a final year student for a Postgraduate Diploma in Higher Education Educators at UNAM.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"198184",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Luciene",surname:"Risso",slug:"luciene-risso",fullName:"Luciene Risso",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Cidade de São Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"198534",title:"Prof.",name:"John",surname:"Tharakan",slug:"john-tharakan",fullName:"John Tharakan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Howard University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"199063",title:"Dr.",name:"Germán Alejandro",surname:"García Lara",slug:"german-alejandro-garcia-lara",fullName:"Germán Alejandro García Lara",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad de Ciencias y Artes de Chiapas",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"200156",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Mbunya Francis",surname:"Nkemnyi",slug:"mbunya-francis-nkemnyi",fullName:"Mbunya Francis Nkemnyi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Antwerp",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Belgium"}}},{id:"200333",title:"Dr.",name:"Oscar",surname:"Cruz Pérez",slug:"oscar-cruz-perez",fullName:"Oscar Cruz Pérez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad de Ciencias y Artes de Chiapas",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"201435",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesús",surname:"Salinas",slug:"jesus-salinas",fullName:"Jesús Salinas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202062",title:"Prof.",name:"Renan",surname:"Andreosi",slug:"renan-andreosi",fullName:"Renan Andreosi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Cidade de São Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"204208",title:"Mr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Itenge",slug:"daniel-itenge",fullName:"Daniel Itenge",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204208/images/6152_n.jpg",biography:"Daniel Itenge holds a Master\\'s of Science Degree in Labour Economics, Turin, Italy. He also holds a Bachelor\\'s of Science Degree in Business Administration from the University of Namibia. He works for the Government of Namibia as Senior Employment Officer. His areas of interest are labour economics, community development, and Research and Development.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"204209",title:"Mr.",name:"Lazarus",surname:"Emvula",slug:"lazarus-emvula",fullName:"Lazarus Emvula",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"our-story",title:"Our story",intro:"
The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
",metaTitle:"Our story",metaDescription:"The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/our-story",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\\n\\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n\\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\\n\\n
2004
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\\n\\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n
\\n\\n
2005
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\\n
\\n\\n
2006
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\\n
\\n\\n
2008
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\\n
\\n\\n
2009
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\\n
\\n\\n
2010
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\\n
\\n\\n
2011
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\\n
\\n\\n
2012
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\\n
\\n\\n
2013
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\\n
\\n\\n
2014
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\\n
\\n\\n
2015
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\\n\\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\\n\\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\\n
\\n\\n
2016
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\\n
\\n\\n
2017
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\n\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\n\n
2004
\n\n
\n\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\n\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n
\n\n
2005
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\n
\n\n
2006
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\n
\n\n
2008
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\n
\n\n
2009
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\n
\n\n
2010
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\n
\n\n
2011
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\n\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\n\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\n
\n\n
2012
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\n
\n\n
2013
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\n
\n\n
2014
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\n\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\n
\n\n
2015
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\n\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\n\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\n
\n\n
2016
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n
\n\n
2017
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
\n
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. 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