Several snack bars formulation.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"2040",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Innovations in Biotechnology",title:"Innovations in Biotechnology",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Innovations in Biotechnology provides an authoritative crystallization of some of the evolving leading-edge biomedical research topics and developments in the field of biotechnology. 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For this purpose, the names of functional foods, nutraceutical foods, pharmaceutical foods, designer foods, farmafoods, vitafoods, foodaceutical, etc. were used [1]. Other terms, often grouped separately, may be included in the same regulations: medical foods, dietary supplements, fortified foods, and botanicals.
There are definitions around the world for functional foods, but there is no official or accepted definition; the functional foods are more of a concept than a defined food product group. Therefore, a functional food can be a natural food, a food in which a component has been added or has been removed, a food in which the nature of one or more components has been altered, or any combination of these possibilities [2]. Functional foods can be those foods made up of distinct, fortified, and enriched elements that provide health benefits apart from the supply of essential nutrients (e.g., vitamins and minerals) when consumed at effective levels within a varied diet [3]. A food may be functional for all individuals or for certain population groups, which can be defined, for example, by age or genetic constitution.
Moreover, the functional food, besides its basic nutritional effect, has also beneficial effects on human body functions (improving the general physical state, decreasing the risk of disease evolution, etc.) [1, 4, 5, 6]. The main roles of functional foods in regulating processes in the body are presented in Figure 1.
The role of functional foods in regulating processes in the body.
For several years now, there has been a substantial interest in fast food and snack food production, due to changes on people’s lifestyles. Consumers have the tendency to look for easily prepared food, such as snacks, which are defined as alternatives to quick meals with or without substantial nutritional value. According to Bower and Whitten [7], numerous products are classified as “snacks,” and in this category, mini-pizzas, cakes, popcorn, cereals, and cereal-based bars can be included.
Generally, snack bars are not recognized as functional foods, mainly due to their nutrient-poor composition. In the last years, there is an interest in making new types of snack bars with functional components. Therefore, snack bars can also be included in the functional product category and to consider consumer’s acceptable and suitable ready-to-eat products.
According to a report regarding the snack food consumption in the USA [8], the snack, cereal, and nutrition bars may be classified in three main categories: health and wellness snack, organic snack bars, and energy and nutrition bars. A complex classification of functional bars is difficult to obtain, and the focus has generally been on consumption. Therefore, snack bars can be consumed as a meal part (as part of breakfast, lunch, or dinner or as a snack between meals), as a dessert (after lunch or dinner), or as a meal replacement (breakfast, lunch, or dinner).
The consumption of the snack bars is usually influenced by the age, gender, and the nutritional knowledge of the consumers. According to the International Markets Bureau market indicator [8], the consumption of the snack bars is also influenced by the following aspects: satisfying the need for sweets; saving time; using as an energy source; using for weight loss; and using for the protein, fiber, vitamin contents, etc.
The simplified flowcharts of snack bar production processes are shown in Figure 2. For the baked bar products, dry and wet raw materials are mixed together. This mixture is portioned and subjected to baking.
Flowchart of snack bar production process (I, baked bars; II, baked bars with filling; III, cold-formed snack bar).
The baking parameters (time and temperature) differ according to the specific characteristics of the finished product. For cold-formed bar production, the ingredients are also mixed together, and the resulting mixture is portioned in the desired shape without a baking step. For both types of snacks, there may also be additional operations, e.g., filling, coating with various glazes, drying bars, etc. Despite the bar type obtained, the final operation in the technological chart is packing.
The bars are often made using a base of cereals such as oats, rice, corn, or proteins (milk dairy proteins, soy, or whey) and fortified with vitamins, minerals, and other nutrient- or energy-rich ingredients [9, 10]. Snack bars are not just popular for their portability but also for the health implications associated with their consumption. Trends in health and wellness in food and beverages have increased more and more in recent years, as consumers are turning to less processed and more natural alternatives than regular products. Furthermore, nutritional snacks are suitable products that can provide energy and micronutrients to both healthy people and people from areas affected by famine of the world [10].
Cereal bars are very adaptable products made from processed cereals mixed with a variety of ingredients depending on the target population group [7]. Wheat and/or soy snack bars were designed as nutritional bars to provide the nutrients to consumers on the run [10]. Walnuts were successfully used in the manufacture of snack bars with good nutritional (significant amount of raw fibers and lipids) and sensory quality [11].
In recent years, the demand for high-protein snack bars has grown significantly by the people engaged in sports activities and dieting and as meal substitutes. These snack bars provide a healthy alternative to conventional snacks due to its high content of protein (15–35%, w/w) and other nutritionally beneficial ingredients [12]. In Table 1, different formulations for snack bars are shown.
Snack bar type | Formulation and Functionality | References |
---|---|---|
Fruit-based snack bar | [13] | |
Wheat- or soy-based bar | [10] | |
Cereal snack bar | [14] | |
Fruit and vegetable-based snack bar | Salty: fruit and vegetable flour, rice flour, oat flakes, linseeds, egg white, olive oil, condiments | [15] |
Cereal snack bar | [16] | |
Vegetable based snack bar | [17] | |
High-protein snack bar | [12] |
Several snack bars formulation.
The tendency to eat more nutritious foods instead of sweet products has led to the development of different snack bar types. Since cereal consumption extends beyond breakfast at any time of the day, these products have become an excellent vehicle for delivering ingredients to functional foods on the market. Cereals have an increasingly important role in modern lifestyle due to the convenient forms they can use such as ready-to-eat food products, snack bars, and energy bars [14].
People who are interested in getting healthier foods and maintaining good body fitness have changed their eating habits, which have promoted growth in the cereal bar market of 20% per year [18]. Therefore, snack bars can be considered as a reliable source of high-quality proteins, fibers, vitamins, and minerals. The nutritive composition of selected snack bars is presented in Table 2.
From the data presented in Table 2, the chemical composition of the snack bars varies greatly depending on their destination. The variation of snack bar composition gives the consumers the possibility to select the proper bar to purchase. Therefore, corn flake crust with fruit breakfast bar is a good source of vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and vitamin B6, while formulated bar (power bar with chocolate) is a good source of protein, vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol), calcium (covers 50% of the recommended daily dose), iron, magnesium, phosphorus, zinc, and copper. Moreover, the power bar is a very good source of vitamin C (covers 154% of the recommended daily dose), thiamine (covers 537% of the recommended daily value), riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B6, folate, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, and manganese [19].
Nutrients | Unit/100g | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
g | 9.8 | 4.4 | 14.2 | 18.5 | 25 | 21.9 | 17.5 | 12.46 | |
g | 17.6 | 7.5 | 3.1 | 13.2 | 10 | 10.8 | 17.5 | 14.82 | |
g | 66.7 | 72.9 | 69.6 | 55.1 | 53 | 50.3 | 52.5 | 62.01 | |
g | 3.1 | 2.1 | 5.7 | 2.8 | 10 | 6.7 | 5 | 20.84 | |
Calcium, Ca | mg | 60 | 41 | 504 | 953 | 625 | 754 | 15 | ~ |
Iron, Fe | mg | 3.18 | 4.9 | 11.7 | 14.7 | 10.1 | 16.3 | 5 | ~ |
Magnesium, Mg | mg | 101 | 27 | 248 | 255 | 175 | 317 | 0 | ~ |
Phosphorus, P | mg | 277 | 103 | 614 | 455 | 375 | 455 | 2.5 | ~ |
Potassium, K | mg | 326 | 197 | 362 | ~ | 300 | 351 | ~ | ~ |
Sodium, Na | mg | 251 | 167 | 308 | 418 | 225 | 383 | 125 | ~ |
Zinc, Zn | mg | 1.6 | 4.1 | 10 | 9.6 | 6.6 | 11.9 | 0 | ~ |
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid | mg | 1 | 0 | 92.3 | 144 | 75 | 490 | 0 | ~ |
Thiamine | mg | 0.28 | 1.0 | 8.06 | 2.7 | 1.9 | 29 | 0 | ~ |
Riboflavin | mg | 0.11 | 1.1 | 1.92 | 3.1 | 2.1 | 3.3 | 0 | ~ |
Niacin | mg | 1.75 | 13.5 | 32.6 | 36.4 | 25 | 45.2 | 0 | ~ |
Vitamin B-6 | mg | 0.35 | 1.4 | 2.2 | 3.6 | 2.5 | 4.5 | 0 | ~ |
Folate, DFE | μg | 81 | 108 | 1046 | 727 | 500 | 816 | 0 | ~ |
Vitamin B-12 | μg | 0 | 0 | 5.6 | 10.9 | 7.5 | 12.2 | 0 | ~ |
Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) | mg | 0.82 | 0.8 | 8.28 | 24.6 | 125 | 27.5 | 0 | ~ |
g | 4.1 | 14.5 | 9.8 | 8.0 | 9.0 | 14.0 | ~ | 6.8 | |
g | 1.8 | 0.8 | 3.3 | 3.1 | 3.0 | 3.0 | ~ | 3.89 | |
Kcal | 464 | 377 | 363 | 406 | 402 | 386 | 450 | 347.9 |
Chemical composition of selected snack bars made with cereal, fruits, nuts and/or chocolate [10, 17, 19].
1, breakfast bars, oats, sugar, raisins, coconut (include granola bar); 2, breakfast bar, corn flake crust with fruit; 3, formulated bar, power bar, chocolate; 4, formulated bar, marathon multi grain crunch bar; 5, formulated bar; protein performance bar, caramel nut rush; 6, formulated bar, marathon energy bar; 7, snack bar with soy; 8, snack bars with beans and oat flour; ~ n.a., not analyzed.
Also, formulated bar, marathon protein performance bar and caramel nut rush, is a good source of protein (covers 50% of the recommended daily dose), calcium, iron, magnesium, zinc, copper, and manganese and a very good source of vitamin C, vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol), thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B6, folate, vitamin B12, and pantothenic acid [19], while snack bar with soy can be considered as a good source of high-quality proteins, fibers, and B-complex vitamins [10].
Researchers reported that snack bars with a high ratio of protein/carbohydrate can improve post meal and diurnal glucose profiles in patients with type 2 diabetes and insulin resistance [20]. In addition, proteins can have a very positive effect on the human body, helping to control blood pressure, and the effect has been dependent on the type of protein [18]. Champ et al. [21] reported that the demand to increase dietary fiber content in the daily diet is justified by the positive role of fibers in health and disease prevention, especially in digestive health, energy balance, cancer, and heart and diabetes problems. According to the data presented in Table 2, some formulated snack bars contain higher amounts of minerals and vitamins. Micronutrients are necessary compounds for a proper physiological state of the body that can be administered orally in the diet, and it is necessary to maintain an adequate balance [21, 22]. Minerals must be supplied from foods because they cannot be synthesized, and given the global deficiencies in different minerals, it is worthy to offer convenient food with sufficient amounts of minerals [23].
From the compounds present in snack food, only a few, through their specific action, are essential to life and are usually known as biologically active compounds. Proteins, polyunsaturated fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals as well as food fibers or probiotics may be included in this category.
The importance of dietary protein, as a bioactive factor, is determined deficit terms, by decreasing of metabolic capacity, reduction of energy metabolism, inhibition of biosynthesis processes, diminution of immunity, and the body resistance to external agent’s actions. Proteins are necessary to support growth, tissue repair, and protection [24]. Usually, the protein necessary is influenced by the gender, age, activity level, body health, or physiological states [25, 26]. The conventional protein sources are plants and animals, e.g., meat, milk, whey egg, fish, soy, etc. [26]. In general, protein-based snack bars contain the following proportion of ingredients: soy or dairy proteins (20–40%), carbohydrates as sugar syrups (10–50%), and fats (10–15%) [27, 28]. Protein bars in addition to basic ingredients may contain other components such as flavors and stabilizers [29].
In addition to their role as a source of high calories, as a biomembrane construction material, or as a vehicle of fat-soluble vitamins, lipids are important by their intake in polyunsaturated fatty acids, phosphatide, and substances physiologically active, such as prostaglandin, prostacyclin, etc. [30]. The omega-3 (n-3) and omega-6 (n-6) polyunsaturated fatty acids are essential for human health and are obtained exclusively from the nutrition [31]. In recent years, emphasis has been placed on obtaining functional foods supplemented with n − 3 fatty acids. At present, there is a wide range of omega-3-enriched food products such as bakery products, dairy products, juices and soft drinks, meat products, etc. [32]. Usually, the natural sources of n-3 fatty acids are seed and fish oils [31, 33]. Snack bars with a high content of essential fatty acids are generally those that contain crop seeds and vegetable oils (canola, soybeans, corn, and sunflower oils); these are the major sources of linoleic acid (LA, C18: 2) but with a low proportion of α-linolenic acid (ALA, C18: 3) [34]. ALA sources are chia and flaxseed [34, 35]. The flaxseeds have a high antioxidant potential and omega-3 α-linolenic acid content [36, 37]. The addition of milled flaxseed in snack products, such as bars, is explained by their preventive and functional properties, such as vascular function improvement [38], anti-arrhythmic, anti-atherogenic, and anti-inflammatory functions [38, 39, 40].
Mineral elements have a biological key role because they participate in all the vital processes of the body. Mineral substances can have different roles in vitamins and enzyme functionality, having either an activating role (calcium, magnesium, etc.) or an inhibitor (copper), and can be a part of enzyme structure as specific (sulfur, iron, copper, zinc, etc.) or unspecific (magnesium, zinc, cobalt, etc.) elements [41]. The commercial snack bars usually contain the following minerals in different intakes (Table 2): calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, and zinc.
Vitamins are biologically active compounds of organic nature, with variable and complex structure. Vitamins are needed in very small quantities for the normal development of many metabolic processes, including assimilation and the use of nutrients brought by food, growth, and tissue restoration.
Usually, snack bars commercialized on the market are rich in vitamins such as vitamin B1 (thiamine), vitamin B2 (riboflavin), vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid), vitamin B3 (niacin), vitamin B6 (pyridoxine, pyridoxal, pyridoxamine), folic acid (pteroylglutamic acid, vitamin B9), vitamin B12, vitamin C, vitamin A, and vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol).
Vitamin B1 is found in the outer layers and germ of cereals, nuts, whole grains, brewer
Vitamin B2 is widely found in food products. Sources rich in B2 are beer and bakery yeast, meat, eggs, fish, and dairy products. In the body, vitamin B2 fulfills certain metabolic functions, as phosphorus esters are part of the flavin enzyme structure involved in biological oxidation–reduction reactions [44]and together with pyridoxine is involved in the conversion of tryptophan to nicotinic acid.
Vitamin B5, in the form of coenzyme A, is vital in the metabolism of lipids, carbohydrates, and nitrogen compounds [44]. Sources rich in pantothenic acid that are used in snack bar composition are wheat germ, mushrooms, broccoli, cauliflower, oats, dried peas, soybean, etc.
Vitamin B6 is found in large quantities in beer and bakery yeast and raw cereals. Fruits and vegetables have a lower content of vitamin B6. Pyridoxal phosphate and pyridoxamine phosphate are coenzymes involved in transamination, decarboxylation, deamination, etc. [45].
In the body, folic acid as a coenzyme is involved in accepting and transferring one carbon, from a metabolite to another [46], interfering with the synthesis of purines and pyrimidines necessary for nucleic acid formation [47]. Folic acid is mainly found in green leaves, whole grains, soybeans, wheat germ, soybeans, oranges, avocado, etc. [47, 48].
Vitamins E performs several functions in the body such as Krebs cycle regulator, a regulator of nucleic acid metabolism with implications for cell maturation and differentiation, a regulator of porphyrin and heme biosynthesis, a regulator of protein and amino acid metabolism, etc. The main nutritional function is a biological antioxidant for oxidizable vitamins and lipids [44]. Tocopherols are found in almost all foods, the richest sources usually used for bar production being vegetable oils (corn germ oil, wheat germ oil), cereal products, and eggs.
Vitamin C is acting as biochemical antioxidant and as enzyme cosubstrate [44], interfering with numerous processes, including formation of stromal proteins (collagen, elastin), maintaining capillary integrity, etc. Sources rich in vitamin C are rosehips, white sea buckthorn, citrus fruits, tomatoes and tomato juice, cabbage, parsley, nettle, spinach, cauliflower, red and green pepper, red cabbage, eggplant, broccoli, strawberries, etc. [45, 49]. In a study conducted by Sung et al. [50], a cereal bar with welsh onion extracts was obtained, rich in vitamins C, B2, B3, and B9 and with high-protein content. The study also demonstrated the nutraceutical potential of the bars for the obesity and metabolic disorder’s control.
USDA Food Composition Databases [51] provides the selection of snack bars according to deficiency in one or more vitamins or any nutrient that must be reintroduced into the diet. As an example, a selection of the snack bar products according to the content of thiamine, riboflavin, and vitamin C is shown in Table 3.
Description | Thiamine (mg/100 g) | Riboflavin (mg/100 g) | Vitamin C (mg/100 g) |
---|---|---|---|
Formulated bar, power bar, chocolate | 8.06 | 1.92 | 92.3 |
Formulated bar, snickers marathon | |||
Honey nut oat bar | 3.394 | 3.846 | 176.4 |
Energy bar, all flavors | 2.949 | 3.343 | 489.9 |
Chewy chocolate peanut bar | 2.727 | 3.091 | 144.4 |
Multigrain crunch bar | 2.727 | 3.091 | 144.3 |
Protein performance bar, caramel nut rush | 1.875 | 2.125 | 75 |
Formulated bar, meal bar, milk chocolate peanut | 1.7 | 1.9 | 96.6 |
Snack, balance, original bar | 1.628 | 1.708 | 11.2 |
Snacks, crisped rice bar, almond | 1.323 | 1.499 | 11.5 |
Snacks, nutri-grain cereal bars, fruit | 1.153 | 2.067 | 7.8 |
Breakfast bar, corn flake crust with fruit | 1 | 1.1 | 0 |
Snacks, granola bar, with yogurt coating | 0.905 | 0.542 | 0 |
Formulated bar, mixed flavors | 0.75 | 1.7 | 120 |
Classification of snack bars according to the content of thiamine, riboflavin and vitamin C [51].
In the food industry, fiber plays a significant role in preventing obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease [52]. Fiber is incorporated into different foods for both nutritional benefits and functional properties, as well as low-cost and noncaloric partial replacements for fat and/or sugar flour [52, 53]. Cereals contain quantities of insoluble fiber, except for oats, whereas fruit and, in particular, citrus fruit and apples contain substantial amounts of soluble fiber. Lentils are also used in snack bar development, especially for their dietary fiber and the essential amino acid contents and for the folic acid and iron addition [54].
Lately, emphasis has been placed on the use of resistant starch (RS) in products as a potential functional ingredient. RS may increase the dietary fiber content [55] and promote the probiotic bacteria activity [56]. Aigster et al. [57] studied the addition of RS in granola and cereal bars, to determine the RS health significance and also the consumer acceptability. The study concluded the increasing of dietary fiber intake by the addition of RS.
In recent years, consumers are constantly changing their eating habits, wanting to improve their diet with nutritious and safe food products that are easy to consume but, at the same time, improving health and well-being. Therefore, food industry specialists have continuously changed formulations and ingredients, and thus, new technologies to produce foods with increasing nutritional value and safety that fully meet consumers’ requirements. Due to their versatility, snack bars can be used by wide categories of individuals: athletes, people dieting or with nutritional problems, or irregular meals. Snack bars allow the consumers to get necessary energy and the nutritional benefits (high-quality proteins, polyunsaturated fatty acids, minerals, vitamins, and fibers) in one convenient and easy to store package.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Insects appeared on earth about 390 million years and have diversified into several million species that have adapted to almost all available ecosystems. This large diversity has allowed them to compete with humans effectively since the introduction of agriculture over the last ten millennia [1]. Based on new methods of estimation, there are about 5.5 million species of insects on the earth planet with 1 million identified species, which represent only about 20% of the total estimated number. Previously, the global number of insects was estimated to be 30 million based on host specificity; however, this number seems to be not true [2]. Insects are by far the most successful group of animal on earth and are thus essential component of the ecosystem both economically and ecologically as they make up more than 75% of the world’s animal species. Entomology has tremendously developed in recent years and contributed much in the development of other fundamental biological sciences. Today, many insect species are being used as model organisms to study the genomic and proteomic of many organisms. Invasive insect species such as the red palm weevil (
Well before 2500 B.C., the Sumerians were using sulfur compounds to control insects and mites. By 1200 B.C., the Chinese developed plant-derived insecticides or what is called botanicals today for seed treatment and fumigation uses. They also used chalk and wood ash for prevention and control of both household and stored product pests. In late 1940s, DDT was discovered as a powerful insecticide announcing a new era of pest control [9]. The heavy use of chemical pesticides caused serious environmental problems without achieving final solutions to insect pest problems. These drawbacks of the unwise use of pesticides inspired entomologist to think of integrated pest management (IPM) in 1959 as a new paradigm of insect control [10].
The concept of IPM emerged about 60 years ago when entomologists from California, USA observed that the sole use of chemical pesticides could not be the solution to insect pests’ problem. Insect resistance to organosynthetic insecticides, resurgence of primary pests, upsurges of secondary pests, and environmental pollution initiated the notion of IPM [11]. It has been emphasized that chemical control should be employed to reduce a pest population only when natural controls are inadequate. Intervention to control pest should also be made when populations rise to levels that cause economic damage. Additionally, the cost of control must cover the amount lost due to the pest damage and negative effect on the ecosystem, due to the application of pesticide, and should be to the minimum [12]. The IPM concept has three basic elements:
maintaining insect populations below levels that cause economic damage;
using multiple tactics, in an integrated fashion, to manage insect populations; and
conserving environment quality.
As shown in Table 1, the publication of the book “silent spring” is considered one of the most important events that hastened the perception of IPM as a new paradigm of pest control. The adoption and support given to IPM by the FAO in 1967 is a major factor behind the development of IPM. Additionally, the establishment of Farmers Fields Schools (FFS) in 1989 for rice field in Asia, as extension methods, hastened the adoption and application of IPM at farmer level. Recently, the European Union has adopted IPM as a policy for management of insect pests.
Date | Event | Reference |
---|---|---|
Late 1940s | The concept of supervised control | [13] |
1959 | The concept of integrated control | [10] |
1961 | The Australian ecologists proposed the term “ | [14] |
1962 | Publication of the book “ | [15] |
1966 | The term “Pest Management” received recognition in USA | [16] |
1967 | The term “Integrated Pest Management” was used by Smith and Van den Bosch | [17] |
1967 | FAO panel of experts accepted the term “Integrated Pest Control” as a synonym for Integrated Pest Management | [18] |
1969 | The US National Academy of Science formally accepted the term Integrated Pest Management | [16] |
1972 | Integrated pest management and its acronym IPM were incorporated into English literature and accepted by the scientific community | [11] |
1972 | The report | [19] |
1988 | Major IP success in rice systems in Indonesia | [8] |
1989 | Farmer Field School (FFS) became a preferred extension methodology for IPM | [20] |
1992 | IPM was recommended for pest management under Agenda 21 of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development | [21] |
1993–2000 | IPM initiative of the Clinton Administration | [22] |
2011 | IPM programs are operational in more than 60 developing and developed countries | [23] |
2011 | IPM adopted as a policy within sustainable use of pesticides Directive 91/414/EEC in the form of regulation (EC Regulation 1107/2009), which came into force in June 2011 | [12] |
2014 | The EU Frame work Directive on sustainable use of pesticides (Directive 2009/128/EC) requires that all EU Member States develop a National Action Plan, which ensures that asset of eight general principles of IPM are implemented by all professional pesticide users starting from January 1, 2014 | [24] |
History and chronological development of IPM.
The integrated pest management is now the ideal system for protection of agricultural crops, domestic animals, stored products, public health, and the structure of human dwellings against the attack of arthropod pests, plant and animal diseases, and weeds [1, 11, 25].
Between 1959 and 2000, 67 definitions of IPM appeared in the literature, most of them included using natural or ecologically sound principles or techniques, preventing pests from reaching the economically damaging levels, and using multiple tactics such as cultural, biological, and chemical. The expression economics, environment, pest populations, and pest control appeared in these definitions of IPM with frequencies of 53.8, 48.1, 40.4, and 38.3%, respectively [25]. All IPM definitions include the following: (i) the appropriate selection of pest control methods and decision rules for selection, (ii) economic benefits to growers and society, (iii) the benefits to the environment, and (iv) considering the impact of pest complex [10, 11, 18, 24].
IPM has three main objectives: first, maintaining a balanced sustainable ecosystem and a healthy environment by reducing the use of pesticides and their negative impacts; second, saving money by reducing chemical pesticides inputs, crop losses due to insect damage and eventually by reducing the pest management cost; and third, protecting human and animal health by providing food and feed that is free of pesticide residues [26].
According to the EU Framework Directive 2009/128/EC, there are eight principles of IPM that should be strictly followed by all members of the European Union starting from January 2014 [15]. Barzman et al. [27] described these principles as follows:
The first line of defense in IPM is to prevent and suppress insect pest population through nonchemical methods such as cultural practices, use of resistant varieties, proper irrigation and fertilization, and natural enemies.
Continuous surveillance and monitoring of insect pests population is essential for assessment of damage and for determining the needs for actions to be taken.
Management decisions should be based on monitoring and population levels of insect pests, as well as reliable thresholds.
Sustainable biological, physical, and other nonchemical methods must be preferred to chemical methods if they provide satisfactory pest control.
Selective pesticides, which have minor negative impacts on human health and beneficial insects, shall be used only when needed.
Pesticide use should be kept to the minimum through reduction of doses and application frequency without encouraging resistance development in pest populations.
Pesticide resistance in insect should be managed carefully using strategies such as application of pesticides with different modes of action.
The success of control tactics must be measured using indicators based on monitoring of harmful organisms, beneficials, pesticide use, and impact on the environment.
The economic threshold and the economic injury level.
Identification of pest is essential to gather information about its biology, ecology, and behavior and monitoring population levels. Monitoring includes various activities and procedures that detect and document the presence, growth, and population development or populations levels of an organism. Monitoring is the key to a successful IPM program. Adequate monitoring tools should include trappings using pheromones and light traps, observations in the field as well as scientifically sound warning, forecasting, and early diagnosis systems [27]. Advantages of pest monitoring include early warnings, detection of presence and distribution of pests and their natural enemies, study the impact of weather and other environmental factor on pest/beneficial populations, provision of historical record of the farm, and evaluation of control programs [30]. Visual counts, sweep nets, drop sheets, and vacuum pumps are also useful tools in sampling of field insects.
El-Shafie and Faleiro [31] gave comprehensive accounts on the use of semiochemicals in monitoring and mass trapping of insects. Operational monitoring program is used in IPM to evaluate field situation and should be simple, quick, cost-effective, and adaptable to farmers [30]. There are four methods of sampling insect in the field: random sampling, point sampling, trap sampling, and sequential sampling. More details on sampling of insect pests are given by Flint and van den Bosch [30].
Pheromone-baited traps are commonly used for population monitoring and for mass trapping because they have the following advantages:
pheromones are species specific and are, thus, easy to use by untrained people;
they function at both small and large pest populations;
suitable for early detection and delimitation of infestation by invasive pests;
can be used in estimation of population size and determination of number of generations; and
provide efficient and cheap alternatives to the laborious field scouting.
All of the above make the pheromone-baited traps a useful tool in integrated pest management (IPM) decision-making [32].
In situation where the economic injury level for an insect species is above its equilibrium position (Figure 2), the insect is not considered a pest and no decision is needed to control it. However, when the economic injury level is well below the equilibrium position, the insect requires continuous management intervention [33].
Equilibrium point is well below the economic injury level. Control action is not needed (modified after Luckmann and Metcalf [
Sometimes, the population of the insect pest may reach the economic injury level, even if the equilibrium is well below the economic injury level. In such case, the decision of intervention to control the pest is need to be taken (Figure 3). For mathematical calculations of ET and EIL, see Pedigo et al. [34].
Equilibrium is below EIL; however, the pest population may reach the ET, and intervention is needed to prevent it from reaching EIT (modified after Luckmann and Metcalf [
The more that you know about a pest, the easier and more successful pest management becomes. Once you have identified a pest, you can access information about its life cycle and behavior, the factors that favor development, and the recommended control procedures. Following identification of an insect pest is monitoring to determine the pest status. If there is a need to control the pest, based on monitoring, then you develop a management program followed by implementation and evaluation as illustrated in Figure 4.
Components of IPM program.
IPM methods include both chemical and nonchemical means to prevent and control pest populations from reaching economically damaging levels. These prevention and control tactics include biological, mechanical, cultural, physical, genetic, chemical, and regulatory methods. The method to be chosen for IPM depends on many factors, the important of which are nature of target pest, the environment, and economic aspect of the management. Selection of control method should be based on effectiveness and evaluation of any risk that might occur during application of the method.
Cultural control in cultivated crops include resistant plant varieties, timing of planting and harvesting, irrigation, fertilization, crop rotation, and trap crops. The aim of good cultural practices is to provide congenial environment for the crop while making it unfavorable for pests’ development. Thus, cultural control prevents the build-up and outbreaks of pests [28]. Additionally, cultural practices are useful in conservation of beneficial insects, and accordingly, they are essential and effective component of IPM. Tillage practices can destroy pests and their different developmental stages by mechanical injury, desiccation, and exposure to predators and environmental factors [33]. Phytosanitation through collection and removal of crop remains removes many diapausing larvae, eggs, and pathogens. Eradication of infested date palm is a good practice to reduce infestation by the red palm weevil in date palm plantation [3]. Host plant resistance is compatible with other IPM tactics and can provide reasonable degree of protection to plants without causing negative effects on the environment [8].
This strategy is based on intercropping, which fit well under cultural practices section. Simultaneously, it is also based on semiochemicals particularly allomones and kairomones [35]. The pests are repelled or deterred away from a plant (push) through allomones that can be repellents or deterrents and are simultaneously attracted (pull) by kairomones to trap crops where they can be killed or removed [35] (Figure 5).
Push-pull strategy.
Plants which are effective, so far, in the push-pull tactics include Napier grass (
Mechanical and physical controls prevent pests form accessing their resources by making the environment unsuitable for them. They also negatively affect important biological parameters of pests such as feeding, reproduction, dispersal, and survival. Physical control methods may include heat and steam sterilization of soil, which are commonly used in the management of greenhouse insect pests. Insect pests can be excluded from plants by using screens, barriers, fences, and nets, as well as light trapping (Figure 6). Mechanical and physical controls are carried out purposely for pest control, which differentiate them from cultural practices [28].
Solar-powered insect light trap.
Biological control is defined as the action of parasites, predators, or pathogens on a host or prey population, which produces a lower general equilibrium, position than would prevail in the absence of these agents [10]. A good biological control agent should be characterized by the following traits: specialization on the host, compatible with other natural enemies, capable of rapid reproduction, adapted to the environment where the host exists, and efficient in finding prey at low densities. There are three major types of augmented biological control: classical, inoculative, and inundative. These are distinguished by the input needed to create a balance between the pest and natural enemy populations. These three categories are defined as follows:
Control of cottony cushion scale (
Manipulations of insect reproductive systems techniques such as sterilized insect technique (SIT) and incompatible insect technique (IIT) provide innovative and environmental-friendly methods for IPM. These techniques are considered as part of the biological control and thus are discussed in this section (Figure 7).
Techniques of manipulating sexual reproduction of insect pests for their management (modified after Harari et al. [
The SIT involves the mass release of sterilized males, which mate with wild females. Sterilization of males using ionizing radiation causes dominant lethal mutation in the sperm. The mating of sterile males with wild females results in zero offspring. The sterile insect technique (SIT) has been successfully used for the management of some major insect pests [5]. According to Barnes et al. [40], successful application of SIT depends on the following factors:
the target insect pest should be characterized by low population levels;
knowledge on the bionomics and genetic of target insect pest;
the availability of techniques for mass rearing, releasing, and monitoring of large numbers of viable sterile insects;
the release of sterile insects over a wide area to cover the whole population; and
the released sterile insects should not be harmful or harmless to humans and the environment.
Another radiation technique is partial male sterility technique (IS), which is used mainly for lepidopterans because full sterilization affects their performance under field conditions. The mating of partially sterilized males with wild females results in sterile male-biased offspring [41].
Both SIT and IIT can be combined together, and they are compatible with conventional biological control using parasitoid, predators, and pathogens. SIT allows both sexes to be released, while in case of IIT, only males should be released. The release of
Pesticides should only be used when necessary to keep pest populations below that cause economic damage. Selective pesticides, which have the least negative effects on the environment, should be used according to principles 5, 6, and 7 of IPM. Botanicals and microbial (biorational) pesticides should be given priority in selection. The efficacy of these biorational pesticides may be increased when applied together [27]. A variety of selected pesticides must be applied precisely in the field and at right doses to prevent the development of insects’ resistance [26].
The integration of a number of different control tactics into IPM systems can be done in ways that greatly facilitate the achievement of the goals either of field-by-field pest management, or of area-wide (AW) pest management, which is the management of the total pest population within a delimited area [1]. Knipling [45] used simple population models to demonstrate that small insect pest population left without management can compromise the efforts of containment of pest population in a large area. AW-IPM programs should be coordinated by organizations rather than by individual farmers to insure full participation in the program [46]. Pheromone-based control tactics including mass capturing of using pheromone traps (Figure 8) proved to be effective against a variety of insect pests in area-wide IPM programs. The pests’ behavior and ecology including their natural enemies should be considered when planning future AW-IPM programs [32].
Pheromone-baited trap for monitoring and mass trapping of red palm weevil.
Successful IPM depends mainly on basic research on ecosystem and the understanding of interactions among hosts, pests, and their natural enemies [11]. The following steps should be taken before implementing an IPM program:
identify the pest;
specify the goal of the program;
set up a monitoring program;
know the pest level that triggers control;
know what control methods are available; and
evaluate the benefits and risks of each method.
The socioeconomic factor is important in the implementation of IPM. For example, the decision to include a new variety resistant to insects may also depend on the market value of that variety. A suitable extension methodology such as Farmer Field School (FFS) can help disseminate the IPM among farmers. Preparation of guidelines that include the principles of IPM for different crops is essential during the implementation phase. Moreover, the continuous evaluation of IPM programs provides feedback for future adjustment and improvement [27].
It is extremely important to record and evaluate the results of your control efforts. Some control methods, especially nonchemical procedures, are slow to yield measurable results. Other methods may be ineffective or even damaging to the target crop, animal, treated surface, or natural predators and parasites. Pesticide use by volume, pesticide use by treatment frequency index, reduction in use of more toxic pesticides, and environmental impact quotient have been used as IPM impact evaluation indicators [22].
Since 1959, no major departures from the basic notion of IPM have occurred [11]. In the future, major advances in IPM are expected in decision-making techniques as well as tactical options for control methods. Combination of technologies and tools, simulation, modeling, BD, remote sensing data, Geographical Information System (GIS), Automatic Weather Stations (AWS), and internet of things (IoTs) can be used to promote the implementation of IPM. New generation of GPS, sensors-fitted farm equipment, e-tablets, and mobile applications (
Due to its importance, the European Union has adopted IPM as a policy for management of insects and other pests. Manipulating reproduction of insect pests with pheromones, irradiations,
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