\r\n\tSQL is worth learning because it’s a programming language that’s in demand in the tech industry and in other sectors that need technology. Most software developers who know SQL earn respectable salaries. Learning SQL can not only enhance your skills, but it can also give you a better understanding of the applications you work with daily. In this book, we will go through the details of SQL and how to use it effectively. The goal of this book is to have many practical application examples that will help learners easily acquire and self-study SQL.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-946-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-945-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-947-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"d1d908cd61561c1e813552fbd6cb9ed1",bookSignature:"Ph.D. Duc-Man Nguyen and Dr. Van-Loi Nguyen",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11919.jpg",keywords:"Database Classification, Types of Databases, SQL Basic, Drop Statement, Aggregate Functions, Conversion Function, Date Function, Mathematical Functions, User-Defined Types, User-Defined Functions, String Data Type, Pivoting Data in SQL",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 3rd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 6th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 4th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 23rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 22nd 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Nguyen Duc Man is a member of the DSA-Da Nang Software Association, Vietnam. He was awarded the Award for Excellent effort in Training and Management by the Duy Tan University, Vietnam for several years in a row, and received the Certificate of Merit for Excellent effort in Training and Management by the Ministry of Education and Training, Vietnam. His current research interests are software testing, mobile testing, test automation, test case generation, context-driven testing, and ML for testing.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Van-Loi Nguyen received his Master of Engineering in Computer Science from the University of Danang, Vietnam in 2010, and a Ph.D. degree from Soongsil University, Korea, in 2017. He is currently a lecturer at the Vietnam - Korea University of Information and Communication Technology, the University of Danang. He has over 18 years of experience teaching and researching programming, databases, machine learning, information retrieval, multimedia, and artificial intelligence.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"227628",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Duc-Man",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",slug:"duc-man-nguyen",fullName:"Duc-Man Nguyen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/227628/images/system/227628.jpg",biography:'1.\tName:\tNguyen Duc Man\n\tOffice: Room 601, 254 Nguyen Van Linh, Danang, Vietnam\n\tTel: +84-2363 650 403 (Ext 601)\n Mobi: 0904 235 945\n\tEmail: mannd@duytan.edu.vn\n\n2.\tEducation:\nBSc.\tInformation Technology\tDuy Tan University, Vietnam\t1999\nMSc.\tComputer Science\tDanang University, Vietnam\t2009\nPhD.\tComputer Science\tDuy Tan University, Vietnam\t2020\n\n3.\tAcademic experience:\nDuy Tan University, Vietnam\tTeaching\tLecturer\t2004- Present\tFT\n\t\n4.\tNon-academic experience:\nHSD Corporation, Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam\tAnalysis, Design and Code, DB Design\tSoftware Developer\t1999-2001\tFT\nDuy Tan Software Center, Vietnam\tTeam leader, Planning, A&D\tProject Lead\t2001-2003\tFT\n\n5.\tCertifications or professional registrations:\n-\tCertificate for completion of Train the Trainer courses (Software Capstone Project, Requirements Engineering, Software Architecture, Software Project management, software Process and Quality management, Software Integration Practices). Institute of Software Research, Carnegie Mellon University, USA. (2010, 2014, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019).\n-\t7 Professional Development Hours for participation in the Fundamentals of Program Assessment Workshop, ABET Symposium (2017)\n-\t7 Professional Development Hours for participation in the Self-Study Development Workshop ABET Symposium (2017)\n-\t14 Professional Development Hours for participation at the 2017 ABET\nSymposium, ABET Symposium (2017)\n-\tSoftware Testing and Automation Conference. VISTACON 2011, Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam (2011).\n-\tFagan Software Inspection Method. ECCI Group, Vietnam (2011).\n-\tHP Train the Trainer courses: HP QTP, LoadRunner, Quality Center (2011).\n\n6.\tMembership in professional organizations:\n-\tMember of DSA-Da Nang Software Association, Vietnam.\n\n7.\tHonors and awards:\n-\tAwards for Excellent effort in Training and Management. Duy Tan University, Vietnam (2003, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2012).\n-\tCertificate of Merit for Excellent effort in Training and Management. Ministry of Education and Training, Vietnam (2008- 2009, 2010- 2011, 2013- 2014).\n-\tCertificate of Merit of the People Committee of Da Nang. Danang, Vietnam (2011-2012).\n\n8.\tService activities:\n-\tInstitutional service: \n•\tStudents’ Awards Committee \n•\tFaculty Development Committee \n•\tScholarship Committee \n•\tFaculty Council \n\n9.\tPublications and presentations from the past five years:\n\n1.\t\tCheng, Y. H., Chang, P. C., Nguyen, D. M., & Kuo, C. N. (2020). Automatic Music Genre Classification Based on CRNN. Engineering Letters, 29(1).\n2.\t\tHuynh, Q. T., Pham, L. T., Ha, N. H., & Nguyen, D. M. (2020). An Effective Approach for Context Driven Testing in Practice—A Case Study. International Journal of Software Engineering and Knowledge Engineering, 30(09), 1245-1262.\n3.\t\tNguyen, D. M., Huynh, Q. T., Ha, N. H., & Nguyen, T. H. (2020). Automated test input generation via model inference based on user story and acceptance criteria for mobile application development. International Journal of Software Engineering and Knowledge Engineering, 30(03), 399-425.\n4.\t \tNguyen, D. M., Do, H. N., Huynh, Q. T., Vo, D. T., & Ha, N. H. (2018, August). Shinobi: A Novel Approach for Context-Driven Testing (CDT) Using Heuristics and Machine Learning for Web Applications. In International Conference on Industrial Networks and Intelligent Systems (pp. 86-102). Springer, Cham.\n5.\t\tHoang-Nhat, D. O., NGUYEN, D. M., HUYNH, Q. T., & Nhu-Hang, H. A. (2018). One2Explore-Graph Builder for Exploratory Testing from a Novel Approach.\n6.\t\tNguyen, M. D., Huynh, T. Q., & Nguyen, T. H. (2016, November). Improve the Performance of Mobile Applications Based on Code Optimization Techniques Using PMD and Android Lint. In International Symposium on Integrated Uncertainty in Knowledge Modelling and Decision Making (pp. 343-356). Springer, Cham.\n7.\t\tBao Le Nguyen, Nguyen Duc Man, Minh Nguyen Cong and Luong Vo Van (2013). Difficulties in the Operation of an International Program in Vietnam. FICAP-1 Proceedings, BrownWalker Press, 2013, ISBN-13: 9781612337043.\n8.\t\tDuc Nguyen Duc Man, Tien Vu Truong, Nguyen Bao Le (2013). Deployment of Capstone Projects in Software Engineering Education at Duy Tan University as Part of a University-wide Project-based Learning Effort. Learning and Teaching in Computing and Engineering (LaTiCE), IEEE Computer Society -CPS, 2013, E-ISBN :978-0-7695-4960-6 (pp. 184 -191).\n9.\t\tGia Nhu Nguyen, Nhat Tan Tran, Thanh Trung Nguyen and Nguyen Duc Man (2014). The Benefits of CDIO for ABET Preparation from a Hands-on Study in Vietnam. Proceedings of the 10th International CDIO Conference. Barcelona \n10.\t\tVu T Truong, Bao N Le, Man N Duc, Thang M Nguyen (2014). Accessing the Maturity of Teamwork Capabilities through CDIO Projects. Proceedings of the 10th Annual International CDIO Conference. Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain.\n11.\t\tPhuong A Pham, Man D Nguyen, Long Q Nguyen, Thang M Nguyen, Bao N Le (2014). Learning Computer Programming In Cdio’s Team Settings. Proceedings of the 10th Annual International CDIO Conference. Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain.\n12.\t\tVo, Q. N., Tran, N. P., Van Dat Ngo, V. H. T., Huynh, Q. T., Ha, N. H., & Nguyen, D. M. LEVERAGE THE BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY TO MANAGE SMART CONTRACT IN ASSET TRADING. Kỷ yếu Hội nghị KHCN Quốc gia lần thứ XII về Nghiên cứu cơ bản và ứng dụng Công nghệ thông tin (FAIR); Huế, ngày 07-08/6/2019 DOI: 10.15625/vap.2019.00032\n\n13.\t\tHa, N. H., Nguyen, D. M., Liu, C. A., Van Van, T., Nguyen, A. D., & Huynh, Q. T. AN EMPIRICAL STUDY OF THE IMPACT OF THE MPOS SYSTEM ON THE PROCESS CHANGE OF RESTAURANTS. Kỷ yếu Hội nghị KHCN Quốc gia lần thứ XII về Nghiên cứu cơ bản và ứng dụng Công nghệ thông tin (FAIR); Huế, ngày 07-08/6/2019 DOI: 10.15625/vap.2019.00032\n\n14.\t\tNguyễn Thanh Hùng, Nguyễn Đức Mận, Huỳnh Quyết Thắng (2019), Thử Nghiệm Đánh Giá Áp Dụng Một Số Kỹ Thuật Kiểm Thử Để Nâng Cao Độ Tin Cậy Cho Ứng Dụng Di Động Trong Môi Trường Phát Triển Linh Hoạt. Section on Information and Communication Technology (ICT) - No. 13, Journal of Science and Technique - Le Quy Don Technical University - No. 199, ISSN 1859-0209\n15.\t\tHuỳnh Quyết Thắng, Nguyễn Đức Mận, Nguyễn Thị Bảo Trang, Nguyễn Thị Anh Đào (2016). Kỹ thuật kiểm thử hồi qui hiệu quả cho phát triển ứng dụng di động. Kỷ yếu Hội nghị khoa học công nghệ quốc gia lần thứ IX, ngày 4-5/8/2016 - "Nghiên cứu cơ bản và ứng dụng Công nghệ thông tin" (FAIR 2016), trang 255-265. Nhà xuất bản Khoa học tự nhiên và Công nghệ. ISBN 978-604-913-472-2\n\n10.\tRecent professional development activities:\n-\tCoordinator and Assistant Director of ACM/ICPC Asia Regional Contest, Danang, Vietnam (2013). \n-\tParticipated in the 7th National Conference on Fundamental and Applied IT Research (2014).\n-\tAttended the 7 Professional Development Hours the Fundamentals of Program Assessment Workshop (2017).\n-\tParticipated in the 12th National Conference on Fundamental and Applied IT Research (2019).\n-\tINISCOM 2018, INISCOM 2019, KSE 2019, CITA2021, CITA2022\n-\tAttended the CDIO Regional Meeting - Asia-Pacific (2019).',institutionString:"Duy Tan University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Duy Tan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Vietnam"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"473326",title:"Dr.",name:"Van-Loi",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",slug:"van-loi-nguyen",fullName:"Van-Loi Nguyen",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003Sa5QKQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:01:50.jpg",biography:"Dr. Van-Loi Nguyen received his Master of Engineering in Computer Science from the University of Danang, Vietnam in 2010, and a Ph.D. degree from Soongsil University, Korea in 2017. He is currently a lecturer at the Vietnam - Korea University of Information and Communication Technology, the University of Danang. He has over 18 years of experience teaching and researching in the fields of programming, databases, machine learning, information retrieval, multimedia, and artificial intelligence.",institutionString:"University of Danang",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"9",title:"Computer and Information Science",slug:"computer-and-information-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"429342",firstName:"Zrinka",lastName:"Tomicic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/429342/images/20008_n.jpg",email:"zrinka@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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1. Introduction
Over the last few years, wireless data traffic has drastically increased due to a change in the way today’s society creates, shares, and consumes information. This change has been accompanied by an increasing demand for a much higher speed wireless communication anywhere, anytime. Advanced physical layer solutions and, more importantly, new spectral bands will be required to support these extremely high data rates [1].
In this context, terahertz (THz) band communication [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8] is envisioned as a key wireless technology to satisfy this demand; it is an alternative to spectrum demand and capacity limitations of current wireless systems, allowing multitude of applications. The THz band is the spectral band that spans the frequencies between 0.1 and 10 THz. While the frequency regions immediately below and above this band (the microwaves and the far infrared, respectively) have been extensively investigated, this is still one of the least-explored frequency bands for communication [1].
Therefore, there is a need to develop new transceiver antennas that are able to operate in THz frequencies in a very large operating bandwidth. Different technologies are actually in development in literature. In this chapter, we focus on graphene technology for the design of broadband terahertz antennas.
Graphene is a monolayer of carbon atoms arranged in a two-dimensional hexagonal honeycomb lattice [9]. The exceptional properties of graphene like unusually high electron mobility, atomic layer thickness, and possibility of miniaturizing antennas based on this material and many other properties made it one promising material in many areas ranging from solar cells [10] to ultra-high-speed transistors [11].
Significant benefits can be obtained for graphene antennas in telecommunications applications such as monolithic integration with nanoelectronic graphene radio frequency (RF), efficient dynamic adjustment through chemical potential, relatively low loss in the band of terahertz (THz), and the possibility of miniaturization of antennas due to common plasmon effect in metamaterials [12, 13]. On the other side, there are few alternatives and works in literature about broadband graphene antennas [14, 15].
In this chapter, a theoretical analysis was made in a broadband graphene antenna composed by a rectangular dipole and a circular loop. The analysis is made using the two-dimensional method of moments (MoM 2D) with surface impedance [15, 16]. It was calculated by input impedance, reflection coefficient, and bandwidth from antennas with different geometrical parameters and values of chemical potential in the range of 0.5–2 THz. Some results were obtained by finite element method (FEM) with the Comsol software for comparison [17].
2. Antenna geometry
Figure 1 shows the geometry of the proposed broadband graphene antenna. This antenna is composed of two elements: a rectangular planar dipole with dimensions L and W, with same values used in [13] for comparison, and a circular passive ring (or circular loop) with inner radius R1 and outer radius R2. The environment in which the elements are inserted has a relative permittivity εr = 2.4, which is the average of air and substrate permittivity used in [13], where in this reference, the substrate is in z < 0. In other words, here we use an equivalent effective permittivity for the whole medium, which is considered homogeneous with no substrate. The two elements are separated by a height H, as shown in Figure 1. In the analysis, the geometry of antennas was maintained fixed, that is, the dipole’s dimensions and the values of ring’s radii (R1 and R2) and height (H) between antennas were fixed, and the chemical potential of graphene circular loop was changed to obtain a broadband operation.
Figure 1.
Geometry of the rectangular planar dipole graphene coupled to a circular-loop antenna of the same material: (a) top view and (b) side view.
The size of the dipole graphene has only one planar dimension (e.g., W and L) because the graphene thickness is considered very small. This antenna is fed by an equivalent ideal voltage source called photomixer [13] with width W and gap length G in the middle of the dipole shown in Figure 1. In MoM, we call it voltage source and, in FEM, we used a lumped port [17].
3. Theoretical development
In this section, the model used for the surface conductivity of graphene, a summary of the MoM-2D model used in the analysis, and details of the Comsol model are presented.
3.1. Graphene surface conductivity
The experimental results show that edge effects on the graphene conductivity can be disregarded in the micrometer scale [15]. Therefore, one can use the electrical conductivity model developed for infinite graphene sheet. In this chapter, we use the Drude model for graphene surface conductivity in the range of 0.5–2 THz
σω=2e2kBTπh2ln2coshμC2kBT−jω−jτ−1E1
where τ = 10−12 s is the relaxation time, T is the temperature, and μC is the chemical potential, which is a function, for example, of a DC voltage applied in graphene sheet [18]. Figure 2 shows examples of σ for different values of chemical potential with T = 300 K.
Figure 2.
Surface conductivity of graphene versus frequency for different values of μC, with T = 300 K.
3.2. Method of moment model
The boundary condition on the antenna surface produces the following integral equation of electric field in frequency domain with temporal dependence exp(jωt):
E¯S+E¯i⋅a¯ta¯t=ZSJ¯E2
where E¯S (V/m) is the scattering field from the antenna, E¯i(V/m) is the incident electric field from the voltage source, a¯t is a unitary vector tangential to the antenna’s surface, J¯(A/m) is the surface current density of the antenna, and ZS = 1/σ is the surface impedance of graphene. The scattered field is
where j is the imaginary unit, k = ω(μ0εr ε0)1/2, ω is the angular frequency (rad/s), μ0 and ε0 are the magnetic permeability and electrical permittivity, respectively, in free space, εr = 2.4 in the present analysis, and R is the distance between source points and observation points, both on the antenna surface S.
The numerical solution of Eq. (2) by MoM consists in to approximate the surface current on the antenna by a linear combination in a given set of basis function and performs the conventional test procedure with a given set of test function [16]. With this approximation, we transform the integral Eq. (2) in an algebraic linear system which is numerically solved.
3.3. Finite element method model
The Comsol software [17], which is based on the finite element method, was used to simulate examples of graphene antennas to compare our MoM model. The graphene sheet is modeled by an equivalent volumetric electrical conductivity, where it is defined by the surface conductivity (1) divided by the graphene thickness, which was considered finite in the Comsol model σVω=σω/Δ, where Δ is the thickness of the antenna. The domain used is a spherical volume with εr = 2.4, where a perfect matched layer (PML) is placed in the outer boundary to absorb the radiated waves. In this model, the dipole is excited by a voltage source with a lumped port element.
4. Numerical results
In this section, we first present the results of two examples of conventional graphene dipole with different sizes. The principal characteristics of this antenna are reviewed. The results are obtained by MoM and FEM models and compared with data of literature [13]. After that, we present the results for the broadband graphene dipole loop. In this case, we analyze the dependence of the radiation and broadband properties of this antenna as a function of the geometry and chemical potential of the loop.
4.1. Conventional graphene dipole
For comparison of our models, this section presents the analysis of the two graphene antennas of the study [13]. The parameters of these antennas are presented in Table 1, where we named them Antennas 1 and 2. These two antennas were simulated by MoM and Comsol. The discretization details used in these models are shown in Figure 3, where Figure 3a and b show the meshes used in the MoM method and Figure 3c and d show the meshes used in the FEM. Note that the meshes in MoM method are only in the surface’s antennas, while in the FEM, the meshes are also in a spherical volume around the antennas. This is why the MoM method presents small number of unknowns than the FEM, and consequently, the MoM method requires a smaller computational cost than the FEM.
Antenna
μC
L
W
1
0.13 eV
17 μm
10 μm
2
0.25 eV
23 μm
20 μm
Table 1.
Parameters of conventional graphene dipole antennas.
Figure 3.
Discretization mesh of graphene antenna used in simulations. (a) Antenna 1—MoM model. (b) Antenna 2—MoM model. (c) Antenna 1—Comsol model. (d) Antenna 2—Comsol model.
The input impedance obtained for both antennas is presented in Figure 4 and the results of input resistance Rin and input reactance Xin between MoM, simulation Comsol and data from [12] are compared. In general, a good agreement of the results is observed in these figures; the little differences are due to the differences in models and discretizations. The antennas present dipolar resonances similar to conventional RF-microwave antennas, where the fundamental resonance is dipolar λ/2 with lower Rin and the second resonance is λ with higher Rin. The values of these resonant frequencies are presented in Table 2. Antenna 1 possesses a smaller length L than Antenna 2 but the resonances of Antenna 2 are higher than those of Antenna 1; this occur because the chemical potential of Antenna 2 is higher than that of Antenna 1 and this parameter shifts the input impedance to higher frequencies.
Resonant frequencies of Antennas 1 and 2 calculated by different methods.
Figure 5 shows the reflection coefficient of Antennas 1, when this antenna is matched with a transmission line with characteristic impedance of Zc = 100 Ω. In this case, the fractional bandwidth is B = 11.44%, for a reference reflection level of −10 dB. For Antenna 2, this fractional bandwidth is B = 8.88%. These results show that conventional graphene dipoles possess a smaller bandwidth. The next sections present the analysis of broadband graphene dipoles with bandwidths higher than those presented in this section.
Figure 5.
Reflection coefficient of Antenna 1 matched with an impedance feed of Zc = 100 Ω.
4.2. Graphene dipole loop
In this section, we present the numerical results for the broadband graphene dipole-loop antennas of Figure 1. First, we make a parametric analysis of geometry and then the effect of chemical potential of loop on the bandwidth and radiation characteristics. The results presented are input impedance, reflections coefficient, bandwidth, and radiation diagram.
4.2.1. Parametric analysis with geometry
A parametric analysis of graphene dipole loop of Figure 1 is presented in this section. We investigate the variation of the characteristics of antenna as a function of the loop’s geometry element. In all the analysis, we fixed the size and chemical potential of the dipole with those values of Antennas 1 presented in Table 1. In addition, we varied the following parameters of loop element: inner radius R1, outer radius R2, and distance H.
The values of H are varied from 1 to 5 μm. The outer radius R2 presents eight values from 3 to 10 mm, and the inner radius R1 with three fractions of R2, that is, R1 = 0.4 × R2, R1 = 0.6 × R2, and R1 = 0.8 × R2. A total of 120 simulations were done with the MoM code developed. For both elements (dipole and loop), we fixed the potential of μC = 0.13 eV (Table 1). Figure 6 shows some examples of graphene dipole loop analyzed with different loop’s size and the correspondent mesh used in the MoM model.
Figure 6.
Geometry and mesh of some analyzed examples of graphene dipole-loop antenna with different values of inner radius R1: (a) R1 = 0.4 × R2, (b) R1 = 0.6 × R2, and (c) R1 = 0.8 × R2, and with different values of outer radius R2, where R1 = 0.4 × R2: (d) R2 = 4 μm, (e) R2 = 7 μm, and (f) R2 = 10 μm.
For each simulation, we plot the input impedance Zin of the antenna. First, we noted that for higher values of H and R1, the electromagnetic coupling between the dipole and the loop element is smaller. Therefore, the parameters where we obtained best coupling and matching bandwidth are H = 1 mm and R1 = 0.4 × R2. The geometries for some of these cases are presented in Figure 5d–f. Figure 7 shows the input impedances for these cases R2 equal to 3, 4, 5, and 6 μm, and Figure 8 the Zin for the cases 7, 8, 9, and 10 μm.
Figure 7.
Input impedance for antennas with H = 1 μm, where R1 = 0.4 × R2, R2 = 3, 4, 5, and 6 μm: (a) input resistance (Re(Zin)) and (b) input reactance (Im(Zin)).
Figure 8.
Input impedance for antennas with H = 1 μm, where R1 = 0.4 × R2, R2 = 7, 8, 9, and 10 μm: (a) input resistance (Re(Zin)) and (b) input reactance (Im(Zin)).
In these figures, we can see the effect of the loop and the dipole in the total input impedance. For example, for the case of R2 = 9 mm in Figure 9, the resonances of the loop and the dipole are approximately in 0.75 and 1.0 THz, respectively. Also, the loop resonance is shifted to lower frequencies for higher values of R2, and the dipole resonance remains approximately constant. This happens because we are varying only the size of the loop in these simulations, and this size modifies the loop’s resonance more strongly.
Figure 9.
Reflection coefficient of antennas of Figures 6 and 7. (a) R2 = 3, 4, 5, and 6 μm (Zc = 80 Ω). (b) R2 = 7, 8, 9, and 10 μm (Zc = 150).
This behavior of multi-resonance is common for antennas with multiresonant elements coupled electromagnetically, which is the case of the dipole-loop antenna. This analysis of Figures 7 and 8 shows that we can control the total input impedance so that it presents a broadband characteristic. For this purpose, we choose the loop’s size in such a way as to couple the loop and the dipole resonance near to each other to obtain a broader resonance.
To observe this statement, we plot the reflection coefficient of these antennas when they are connected to a transmission line impedance characteristic of Zc in Figure 9. This parameter is calculated by Γ = |(Zin-Zc)/(Zin + Zc)|. A wider bandwidth was obtained when we choose Zc = 80 Ω for the cases R2 = 3, 4, 5 and 6 μm, and Zc = 150 Ω for the cases R2 = 7, 8, 9 and 10 μm.
To compare the bandwidth of these antennas, we calculated the fractional bandwidth defined by B(%) = 200 × (fH−fL)/(fH + fL), where fH and fL are the superior and inferior, respectively, limits of the band for a level of −10 dB. The results are presented in Table 3, where the fractional bandwidth for all simulations for the case H = 1 mm is presented. We observe that the best case is R2 = 7 mm with R1 = 0.4 × R2, where B = 21.7%.
Fractional bandwidth, B(%)
R1
R2
0.4 × R2
0.6 × R2
0.8 × R2
3 μm
12.1
14.7
11.2
4 μm
13.7
10.7
10.7
5 μm
15.4
6.9
10.1
6 μm
15.4
4.6
10.2
7 μm
21.7
11.7
15.3
8 μm
9.0
12.6
14.4
9 μm
2.2
18.7
14.5
10 μm
9.9
17.7
14.6
Table 3.
Fractional bandwidth of dipole-loop antennas with H = 1 μm.
For the case with broad bandwidth of Table 3 (R1 = 0.4 × R2 and R2 = 7 μm), we plot the normalized radiation diagram at F = 0.56 THz in the middle of the bandwidth in Figure 10. The diagram is an asymmetric version of that diagram of an isolated dipole. The asymmetry is due to the asymmetric geometry of the antenna in the xz plane. This diagram radiates more energy in the –z direction, where in this case, the loop acts as a reflector element.
Figure 10.
Normalized radiation diagram of antennas with a higher bandwidth (R2 = 7 μm, R1 = 0.4 × R2) at F = 56THz, in the middle of the bandwidth. (a) 2D diagram at plane xz. (b) 3D diagram.
4.2.2. Effect of chemical potential
In this section, we present the variation of the characteristic of the antennas as a function of the chemical potential of the loop. The dimensions of the loop and the dipole were fixed as W = 17 μm, L = 10 μm, H = 1 μm, R2 = 5 μm, and R1 = 0.4 × R2. The chemical potential of the dipole is μC = 0.13 eV and the loop is varied μC = 0, 0.03, 0.07, 0.1 and 0.13 eV. Figure 11 shows the geometry and MoM mesh for this antenna.
Figure 11.
Geometry and MoM mesh of dipole-loop antenna with 17 μm, L = 10 μm, H = 1 μm, R2 = 5 μm, and R1 = 0.4 × R2.
Figures 12 and 13 show the input impedance and reflection coefficient obtained, respectively. In Figure 13, we used Zc = 300 Ω, for μC = 0, 0.07, 0.1, and 0.13 eV, and for μC = 0.03 eV, we used Zc = 150 Ω. These values of the Zc produce a better bandwidth.
Figure 12.
Input impedance variation with the chemical potential of loop. Geometry of dipole-loop antenna is W = 17 μm, L = 10 μm, H = 1 μm, R2 = 5 μm, and R1 = 0.4 × R2 (μC = 0.13 eV for dipole). Chemical potential of loop are: (a) μC = 0.0 eV; (b) μC = 0.03 eV; (c) μC = 0.07 eV; (d) μC = 0.1 eV; and (e) μC = 0.13 eV.
Figure 13.
Variation of reflection coefficient with loop’s chemical potential. Data of dipole-loop antenna: W = 17 μm, L = 10 μm, H = 1 μm, R2 = 5 μm, and R1 = 0.4 × R2 (μC = 0.13 eV for dipole), chemical potential of loop (a) μC = 0.0, 0.07, 0.1, and 0.13 eV (Zc = 300 Ω), and (b) μC = 0.03 eV (Zc = 150 Ω).
First, we observe a better agreement between MoM and Comsol. Also, we note that we can control the effect of the loop in the total input impedance by varying its chemical potential.
We observe in Figure 12 that only the resonance of loop is modified with chemical potential. For example, in Figure 12c, the loop resonance is near F = 0.75 THz, and in Figure 12d, it is near F = 0.8 THz.
The results of Figure 13 were obtained for Zc = 300 Ω; however for the case of μC = 0.03 eV, we used Zc = 150 Ω. These values of Zc presented a better bandwidth. The bandwidth obtained are presented in Table 4, where the broad bandwidth was found for the case with μC = 0.7 eV.
Fractional bandwidth B(%)
μC (eV)
0.0
0.03
0.07
0.1
0.13
B (%)
22.4
16.9
21.5
43.5
26.8
Table 4.
Fractional bandwidth for the antennas of Figure 13.
The resonant frequencies for the best bandwidth (μC = 0.1 eV) are F = 0.69 and 0.85 THz, as can be seen in Figure 12d, where the reactance is null. The radiation diagrams in these frequencies are presented in Figures 14 and 15. We observe that these diagrams are more symmetrical and similar to that of isolated dipole. This is because the size of the loop element is smaller than that of Figure 10; therefore, the effect of their surface current to produce far field is smaller.
Figure 14.
2D radiation diagram of gain at plane xy and in frequencies (a) F = 0.69 THz (first resonance) and (b) F = 0.85 THz (second resonance). Data of antenna: W = 17 μm, L = 10 μm, H = 1 μm, R2 = 5 μm, and R1 = 0.4 × R2, μC = 0.13 eV (for dipole) μC = 0.1 eV (for loop).
Figure 15.
3D radiation diagram of gain at frequencies (a) F = 0.69 THz (first resonance) and (b) F = 0.85 THz (second resonance). Data of antenna: W = 17 μm, L = 10 μm, H = 1 μm, R2 = 5 μm, and R1 = 0.4 × R2, μC = 0.13 eV (for dipole) μC = 0.1 eV (for loop).
5. Conclusions
In this book chapter, we presented a numerical analysis of a broadband graphene dipole-loop antenna for terahertz application. In this antenna, only the dipole element is fed by a voltage source, while the loop element is electromagnetically coupled to the dipole. The bidimensional method of moment, with an equivalent surface impedance of graphene, was used for numerical calculations, and some results are obtained by finite element method for comparison. A good agreement between these two methods was obtained, but the method of moment is faster than the finite element method. In the results, we first presented a review of the principal characteristics of the conventional graphene dipole antenna. Then, we analyzed the broadband characteristics of the graphene dipole-loop antenna as a function of geometry and chemical potential of the loop. The results show that these parameters can be used to enhance the fractional bandwidth of this antenna, where a combination of these two parameters in the optimization process produces better results than one alone. The best antenna obtained presented a fractional bandwidth of 43.5% with a radiation diagram with linear polarization and good symmetry properties.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the Mr. Mauro Roberto Collatto Junior Chief Executive Officer of the Junto Telecom Company for the financial and emotional support to this project.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this work.
\n',keywords:"graphene antenna, broadband dipole-loop antenna, terahertz radiation, method of moment (MoM), graphene surface impedance",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/59642.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/59642.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59642",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59642",totalDownloads:1174,totalViews:218,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:34,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"September 29th 2017",dateReviewed:"February 5th 2018",datePrePublished:"February 28th 2018",datePublished:"September 26th 2018",dateFinished:"February 28th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Graphene possesses good properties as unusually high electron mobility, atomic layer thickness, and unique mechanical flexibility, which made it one promising material in the design of terahertz antennas. In this book chapter, we present a numerical analysis of a broadband dipole-loop graphene antenna for application in terahertz communications. The bidimensional method of moments (MoM-2D), with equivalent surface impedance of graphene, is used for numerical analysis. First, we review the principal characteristics of the conventional rectangular graphene dipole. Then, we consider the broadband graphene antenna, composed by one rectangular dipole placed near and parallel to a circular-loop graphene element, where only the dipole is feed. In this analysis, we investigated the effects of the geometrical parameters and the chemical potential, of the graphene material, on the overall characteristics of the compound antenna. Some results are compared with simulations performed with software based on finite element method. The results show that this simple compound graphene antenna can be used for broadband communications in the terahertz band.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/59642",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/59642",book:{id:"6531",slug:"antennas-and-wave-propagation"},signatures:"Karlo Queiroz da, Gleida Tayanna Conde de, Gabriel Silva Pinto and\nAndrey Viana Pires",authors:[{id:"25711",title:"Dr.",name:"Karlo",middleName:"Queiroz",surname:"Costa",fullName:"Karlo Costa",slug:"karlo-costa",email:"karlo@ufpa.br",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Antenna geometry",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Theoretical development",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1. Graphene surface conductivity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2. Method of moment model",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3. Finite element method model",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. Numerical results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.1. Conventional graphene dipole",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.2. Graphene dipole loop",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"Table 3.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"Table 4.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Akyildiz IF, Jornet JM, Han C. Terahertz band: Next frontier for wireless communications. Physics Communications. 2014;12:16-32'},{id:"B2",body:'Koch M. Terahertz communications: A 2020 vision. In: Miles R, Zhang XC, Eisele H, Krotkus A, editors. Terahertz Frequency Detection and Identification of Materials and Objects, NATO Security through Science Series. Vol. 19. Springer; 2007. pp. 325-338'},{id:"B3",body:'Piesiewicz R, Kleine-Ostmann T, Krumbholz N, Mittleman D, Koch M, Schoebel J, Kurner T. Short-range ultra-broadband terahertz communications: Concepts and perspectives. IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine. 2007;49(6):24-39'},{id:"B4",body:'Federici J, Moeller L. Review of terahertz and subterahertz wireless communications. Journal of Applied Physics. 2010;107(11):111101'},{id:"B5",body:'Huang K-C, Wang Z. Terahertz terabit wireless communication. IEEE Microwave Magazine. 2011;12(4):108-116'},{id:"B6",body:'Kleine-Ostmann T, Nagatsuma T. A review on terahertz communications research. Journal of Infrared, Millimeter and Terahertz Waves. 2011;32:143-171'},{id:"B7",body:'Song H, Nagatsuma T. Present and future of terahertz communications. IEEE Transactions on Terahertz Science and Technology. 2011;1(1):256-263'},{id:"B8",body:'Kürner T, Priebe S. Towards THz communications-status in research, standardization and regulation. Journal of Infrared, Millimeter and Terahertz Waves. 2014;35(1):53-62'},{id:"B9",body:'Geim A, Novoselov K. The rise of graphene. Nature Materials. March 2007;6(3):183-191'},{id:"B10",body:'Fang Z et al. Graphene-antenna sandwich photodetector. Nano Letters. June, 2012:3808-3813'},{id:"B11",body:'Schwierz F. Graphene transistors. Nature Nanotechnology. May 2010'},{id:"B12",body:'Perruisseau-Carrier J. Graphene for antenna applications–Opportunities and challenges from microwaves to THz. Loughborough Antennas & Propagation Conference, UK. 2012'},{id:"B13",body:'Tamagnone M, Gómez-Díaz JS, Mosig JR, Perruisseau-Carrier J. Analysis and design of terahertz antennas based on plasmonic resonant graphene sheets. Journal of Applied Physics. December 2012;112'},{id:"B14",body:'Zhang H, Jiang Y, Wang J. A broadband terahertz antenna using graphene. 11th International Symposium on Antennas, Propagation and EM Theory (ISAPE), Antennas, Propagation and EM Theory (ISAPE), Guilin, China. 18-21 October 2016'},{id:"B15",body:'da Costa KQ, Dimitriev V, Nascimento CM, Silvano GL. Theoretical analysis of graphene nanoantennas with different shapes. Microwave and Optical Technology Letters. May 2014;56(5)'},{id:"B16",body:'da Costa KQ, Dimitriev V. Planar monopole UWB antennas with cuts at the edges and parasitic loops. InTech: Ultra Wideband Communications: Novel Trends—Antennas and Propagation, 1st ed., pp. 143-145, 2011'},{id:"B17",body:'COMSOL Multiphysic 4.4, COMSOL Inc., http://www.comsol.com'},{id:"B18",body:'Hanson GW. Dyadic Green’s functions and guided surface waves for a surface conductivity model of Graphene. Journal of Applied Physics. 2008;103:064302'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Karlo Queiroz da Costa",address:"karlo@ufpa.br",affiliation:'
Department of Electrical Engineering, Federal University of Para, Brazil
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Gleida Tayanna Conde de Sousa",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Electrical Engineering, Federal University of Para, Brazil
Department of Electrical Engineering, Federal University of Para, Brazil
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1. Introduction
Grapes (Vitis vinifera L.) are the most produced fruit in the world. The total grape area and its production globally are 7.4 million ha and 77.8 million tons, respectively, in 2018 [1]. About 36% of the total is consumed for fresh, 7% for dried, and 57% for winemaking. Five countries represent 50% of the world’s vineyards. Turkey is in the fifth position in vineyard areas in the world in 2018 with a total surface of 448,000 ha, after Spain, China, France, and Italy. It is the sixth in total grape production (3.9 million tons) among the major grape producers that after China, Italy, USA, Spain, and France; fourth in table grapes (2.2 million tons, 56.1%), and first in dried grape production (396,825 tons, 40.7%), about fortieth in wine grape production among the grape-growing countries. In Turkey, the grapes used for winemaking are 124,800 tons (3.2%) [1].
Soilless culture techniques are primarily applied in ornamental plants and vegetables in the world and Turkey [2, 3]. In recent years, this technique is also used to overcome some problems due to its various advantages in grape cultivation [2, 4, 5, 6]. No need for tillage and soil preparation, protection from soil pathogens, effective use of water and nutrient solutions, reduction of spraying, obtaining more quantity and quality products per unit area, production of new or traditional grape varieties in a more extended period according to market demands, and control of harvest time are among some advantages of soilless cultivation [2, 4, 7].
In the world and Turkey, when it is considered together with the cultivation of greenhouse grapes for early grape ripening or late harvest, grape cultivation in soilless culture is considered an important cultivation method due to its advantages. This technique may be used for both early- and late-maturing grape varieties. According to our current information, no producer grows grapes commercially in soilless culture in Turkey. Studies on the subject are still carried out in horticulture departments of some agriculture faculties and viticulture research institutes.
Depending on the research purposes, different varieties, substrate mixtures, containers and nutrient solutions [2, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15] were used in the grape cultivation experiments in the soilless culture system.
In the studies conducted by Tangolar et al. [6], the effect of substrates on the grape yield and quality of the berries in vines grown in the open and under the greenhouse was determined. The study that examined the yield, cluster, and berry properties of Early Sweet variety determined that perlite:peat (2:1) and cocopeat substrates gave better results. Tangolar et al. [16] also researched Early Sweet and Trakya Ilkeren cultivars to determine the effects of three different media, namely perlite:peat (2:1), cocopeat and pumice, and two different modified Hoagland nutrient solutions on shoot diameter as well as the nutrient element and chlorophyll levels of the leaves and grape yield and quality characteristics. The study found a significant difference between media and nutrient solution application for some characteristics examined.
Achieving a good quality in grapes is an essential goal wherever it is grown; one of the important components that make up the quality is the phytochemical content of the berries. Grapes contain a number of phytochemicals beneficial for human health, as well as amino acids, proteins, vitamins, and minerals [17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26]. So, berries are efficiently used to increase the nutritional and energy value of the human diet.
Some studies [27] have shown that magnesium, calcium, zinc, and vitamins such as B and C are related to people’s cognitive performance. Clinical findings have revealed that extreme deficiencies of one or more of these nutrients are not uncommon, even in developed countries. These deficiencies may affect cognitive performance, especially in vulnerable groups such as the elderly and those exposed to occupational pressures and difficult living conditions.
Key et al. [28] noted that dietary science is increasingly recognized for its ability to prevent and support disease prevention and new technologies and therapies to improve modern medical practice. Researchers noted that dietary studies help discover specific dietary patterns that promote healthy brain aging and moderate the involvement of nervous systems known to facilitate cognitive performance in later life [28].
The composition of grape berries in different grape cultivars grown open field is affected by different factors such as variety, stress conditions, biostimulants, irrigation, fertigation, pruning, and others [26, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49].
In spite of this, the studies conducted in the world and Turkey found no study of the effects of the different substrates and nutrition solutions on the biochemical content of berries obtained from varieties grown in soilless culture. So, this subject is thought to have not been sufficiently investigated yet.
Because of these, it has been seen beneficial to examine the effects of substrates and nutrition solutions on the biochemical contents, which are essential for human health. Therefore, this study was designated to evaluate the amino acid, mineral, and vitamin content of berries from Early Cardinal table grape cultivar grown in different soilless culture medium and plant nutrient solutions.
2. Materials and methods
2.1 Trial conditions
This research was carried out in a greenhouse at the Department of Horticulture, Faculty of Agriculture, the University of Cukurova, which was conducted under a 21 m, 9 m, and 3 m in length, width, and height greenhouse covered with UV plastic with a thickness of 0.4 mm. During the research, no heating process was done in the greenhouse.
2.2 Plant material
As plant material, own-rooted Early Cardinal grape (V. vinifera L.) cv. grown in soilless culture was used. To produce plant material, cuttings from Early Cardinal grapes (V. vinifera L.) grown were planted in perlite pools on January 15, 2018, and irrigated immediately after planting. Rooting of cutting occurred after approximately 90 days at a satisfactory level. Well-rooted cuttings were selected and transplanted into 32-liter plastic pots containing four different solid growing media, namely, zeolite, cocopeat, zeolite+cocopeat (Z + C) (1:1, v:v), and Z + C (1:2, v:v). A total of three different nutrient solutions were applied to the rooted cuttings: two chemical nutrient solutions (Hoagland (H) and Hoagland A (HA- adapted to the vine) and organic liquid worm fertilizer (OLWF) (Table 1). Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, sulfur, and boron concentrations in the modified Hoagland solution were reduced between 3.2% (phosphorus) and 76.5% (sulfur) compared with Hoagland, and on the other hand, iron 2, manganese 6, zinc 20, and molybdenum 5 fold have been increased. With the same amount of solution in volume, more N, P, Mg, Zn, Cu, Mn, and Fe were given than Hoagland A and Hoagland through OLWF. The pots were placed in the greenhouse with a distance of 1.50 m between rows and 0.60 m in rows. After planting, a well-irrigation was performed to saturate the cultivation media.
Element
Formula
Hoagland A (mg kg−1)
Hoagland (mg kg−1)
Organic liquid worm fertilizer
N
K2(NO3)2
150
210
5%
P
H3PO4
30
31
0.49%
K
K2SO4
175
235
1.47%
Mg
MgSO4.7H2O
20
48
0.78%
S
CaSO4.H2O
15
64
Not detected
Fe
Fe-EDDHA
5
2.5
5257 ppm
Mn
MnSO4. H2O
3
0.5
565 ppm
B
H3BO3
0.4
0.5
Not detected
Cu
CuSO4 5H2O
0.02
0.02
58 ppm
Zn
ZnSO4 7H2O
1
0.05
152.5 ppm
Mo
(NH4)6Mo7O24.4 H2O
0.05
0.01
Not detected
pH
5.28
Total dry matter
13%
Humic-fulvic acid
38%
Table 1.
Composition and formula of chemical and organic nutrient solutions used in the trial.
One-year-old vines entered the resting period at the end of the first year were pruned and trained to a guyot system to prepare for the crop year, on January 31, 2019. About 20 buds were left per vine. The number of clusters of the vines was equal to 12 clusters by removing the excessive clusters on May 24, 2019, after the berry set. Grapevines were given different solutions within the second vegetation year, starting from the bud burst.
The pH value of the tap water used in the experiment was 7.68, and the EC value was 0.813 mS cm−1. The amount of water given to the plants varied between 1 and 3 L pot−1 per day according to the water-holding capacity of the growth medium. The total amount of nutrients applied per plant in the first and crop year of the experiment is shown in Table 2.
Element
Hoagland A
Hoagland
Organic liquid worm fertilizer
2018
2019
2018
2019
2018
2019
N (g)
12.75
21.00
17.85
29.39
37.40
59.90
P (g)
2.55
4.20
2.64
4.34
3.67
5.87
K (g)
14.87
24.50
19.97
32.89
10.99
17.61
Mg (g)
1.89
15.91
4.53
37.47
5.83
9.34
Zn (mg)
84.92
139.86
4.165
6.86
114.07
182.70
Cu (mg)
1.70
2.80
1.70
2.80
43.38
69.48
B (mg)
85.0
140.00
106.25
175.00
Not detected
Not detected
Mn (mg)
255.0
420.00
42.5
70.00
422.62
676.87
Mo (mg)
0.43
0.70
0.09
0.14
Not detected
Not detected
Fe (mg)
474.8
777.9
235.5
387.8
3932.2
6297.9
Table 2.
The amount of nutrients given per plant by different nutrient solutions in 2 years.
2.3 Biochemical analysis
When the total soluble solids (TSS) reached about 12–14%, five cluster samples were taken from each of the three replicates of treatments on July 1, 2019. After removing from the clusters, stored berries at −20°C before the phytochemical analysis were analyzed in the Department of Genetic and Bio-Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Yeditepe.
2.3.1 Mineral elements
Macro and micronutrient element analyses were carried out using samples of berries. Phosphorus (P) was determined vanadomolibdo phosphoric acid yellow color method as reported by Bremner [50]. Potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), and manganese (Mn) concentrations of the berries were analyzed by atomic absorption spectrophotometer [51].
2.3.2 Amino acids
1 g fresh sample was treated with 0.1 N HCl, homogenized with ultra turrax, and incubated at 4°C for 12 hours. Supernatants were filtered through 0.22-m filters after samples were centrifuged at 1200 rpm for 50 minutes (Millex Millipore). The supernatants were then transferred to a vial, and the amino acids were analyzed in HPLC as described by Antoine et al. [52] and Kitir et al. [53]. Readings from Zorbax Eclipse-AAA 4.6150 mm and 3.5 m columns (Agilent 1200 HPLC) were taken at 254 nm, and the amino acids were identified by comparing them to standards of O-phthaldialdehyde (OPA), fluorenylmethyl-chloroformate (FMOC), and 0.4 N borate. The following solutions were used in the mobile phase chromatography system: Phase A: 40 mM NaH2PO4 (pH: 7.8) and Phase B: acetonitrile/methanol/water (45/45/10 v/v/v), after a 26-minute derivation process in HPLC, aspartate, glutamate, asparagine, serine, glutamine, histidine, glycine, arginine, alanine, tyrosine, cysteine, valine, methionine, tryptophan, phenylalanine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, thionine, and proline.
A 50 mg frozen berry sample was crushed using liquid nitrogen and extracted with 4.5 mL of 3-sulfosalicylic acid, and then filtered through a Whatman filter paper (#2) for proline measurement. In a test tube, 2 mL of the filtrate were mixed with 2 mL acid-ninhydrin and 2 mL glacial acetic acid for 1 hour at 100°C, stopped the reaction with an ice bath, and the filtrates were analyzed. The concentration of proline was measured spectrophotometrically at 520 nm [54].
2.3.3 Vitamins
2.3.3.1 Vitamin A
Berry samples were ground for vitamin A (Retinol). Berry samples were extracted with a mixture of n-hexane and ethanol. 1% BHT was added and kept in the dark environment for 1 day. At the end of this period, centrifugation was conducted at 4000 rpm (+4°C) for 10 min. The obtained supernatant was filtered with the help of Whatman filter paper and added 0.5 mL of n-hexane. Drying was then performed using nitrogen gas. The residue in the tubes was dissolved in a methanol + tetrahydrofuran mixture. Analyses were carried out in Thermo Scientific Finnigan Surveyor model high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and in amber glass vials on Tray, and autosampler using PDA array detector [55, 56].
2.3.3.2 Vitamin B
A total of 10 g of samples were weighed and homogenized. The samples were then transferred to a conical flask with 25 mL of extraction solution. A shaking water bath at an ambient temperature of 70°C was used to sonicate the solution for 40 minutes. Following sonication, the sample was cooled and filtered to make a volume of 50 mL with extraction solution. The extraction solution was again filtered with filter trips (0.45 μm), and 20 μl aliquots solution was injected into the HPLC by using an auto-sampler. A reversed-phase C-18 analytical column (STR ODS-M, 150 mm 4.6 mm ID, 5 m, Shimadzu Corporation, Japan) separated the B complex vitamins. At 40°C, the mobile phase consists of a 9:1 (v/v) combination of 100 mM sodium phosphate buffer (pH: 2.2) containing 0.8 mM sodium-1-octane sulfonate and acetonitrile. The flow rate was constant at 0.8 mL/min using a PDA detector with a 270 nm absorption rate. The peak area of the corresponding chromatogram was used to calculate B vitamins using the following equation [57]:
Plants were sliced, frozen in liquid nitrogen, and kept at a temperature of −80°C until the analyses were completed. The extraction solution was combined with 2.5 ml of frozen crushed plant material (3% MPA and 8% acetic acid for MPA-acetic acid extraction and 0.1% oxalic acid for oxalic acid extraction). The mixture was titrated with indophenol solution (25% DCIP and 21% NaHCO3 in water) until light, but the distinct rose-pink color appeared and persisted for more than 5 seconds [58].
2.4 Experimental design and statistical analysis
The study was designed according to the “Randomized Complete Blocks” with three replicates in 12 treatments. For each application and replicate, approximately 500 g of the berry samples were taken and analyzed for the compounds to be studied. Data obtained from the study were subjected to variance analysis using the SAS-based JMP statistical package programmer. The least significant difference (LSD) test was used to separate different groups at a 5% significance level.
3. Results and discussions
Besides bodywork, vitamins, and minerals, protection of the body from diseases, blood formation, bone, dental health, etc., are required for functions. Each food contains different amounts of various vitamins and minerals. Its richest sources are fresh vegetables and fruits [59].
As shown in Table 3, there were significant differences among the substrates related to macro- and microelements of berries except for boron. Considering, P, K, Ca, Mg, Mn, and Cu concentrations of berries were higher in Z + C (1:1) than the other substrates. However, zeolite, cocopeat, and Z + C (1:1) for Na, Cocopeat, and Z + C (1:1) for Fe, and zeolite for Zn concentrations gave higher values than the other applications. Phosphorus, Mg, Fe in Hoagland; K in Hoagland A; calcium, Na, and Mn in Hoagland and Hoagland A, and zinc in OLWF fertilizers were recorded have higher concentrations than those of the others.
Sources of variation
Macroelements (mg 100 g−1)
P
K
Ca
Mg
Na
Substrate
Zeolite
17.7 cy
213 b
48 b
13.7 d
2.7 a
Cocopeat
19.1 b
208 c
47 b
17.9 b
2.4 a
Z + C (1:1)x
21.0 a
234 a
51 a
20.0 a
2.4 a
Z + C (1:2)
15.4 d
193 d
39 c
16.7 c
1.9 b
LSD 5%
0.4
5
2
0.8
0.3
p-value
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
0.0011
Fertilizer
Hoagland A
19.3 b
227 a
49 a
16.8 b
2.6 a
Hoagland
19.8 a
223 b
50 a
18.1 a
2.6 a
OLWF
15.8 c
186 c
40 b
16.3 b
1.9 b
LSD 5%
0.4
4
1
0.7
0.3
p-value
<0.0001
<0.90001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
Interaction
Zeolite × Hoagland A
2.52 a
3.35a
0.67 a
1.61de
0.43 a
Zeolite × Hoagland
1.63 ef
1.92 f
0.46 d
1.25 g
0.29 b
Zeolite × OLWF
1.15 ı
1.13 j
0.31 g
1.24 g
0.08 e
Cocopeat × Hoagland A
1.38 h
1.45 ı
0.36 f
1.41 f
0.16 d
Cocopeat × Hoagland
2.31 c
2.24 d
0.55 b
1.97b
0.28 b
Cocopeat × OLWF
2.06 d
2.54 c
0.50 c
1.98b
0.27 b
Z + C (1:1) × Hoagland A
2.40 b
2.48 c
0.57 b
2.20a
0.26 bc
Z + C (1:1) × Hoagland
2.34 bc
2.87 b
0.56 b
2.26a
0.27 b
Z + C (1:1) × OLWF
1.55 g
1.67 h
0.39 e
1.56e
0.20 cd
Z + C (1:2) × Hoagland A
1.40 h
1.81 g
0.36 f
1.49ef
0.19 d
Z + C (1:2) × Hoagland
1.65 e
1.88 fg
0.41 e
1.77c
0.19 d
Z + C (1:2) × OLWF
1.57 fg
2.10 e
0.40 e
1.74 cd
0.19 d
LSD 5%
0.7
8
3
1.3
0.6
p-value
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
Table 3.
The effect of different substrates and nutrient solution applications on the level of macro elements in berries.
Z + C: Zeolite+Cocopeat, OLWF: Organic liquid worm fertilizer,
Mean separation within columns by LSD multiple range test at 0.05 level.
Macrominerals presented in Table 3 determined that the potassium contents of berries were higher than those of the others, ranging from 234 mg 100 g−1 for Z + C (1:1) substrate and 186 mg 100 g−1 for OLWF fertilizer. Followed calcium content of grapes was found between 51 mg 100 g−1 for Z + C (1:1) substrate and 40 mg 100 g−1 for OLWF fertilizer. Among the macroelements, sodium gave the lowest amount.
Considering trace elements, the highest iron content (0.362 mg 100 g−1) is obtained from Z + C (1:1), whereas the lowest level of iron (0.255 mg 100 g−1) was found in zeolite. The zinc content of grape berries was in the range of 0.299 and 0.184 mg 100 g−1, whereas the manganese content of grape berries was in the range of 0.235–0.178 mg 100 g−1. Cupper and boron microminerals varied between 0.147 and 0.105 and 0.481 and 0.329 mg 100 g−1, respectively. The substrate × fertilizer interaction was significant for all elements except Cu and B (Tables 3 and 4).
Sources of variation
Microelements (mg 100 g−1)
Fe
Zn
Mn
Cu
B
Substrate
Zeolite
0.255 c y
0.299 a
0.178 c y
0.105 b
0.348
Cocopeat
0.353 a
0.184 c
0.208 b
0.131ab
0.448
Z + C (1:1)x
0.362 a
0.187 c
0.235 a
0.147 a
0.481
Z + C (1:2)
0.288 b
0.192 b
0.195 b
0.113 ab
0.329
LSD 5%
0.011
0.011
0.016
0.036
NS
p value
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
0.1082
0.002
Fertilizer
Hoagland A
0.325 b
0.206 b
0.208 a
0.123
0.399
Hoagland
0.340 a
0.207 b
0.216 a
0.136
0.455
OLWF
0.279 c
0.233 a
0.188 b
0.112
0.351
LSD 5%
0.010
0.009
0.014
NS
NS
p-value
<0.0001
<0.0001
0.001
0.2907
0.3459
Interaction
Zeolite × Hoagland A
373.26 c
23.36c
257.02 b
111.36
33.55
Zeolite × Hoagland
274.67e
26.09b
161.89 fg
107.69
36.95
Zeolite × OLWF
119.72 g
40.33a
115.50 h
96.29
33.83
Cocopeat × Hoagland A
229.96f
22.09 cd
145.29 g
113.61
38.77
Cocopeat × Hoagland
399.01 b
17.68gh
222.25 cd
159.97
59.94
Cocopeat × OLWF
430.45 a
15.31ı
255.55 b
120.14
35.54
Z + C (1:1) × Hoagland A
403.44 b
19.74ef
247.77 bc
177.22
61.79
Z + C (1:1) × Hoagland
404.49 b
17.81gh
290.87 a
135.89
40.02
Z + C (1:1) × OLWF
276.79de
18.58fgh
166.47 fg
126.40
42.59
Z + C (1:2) × Hoagland A
294.99 d
17.26 h
182.54 f
90.53
25.58
Z + C (1:2) × Hoagland
282.14de
21.29de
188.47 ef
142.21
44.89
Z + C (1:2) × OLWF
289.78de
19.16 fg
212.86 de
104.91
28.33
LSD 5%
0.020
0.018
0.028
NS
NS
p-value
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
0.3888
0.3886
Table 4.
The effect of different substrates and nutrient solution applications on the level of microelements in berries.
Z + C: Zeolite+Cocopeat, OLWF: Organic liquid worm fertilizer.
Mean separation within columns by LSD multiple range test at 0.05 level,
NS: Nonsignificant.
In the study by Abdrabba and Hussein [35], calcium, magnesium, potassium, phosphorus, and iron values were determined as 120, 31, 154, 39, and 5 mg 100 g−1 as the average of pulp, seed, and peel, respectively, and these minerals useful for the human body have been deemed necessary.
Similarly, the values given in Kral et al. [59] for Ca, K, Mg, Na, Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn; in Cantürk et al. [60] for Ca, K, Mg, Na, P, Cu, Fe, Mn, B, and Zn; in Abdrabba and Hussein [35] for Ca, K, Mg, P, and Fe; in Anonymous [61] for Ca, K, Mg, Na, and Fe; in Olsen and Ware [62] for Ca, K, Mg, Na, P, Fe, Mn, B, and Zn were found to be quite close to the values given in Table 3 for the specified elements.
For this reason, it was concluded that there were no significant losses in terms of mineral levels of grapes grown under soilless culture conditions.
Vitamins, like minerals, are micronutrients that play an essential role in fulfilling metabolic functions, producing new cells, and repairing damaged cells.
There were found significant differences among substrates and fertilizers in terms of vitamin contents of berries analyzed in the study. The higher vitamin A, B1, B2, B6, and C values were analyzed in berries of plants grown in Z + C (1:1) substrate mix and berries of applications using Hoagland solution (Table 5). The higher values obtained from vitamin A, B1, B2, B6, and C were 39.21, 65.12, 167.06, 95.19, and 15.21 mg 100 g−1, respectively. The substrate × fertilizer interaction was significant for all vitamins examined (Table 5).
Sources of variation
A Retinol
B1 Thiamin
B2 Riboflavin
B6 Pyridoxine
C Ascorbic acid
Substrate
Zeolite
29.95 d y
45.39 b
113.76 d
78.50 c
12.49 c
Cocopeat
34.91 b
59.59 a
148.49 b
88.27 b
13.51 b
Z + C (1:1)x
39.21 a
65.12 a
167.06 a
95.18 a
15.21 a
Z + C (1:2)
31.65 c
46.02 b
121.29 c
69.74 d
12.14 c
LSD 5%
1.09
5.54
6.59
4.55
0.42
p-value
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
Fertilizer
Hoagland A
34.51 b
55.67 b
140.93 b
84.44 b
13.62 b
Hoagland
36.51 a
60.47 a
153.29 a
91.79 a
14.46 a
OLWF
30.76 c
45.95 c
118.74 c
72.54 c
11.93 c
LSD 5%
0.95
4.80
5.71
3.94
0.36
p-value
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
Interaction
Zeolite × Hoagland A
39.40 b
56.80 bc
144.69 de
93.26 b
15.72 b
Zeolite × Hoagland
28.89 de
49.01 cd
114.02 fg
80.73 c
12.41 d
Zeolite × OLWF
21.54 g
30.37e
82.57 h
61.52 f
9.33 f
Cocopeat × Hoagland A
26.70 f
43.21 d
106.56 g
71.01 de
10.88 e
Cocopeat × Hoagland
39.49 b
74.24 a
187.54 b
109.98 a
15.58 b
Cocopeat × OLWF
38.53 b
61.32 b
151.37 d
83.81 c
14.07 c
Z + C (1:1) × Hoagland A
43.75 a
82.81 a
204.58 a
113.18 a
17.43 a
Z + C (1:1) × Hoagland
43.59 a
63.66 b
172.08 c
94.21 b
16.08 b
Z + C (1:1) × OLWF
30.29 d
48.88 cd
124.53 f
78.14 cd
12.11 d
Z + C (1:2) × Hoagland A
28.19 ef
39.86 de
107.89 g
60.31 f
10.43 e
Z + C (1:2) × Hoagland
34.08 c
54.98 bc
139.50 e
82.23 c
13.76 c
Z + C (1:2) × OLWF
32.67 c
43.22 d
116.47 fg
66.69 ef
12.21 d
LSD 5%
1.89
9.60
11.41
7.88
0.72
p-value
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
Table 5.
The effect of different substrate and nutrient solution applications on vitamins (mg 100 g−1).
Z + C: Zeolite+Cocopeat, OLWF: organic liquid worm fertilizer.
Mean separation within columns by LSD multiple range test at 0.05 level.
According to the Bourre [63] and Key et al. [28], nutrients such as vitamins, minerals, and amino acids play a crucial role in ensuring proper brain function. Vitamins protect against inflammation and reactive oxidative species. Minerals function as cofactors for enzymes, prevent lipid peroxidation, and promote energy production. Amino acids serve as precursors to neurotransmitters and neuromodulator metabolites responsible for various functions related to attention, mood, arousal, and memory.
Most vitamins and microelements have been studied concerning brain functioning. For example, it has been reported by Bourre [63] that the use of glucose for energy production occurs in the presence of vitamin B1. This vitamin regulates cognitive performance, especially in the elderly. It has been reported that vitamin B6 is beneficial in treating premenstrual depression. Vitamins B6 and B12, among others, are directly involved in synthesizing certain neurotransmitters. Vitamin B12 delays the onset of signs of dementia and blood abnormalities when administered at an appropriate time before the first symptoms.
Emphasizing the importance of mineral nutrients for healthy brain aging, Key et al. [28] stated in their results that a nutrient regime containing macro- and micronutrients softens the effect of brain structure on cognitive function in old age and supports the effectiveness of interdisciplinary methods in nutritional cognitive neuroscience for a healthy brain. In the article of Çetin et al. [64], different researchers reported that potassium is a very important component of human health. A high-potassium diet lowers blood pressure and reduces cardiovascular disease morbidity and mortality [65]. In addition, potassium intake reduces urinary calcium excretion and decreases the risk of osteoporosis [66]. Ca is the primary element of the bone system, assists in tooth development, helps regulate endo- and exo-enzymes, and plays a significant role in regulating blood pressure [67]. Therefore, it is an essential mineral for human health. Zn and Fe deficiency in the diet programs is a common problem and a matter of great concern, especially in developing countries where people trust vegetarian diets more. Zn is involved with the immune system, and Fe is concerned with hemoglobin, myoglobin, and cytochrome [68]. They are also recognized to be potential antioxidants [69]. Mg is essential to all living cells, where they play a major role in manipulating important biological polyphosphate compounds such as ATP, DNA, and RNA. Also, more than 300 enzymes require magnesium ions to function [70].
In the study, the effects of applications on 20 amino acids in grapes were evaluated. For all amino acids examined in Table 5, the differences between treatments were statistically significant. The highest values were found from Z + C (1:1) application in 14 amino acids (Table 6), namely aspartate, glutamate, proline, arginine, glutamine, histidine, alanine, cystine, methionine, tryptophan, phenylalanine, isoleucine, leucine, and lysine. In Z + C (1:1), Z + C (1:2), and cocopeat applications for valine; in Z + C (1:1) and zeolite for serine; and in cocopeat and Z + C (1:2) applications for glycine were the highest values. Apart from these, the highest tyrosine and asparagine in Zeolite were detected. Among nutrient solutions, Hoagland for aspartate, glutamate, alanine, and phenylalanine amino acids; Hoagland and Hoagland A for proline, arginine, glutamine, tyrosine, methionine, tryptophan, isoleucine, and leucine; Hoagland and OLWF nutrient solutions for histidine; Hoagland A for glycine, thionine, cystine, valine, lysine, asparagine and serine amino acids gave the highest values. As can be seen in Table 6, substrate × fertilizer interaction was found to be significant for all amino acids.
Sources of Variation
Aspartate
Glutamate
Proline
Arginine
Glutamine
Substrate
Zeolite
14,930 c y
10,637 d
28,607 c
34,258 c
20,750 c
Cocopeat
16,289 b
14,849 b
33,667 b
39,258 b
24,768 b
Z + C (1:1)x
17,718 a
15,751 a
37,901 a
42,880 a
27,569 a
Z + C (1:2)
13,867 d
12,257 c
34,200 b
35,427 c
22,018 c
LSD 5%
5529
774
1290
2222
1668
p-value
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
Fertilizer
Hoagland A
16,172 b
13,440 b
34,041 a
39,771 a
24,293 a
Hoagland
16,725 a
15,096 a
34,020 a
38,911 a
25,437 a
OLWF
14,206 c
11,585 c
32,720 b
35,186 b
21,599 b
LSD 5%
470
670
1117
1924
1445
p-value
<0.0001
<0.0001
0.0342
0.0001
<0.0001
Interaction
Zeolite × Hoagland A
20,134 ab
14,265 c
42,259 c
51,443 a
26,212 bc
Zeolite × Hoagland
13,650 efg
12,818 de
22,751 ıj
28,563 ef
19,198 ef
Zeolite × OLWF
11,005 ı
4828 g
20,810 j
22,769 g
16,841 f
Cocopeat × Hoagland A
12,168 h
10,323 f
23,521 ı
26,383 fg
18,822 ef
Cocopeat × Hoagland
18,646 cd
18,030 a
32,766 f
40,354 c
28,919 ab
Cocopeat × OLWF
18,052 d
16,195 b
44,713 b
51,038 a
26,562 b
Z + C (1:1) × Hoagland A
19,396 bc
17,604 a
36,692 e
46,293 b
31,632 a
Z + C (1:1) × Hoagland
20,511 a
16,144 b
51,120 a
54,359 a
30,277 a
Z + C (1:1) × OLWF
13,248 fg
13,505 cd
25,890 h
27,989 f
20,799 de
Z + C (1:2) × Hoagland A
12,990 gh
11,568 ef
33,693 f
34,966 d
20,506 de
Z + C (1:2) × Hoagland
14,091 ef
13,390 cd
29,442 g
32,367 de
23,354 cd
Z + C (1:2) × OLWF
14,520 e
11,814 e
39,465 d
38,948 c
22,193 d
LSD 5%
940
1341
2234
3849
2889
p-value
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
Sources of variation
Histidine
Glycine
Thionine
Alanine
Tyrosine
Substrate
Zeolite
1895 d
2190 b
5423 a
22,905 c
2724 a
Cocopeat
3454 b
2510 a
5598 a
26,921 b
2535 bc
Z + C (1:1)x
3752 a
2200 b
4870 b
30,365 a
2632 ab
Z + C (1:2)
3113 c
2560 a
5699 a
25,722 b
2455 c
LSD 5%
243
150
289
1855
138
p-value
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
0.0034
Fertilizer
Hoagland A
2892 b
2710 a
6197 a
26,486 ab
2807 a
Hoagland
3149 a
2130 c
4904 b
27,826 a
2689 a
OLWF
3119 a
2260 b
5091 b
25,123 b
2264 b
LSD 5%
211
130
250
1607
120
p-value
0.073
<0.0001
<0.0001
0.0079
<0.0001
Interaction
Zeolite × Hoagland A
2314 fg
141.2 e
4365 ef
29,162 cd
4232 a
Zeolite × Hoagland
1313 h
169.9 d
4589 e
20,585 fg
2817 c
Zeolite × OLWF
2059 g
346.6 ab
7314 bc
18,968 g
1124 g
Cocopeat × Hoagland A
2360 fg
367.8 a
7761 ab
20,839 fg
1900 f
Cocopeat × Hoagland
3648 c
157.1 de
3686 gh
28,825 cd
2623 cd
Cocopeat × OLWF
4355 b
227.4 c
5348 d
31,100 bc
3082 b
Z + C (1:1) × Hoagland A
3761 c
337.4 b
7120 c
32,508 b
2561 d
Z + C (1:1) × Hoagland
4904 a
150.8 de
3484 h
35,810 a
3072 b
Z + C (1:1) × OLWF
2592 f
170.7 d
4005 fg
22,776 f
2263 e
Z + C (1:2) × Hoagland A
3134 de
235.6 c
5541 d
23,435 ef
2535 d
Z + C (1:2) × Hoagland
2732 ef
372.2 a
7856 a
26,085 de
2243 e
Z + C (1:2) × OLWF
3472 cd
160.0 de
3699 gh
27,646 d
2589 cd
LSD 5%
422
260
501
3214
239
p-value
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
Sources of variation
Cysteine
Valine
Methionine
Tryptophan
Phenylalanine
Substrate
Zeolite
3846 ab y
1526 b
6339 c
5409 c
7410 d
Cocopeat
3675 b
1728 a
7544 b
5845 b
9456 b
Z + C (1:1)x
3995 a
1892 a
8232 a
6663 a
10,707 a
Z + C (1:2)
3272 c
1805 a
6697 c
5886 b
8196 c
LSD 5%
177
170
599
329
595
p-value
<0.0001
0.0015
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
Fertilizer
Hoagland A
3986 a
1818 a
7405 a
6213 a
9070 b
Hoagland
3822 b
1655 b
7501 a
6018 a
9796 a
OLWF
3283 c
1740 ab
6702 b
5621 b
7961 c
LSD 5%
153
147
519
285
515
p-value
<0.0001
0.0930
0.0079
0.0010
<0.0001
Interaction
Zeolite × Hoagland A
6100 a
2834 b
9659 b
8966 a
9836 de
Zeolite × Hoagland
3273 f
934 e
5259 f
4190 g
7250 gh
Zeolite × OLWF
2164 j
810 e
4099 g
3071 h
5146 ı
Cocopeat × Hoagland A
2525 ı
920 e
4934 fg
3689 g
6936 h
Cocopeat × Hoagland
3975 d
1410 d
8014 c
5578 e
11,157 bc
Cocopeat × OLWF
4523 c
2854 b
9685 b
8268 b
10,276 cd
Z + C (1:1) × Hoagland A
4098 d
1454 d
8261 c
6291 d
12,360 a
Z + C (1:1) × Hoagland
5093 b
3214 a
10,906 a
9520 a
11,623 ab
Z + C (1:1) × OLWF
2794 hı
1007 e
5528 f
4178 g
8139 fg
Z + C (1:2) × Hoagland A
3220 fg
2065 c
6766 de
5906 de
7150 gh
Z + C (1:2) × Hoagland
2945 gh
1062 e
5827 ef
4785 f
9157 ef
Z + C (1:2) × OLWF
3650 e
2288 c
7496 cd
6967 c
8285 f
LSD 5%
307
294
1038
571
1031
p-value
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
Sources of Variation
Isoleucine
Leucine
Lysine
Asparagine
Serine
Substrate
Zeolite
4933 c
9161 c
7862 c
9618 a
16,332 a
Cocopeat
5582 ab
10,046 b
9003 b
7140 c
14,232 b
Z + C (1:1)x
6111 a
11,322 a
9860 a
8111 b
15,996 a
Z + C (1:2)
5119 bc
9917 bc
9350 ab
8500 b
14,284 b
LSD 5%
531
790
658
754
1060
p-value
0.0006
0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
0.0003
Fertilizer
Hoagland A
5717 a
10,580 a
9411 a
9851 a
16,941 a
Hoagland
5528 a
10,270 a
8620 b
7332 b
15,112 b
OLWF
5064 b
9485 b
9024 ab
7844 b
13,580 c
LSD 5%
460
684
570
653
918
p-value
0.0214
0.0092
0.0297
<0.0001
<0.0001
Interaction
Zeolite × Hoagland A
7633 a
14,380 ab
14,573 b
20,483 a
28,776 a
Zeolite × Hoagland
3996 ef
7216 de
4845 fg
5060 fg
12,623 fg
Zeolite × OLWF
3170 f
5889 e
4168 g
3310 h
7599 j
Cocopeat × Hoagland A
3672 ef
6456 e
4777 fg
3636 h
9376 ıj
Cocopeat × Hoagland
5610 bc
10,072 c
7385 e
5030 fg
13,807 ef
Cocopeat × OLWF
7463 a
13,609 b
14,846 b
12,755 c
19,514 c
Z + C (1:1) × Hoagland A
6440 b
11,145 c
7614 e
5672 f
15,296 de
Z + C (1:1) × Hoagland
7999 a
15,692 a
16,718 a
14,686 b
22,072 b
Z + C (1:1) × OLWF
3894 ef
7129 de
5247 fg
3974 gh
10,621 hı
Z + C (1:2) × Hoagland A
5122 cd
10,338 c
10,683 d
9611 e
14,315 ef
Z + C (1:2) × Hoagland
4507 de
8099 d
5531 f
4552 fgh
11,949 gh
Z + C (1:2) × OLWF
5728 bc
11,316 c
11,835 c
11,338 d
16,588 d
LSD 5%
919
1369
1140
1305
1836
p-value
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
Table 6.
The effect of different substrate and nutrient solution applications on amino acid content (μg kg−1) of Early Cardinal berries.
Z + C: Zeolite+Cocopeat, OLWF: organic liquid worm fertilizer.
Mean separation within columns by LSD multiple range test at 0.05 level.
Proline is reported in many works of literature as an amino acid whose synthesis is increased, especially under abiotic stress conditions such as drought [43, 71]. For this reason, we evaluated that the high increase in proline amino acid in Hoagland A and Hoagland nutrient solutions may be due to the lower amounts of some macro- (N) and microelements (Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe) in these solutions compared with OLWF nutrient solution (Table 1). Anjum et al. [72], Liang et al. [73], and Arabshahi and Mobasser [74] indicated that sensitive plants are less able to accumulate solutes, but increases in proline can be found in most organisms (including animals) following water stress [25, 43].
According to the Huang and Ough [29], Canoura et al. [43], Bouzas-Cid et al. [36, 47, 48, 49], Sánchez-Gómez et al. [41], Gutiérrez-Gamboa et al. [26, 42, 45, 46], Fernández-Novales et al. [75], and Wu et al. [44], amino acid contents of grape berries are affected by different variety, rootstock, location and fertilization, etc., viticultural practices. For instance, in the study by Gutiérrez-Gamboa et al. [26], the effect of foliar application of a seaweed extract to a Tempranillo Blanco variety on must and wine amino acids and ammonium content was determined. The results suggested that Tempranillo Blanco behaved as an arginine accumulator variety. Biostimulation after seaweed applications at a high dosage to the grapevines increased the concentration of several amino acids in the 2017 season while scarcely affecting their content in 2018.
In the another research by Gutiérrez-Gamboa et al. [46], results showed that of some elicitors and nitrogen foliar applications to Garnacha and Tempranillo grapevines decreased the must amino acid concentration. The treatments applied to Graciano grapevines affected the grape amino acid content. According to the percentage of variance attributable, the variety had a higher effect on the must amino acid composition than the treatments and their interaction. In the study by Fernández-Novales et al. [75], researchers have investigated the use of visible and near-infrared spectroscopy to estimate the grape amino acid content on whole berries of Grenache grape variety. Amino acid values ranged between 0.01 mg L−1 (Leucine) and 341 mg L−1 (Arginine). In their results, amino acid values obtained in our study varied from 1526 μg kg−1 (valine in zeolite) to 42,880 μg kg−1 (arginine in Z + C (1:1)).
These values were close to the values of valine (1.07 mg L−1) given by Fernández-Novales et al. [75] for Grenache and arginine (38.44–89.60 mg L−1) given by Valdes et al. [76] for Tempranillo berries. Arginine and proline amino acids were recorded as the most abundant amino acids in all media and nutrient solutions used in our experiment; valine, glycine, and tyrosine were determined as the amino acids with the lowest values. These results agree with Fernández Novales et al. [75] and Valdes et al. [76] that arginine and proline were also reported as the most abundant amino acids, both of the researches.
From the above statements, it has been concluded that grapes grown in soilless culture will not encounter a significant nutrient loss in terms of amino acids examined in this study. In our study, it has been evaluated that the Z + C (1:1) mixture substrate, which has the higher values for 14 amino acids, including proline as well as arginine, is remarkable in terms of nutrient saving.
4. Conclusions
According to the main results obtained from this study;
In soilless culture cultivation of table grapes, it has been observed that zeolite and cocopeat media can be used alone, as well as a 1:1 mixture of Zeolite:Cocopeat, where the highest values are obtained.
Hoagland and modified Hoagland nutrient solutions mostly gave higher values than OLWF for the properties studied. However, since OLWF did not have a significant negative effect, it was considered that it would be appropriate to continue working with this and similar solutions.
Amino acid, vitamins, and mineral contents of grapes grown in soilless culture conditions were found to be close to the values given in the literature for grapes grown in open field.
Acknowledgments
This article was produced from the Master Thesis of Mikail Atalan, whose study was supported by the Cukurova University Scientific Research Coordination Unit (Project No: FYL-2018-11066).
\n',keywords:"grapevine, phytochemicals, fertilization, vermicompost, zeolite, cocopeat",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81017.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81017.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81017",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81017",totalDownloads:44,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"December 20th 2021",dateReviewed:"December 22nd 2021",datePrePublished:"March 29th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"March 29th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Due to its advantages, soilless cultivation has been used for both early- and late-maturing grape varieties. High nutritional and energy value is one of the strongest features that make the grape an effective component of agriculture and the human diet. Therefore, it was thought that it would be useful to determine the nutrient content of the berries in a soilless culture study carried out on the Early Cardinal grape variety. One-year-old vines were trained to a guyot system and grown in 32-liter plastic pots containing four different solid growing media, namely, zeolite, cocopeat, and zeolite+cocopeat (Z + C) (1:1 and 1:2, v:v). A total of three different nutrient solutions (Hoagland, Hoagland A (adapted to the vine) and organic liquid worm fertilizer (OLWF)) were applied to the plants. Grapevines were given different solutions starting from the bud burst. Z + C (1:1) substrate mixture giving the highest values of 14 amino acids, vitamins, and most macro- and microelements. Hoagland and Modified Hoagland nutrient solutions mostly gave higher values than OLWF for the properties studied. In general, it was observed that there were no significant losses in terms of mineral, vitamin, and amino acid composition in soilless grape cultivation.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81017",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81017",signatures:"Serpil Tangolar, Semih Tangolar, Metin Turan, Mikail Atalan and Melike Ada",book:{id:"11093",type:"book",title:"Soilless Culture",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Soilless Culture",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Metin Turan, Associate Prof. Sanem Argin, Prof. Ertan Yildirim and Dr. Adem Güneş",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11093.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-169-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-168-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-170-8",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"140612",title:"Prof.",name:"Metin",middleName:null,surname:"Turan",slug:"metin-turan",fullName:"Metin Turan"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Materials and methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Trial conditions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Plant material",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Biochemical analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.3.1 Mineral elements",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.3.2 Amino acids",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.3.3 Vitamins",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_4",title:"2.3.3.1 Vitamin A",level:"4"},{id:"sec_7_4",title:"2.3.3.2 Vitamin B",level:"4"},{id:"sec_8_4",title:"2.3.3.3 Vitamin C",level:"4"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"2.4 Experimental design and statistical analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"3. Results and discussions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'OIV. 2019 Statistical Report on World Vitiviniculture [Internet]. 2019. 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Effects of oral potassium on blood pressure: Meta-analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials. Journal of the American Medical Association. 1997;277(20):1624-1632. DOI: 10.1001/jama.1997. 03540440058033'},{id:"B66",body:'He FJ, MacGregor GA. Beneficial effects of potassium on human health. Physiologia Plantarum. 2008;133(4):725-735. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-3054.2007.01033.x'},{id:"B67",body:'Brody T. Nutritional Biochemistry. San Diego: Academic; 1994'},{id:"B68",body:'Hemalatha S, Platel K, Srinivasan K. Zinc and iron contents and their bioaccessibility in cereals and pulses consumed in India. Food Chemistry. 2007;102(4):1328-1336. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2006.07.015'},{id:"B69",body:'Talwar GP, Srivastava LM, Mudgil KD. Textbook of Biochemistry and Human Biology, 2nd ed. Prentice Hall of India Private Ltd, India. 1989 Available from: https://www.amazon.com/Textbook-Biochemistry-Human-Biology-Talwar/dp/8120319656'},{id:"B70",body:'Schachter M. The Importance of Magnesium to Human Nutrition. 1996. Available from: http://www.outsideinlife.com/upload/PDF/magnesium.pdf'},{id:"B71",body:'Bohnert HJ, Jensen RG. Strategies for engineering water- stress tolerance in plants. Trends in Biotechnology 1996;14:89-97. Available from: https://reader.elsevier.com/reader/sd/pii/0167779996809292?token= 4C87E30A51717D67AE7DCED16DF40A5ACBEB4AF38C886B5E4AF4F5748DA05E9E70BC1160131B059C25DA017921B25399&originRegion=eu-west-1&originCreation=20211217145024'},{id:"B72",body:'Anjum SA, Xie X, Wang L, Saleem MF, Man C, Lei W. Morphological, physiological and biochemical responses of plants to drought stress. African Journal of Agricultural Research. 2011;6:2026-2032. DOI: 10.5897/AJAR10.027'},{id:"B73",body:'Liang X, Zhang L, Natarajan SK, Becker DF. Proline mechanism of stress survival. Antioxids & Redox Signal. 2013;19:998-1011. DOI: 10.1089/ars.2012.5074'},{id:"B74",body:'Arabshahi M, Mobasser HR. Effect of drought stress on carotenoid and chlorophyll contents and osmolyte accumulation. Medicinal Chemistry Research. 2017;2:193-197'},{id:"B75",body:'Fernandez-Novales J, Garde-Cerdan T, Tardaguila J, Gutierrez-Gamboa G, Perez-Alvarez EP, Diago MP. Assesment of amino acids and total soluble solid in intact grape berries using contactless VIS and NIR spectroscopy during ripening. Talanta. 2019;199:244-253. DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2019.02.037'},{id:"B76",body:'Valdés ME, Talaverano MI, Moreno D, Prieto MH, Mancha LA, Uriarte D, et al. Effect of the timing of water deficit on the must amino acid profile of Tempranillo grapes grown under the semiarid conditions of SW Spain. Food Chemistry. 2019;292:24-31. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.04.046'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Serpil Tangolar",address:"stangolar@cu.edu.tr",affiliation:'
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IntechOpen’s Academic Editors and Authors have received funding for their work through many well-known funders, including: the European Commission, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Wellcome Trust, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC), CGIAR Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centers, National Institute of Health (NIH), National Science Foundation (NSF), National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), German Research Foundation (DFG), Research Councils United Kingdom (RCUK), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Austrian Science Fund (FWF), Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT), Australian Research Council (ARC).
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
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In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
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Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
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\\n\\n
Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at funders@intechopen.com
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Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
\n\n
In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\n\n
\n\t
Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
\n\t
Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
\n
\n\n
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\n\n
Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at funders@intechopen.com
\n\n
Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
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The literature source was Web of Science and SSCI, SCI-EXPANDED, A&HCI, CPCI-S, CPCI-SSH, and ESCI indexes. Fifty-two articles were reviewed; however, 14 of them were not been included in the study. As a result, 38 articles were examined. Level of education, field of education, and material types of AR used in education and reported educational advantages of AR have been investigated. All articles are categorized according to target groups, which are early childhood education, primary education, secondary education, high school education, graduate education, and others. AR technology has been mostly carried out in primary and graduate education. “Science education” is the most explored field of education. Mobile applications and marker-based materials on paper have been mostly preferred. The major advantages indicated in the articles are “Learning/Academic Achievement,” “Motivation,” and “Attitude”.",book:{id:"6543",slug:"state-of-the-art-virtual-reality-and-augmented-reality-knowhow",title:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow",fullTitle:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow"},signatures:"Rabia M. Yilmaz",authors:[{id:"225838",title:"Dr.",name:"Rabia",middleName:null,surname:"Yilmaz",slug:"rabia-yilmaz",fullName:"Rabia Yilmaz"}]},{id:"63639",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81086",title:"Cooperative Learning: The Foundation for Active Learning",slug:"cooperative-learning-the-foundation-for-active-learning",totalDownloads:3491,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"The role of instructors is evolving from the presenter of information to the designer of active learning processes, environments, and experiences that maximize student engagement. The more active a lesson, the more students tend to engage intellectually and emotionally in the learning activities. Cooperative learning is the foundation on which many of the active learning procedures are based. Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups so that students work together to maximize their own and each other’s learning. Most of the active learning procedures, such as problem-based learning, team-learning, collaborative learning, and PALS, require that students work cooperatively in small groups to achieve joint learning goals. Cooperative learning is based on two theories: Structure-Process-Outcome theory and Social Interdependence theory. Four types of cooperative learning have been derived: formal cooperative learning, informal cooperative learning, cooperative base groups, and constructive controversy. There is considerable research confirming the effectiveness of cooperative learning. To be cooperative, however, five basic elements must be structured into the situation: positive interdependence, individual accountability, promotive interaction, social skills, and group processing.",book:{id:"6929",slug:"active-learning-beyond-the-future",title:"Active Learning",fullTitle:"Active Learning - Beyond the Future"},signatures:"David W. Johnson and Roger T. 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Currently, you can hear a lot of criticism that the classroom has not changed significantly compared to the last century or even like two centuries ago. Do the teachers succeed in modern changes? The purpose of the chapter is to summarize the current changes in didactics for the use of innovative teaching methods and study the understanding of changes by teachers. In this chapter, we consider four areas: the expansion of the subject of pedagogy, environmental approach to teaching, the digital generation and the changes taking place, and innovation in teaching. The theory of education, figuratively speaking, has two levels. At the macro-level, in the “education-society” relationship, decentralization and diversification, internationalization of education, and the introduction of digital technologies occur. At the micro-level in the “teacher-learner” relationship, there is an active mix of traditional and innovative methods, combination of an activity approach with an energy-informational environment approach, cognition with constructivism and connectivism.",book:{id:"5980",slug:"new-pedagogical-challenges-in-the-21st-century-contributions-of-research-in-education",title:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education"},signatures:"Aigerim Mynbayeva, Zukhra Sadvakassova and Bakhytkul\nAkshalova",authors:[{id:"201997",title:"Dr.",name:"Aigerim",middleName:null,surname:"Mynbayeva",slug:"aigerim-mynbayeva",fullName:"Aigerim Mynbayeva"},{id:"209208",title:"Dr.",name:"Zukhra",middleName:null,surname:"Sadvakassova",slug:"zukhra-sadvakassova",fullName:"Zukhra Sadvakassova"},{id:"209210",title:"Dr.",name:"Bakhytkul",middleName:null,surname:"Akshalova",slug:"bakhytkul-akshalova",fullName:"Bakhytkul Akshalova"}]},{id:"59468",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74344",title:"Virtual and Augmented Reality: New Frontiers for Clinical Psychology",slug:"virtual-and-augmented-reality-new-frontiers-for-clinical-psychology",totalDownloads:2364,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"In the last decades, the applied approach for the use of virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) on clinical and health psychology has grown exponentially. These technologies have been used to treat several mental disorders, for example, phobias, stress-related disorders, depression, eating disorders, and chronic pain. The importance of VR/AR for the mental health field comes from three main concepts: (1) VR/AR as an imaginal technology, people can feel “as if they are” in a reality that does not exist in external world; (2) VR/AR as an embodied technology, the experience to feel user’s body inside the virtual environment; and (3) VR/AR as connectivity technology, the “end of geography’. In this chapter, we explore the opportunities provided by VR/AR as technologies to improve people’s quality of life and to discuss new frontiers for their application in mental health and psychological well-being promotion.",book:{id:"6543",slug:"state-of-the-art-virtual-reality-and-augmented-reality-knowhow",title:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow",fullTitle:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow"},signatures:"Sara Ventura, Rosa M. Baños and Cristina Botella",authors:[{id:"106036",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Baños",slug:"rosa-maria-banos",fullName:"Rosa Maria Baños"},{id:"227763",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura",slug:"sara-ventura",fullName:"Sara Ventura"},{id:"229056",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Botella",slug:"cristina-botella",fullName:"Cristina Botella"}]},{id:"64583",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81714",title:"Evaluating a Course for Teaching Advanced Programming Concepts with Scratch to Preservice Kindergarten Teachers: A Case Study in Greece",slug:"evaluating-a-course-for-teaching-advanced-programming-concepts-with-scratch-to-preservice-kindergart",totalDownloads:1422,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"Coding is a new literacy for the twenty-first century, and as a literacy, coding enables new ways of thinking and new ways of communicating and expressing ideas, as well as new ways of civic participation. A growing number of countries, in Europe and beyond, have established clear policies and frameworks for introducing computational thinking (CT) and computer programming to young children. In this chapter, we discuss a game-based approach to coding education for preservice kindergarten teachers using Scratch. The aim of using Scratch was to excite students’ interest and familiarize them with the basics of programming in an open-ended, project-based, and personally meaningful environment for a semester course in the Department of Preschool Education in the University of Crete. For 13 weeks, students were introduced to the main Scratch concepts and, afterward, were asked to prepare their projects. For the projects, they were required to design their own interactive stories to teach certain concepts about mathematics or physical science to preschool-age students. The results we obtained were more satisfactory than expected and, in some regards, encouraging if one considers the fact that the research participants had no prior experiences with computational thinking.",book:{id:"6936",slug:"early-childhood-education",title:"Early Childhood Education",fullTitle:"Early Childhood Education"},signatures:"Stamatios Papadakis and Michail Kalogiannakis",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"58060",title:"Pedagogy of the Twenty-First Century: Innovative Teaching Methods",slug:"pedagogy-of-the-twenty-first-century-innovative-teaching-methods",totalDownloads:8832,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"In the twenty-first century, significant changes are occurring related to new scientific discoveries, informatization, globalization, the development of astronautics, robotics, and artificial intelligence. This century is called the age of digital technologies and knowledge. How is the school changing in the new century? How does learning theory change? Currently, you can hear a lot of criticism that the classroom has not changed significantly compared to the last century or even like two centuries ago. Do the teachers succeed in modern changes? The purpose of the chapter is to summarize the current changes in didactics for the use of innovative teaching methods and study the understanding of changes by teachers. In this chapter, we consider four areas: the expansion of the subject of pedagogy, environmental approach to teaching, the digital generation and the changes taking place, and innovation in teaching. The theory of education, figuratively speaking, has two levels. At the macro-level, in the “education-society” relationship, decentralization and diversification, internationalization of education, and the introduction of digital technologies occur. At the micro-level in the “teacher-learner” relationship, there is an active mix of traditional and innovative methods, combination of an activity approach with an energy-informational environment approach, cognition with constructivism and connectivism.",book:{id:"5980",slug:"new-pedagogical-challenges-in-the-21st-century-contributions-of-research-in-education",title:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education"},signatures:"Aigerim Mynbayeva, Zukhra Sadvakassova and Bakhytkul\nAkshalova",authors:[{id:"201997",title:"Dr.",name:"Aigerim",middleName:null,surname:"Mynbayeva",slug:"aigerim-mynbayeva",fullName:"Aigerim Mynbayeva"},{id:"209208",title:"Dr.",name:"Zukhra",middleName:null,surname:"Sadvakassova",slug:"zukhra-sadvakassova",fullName:"Zukhra Sadvakassova"},{id:"209210",title:"Dr.",name:"Bakhytkul",middleName:null,surname:"Akshalova",slug:"bakhytkul-akshalova",fullName:"Bakhytkul Akshalova"}]},{id:"61746",title:"Facilitation of Teachers’ Professional Development through Principals’ Instructional Supervision and Teachers’ Knowledge- Management Behaviors",slug:"facilitation-of-teachers-professional-development-through-principals-instructional-supervision-and-t",totalDownloads:3384,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"With the rise of global competition and the focus on teacher quality, teacher professional development is becoming increasingly crucial, and the stress and challenges for principals are more severe than ever. Teachers can improve their professional abilities through principals’ instructional supervision and their own knowledge-management (KM) behaviors to benefit students. Thus, this chapter analyzes the relationship among principals’ instructional supervision, teachers’ KM, and teachers’ professional development. The author believes that principals’ instructional supervision and effective KM can facilitate the professional development of teachers. The author also believes the readers can know the relationships among them, and teachers’ professional development can be improved through principal’s instructional supervision and teachers’ KM behaviors.",book:{id:"6674",slug:"contemporary-pedagogies-in-teacher-education-and-development",title:"Contemporary Pedagogies in Teacher Education and Development",fullTitle:"Contemporary Pedagogies in Teacher Education and Development"},signatures:"Chien-Chin Chen",authors:[{id:"232569",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Chien Chih",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"chien-chih-chen",fullName:"Chien Chih Chen"}]},{id:"75908",title:"From the Classroom into Virtual Learning Environments: Essential Knowledge, Competences, Skills and Pedagogical Strategies for the 21st Century Teacher Education in Kenya",slug:"from-the-classroom-into-virtual-learning-environments-essential-knowledge-competences-skills-and-ped",totalDownloads:519,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"As teachers in Kenya begin to migrate from the classroom to virtual learning spaces following COVID 19 pandemic, there is pressing need to realign Teacher Education to requisite Knowledge, competences, skills, and attitudes that will support online teaching. This chapter explores these needs using a combination of lived experiences and literature review that captured a meta-analysis of research trends on e-learning. While trends in Teacher Education indicate progression towards adoption of technology, there are disparities between the theory and practice. Evidence from recent research and reports; and the recollected experiences confirmed knowledge, competence, skills and pedagogical gaps in the implementation of online learning, that have been exacerbated by COVID-19. The researcher recommends that teacher education should sensitize and train teacher trainees on how to access, analyze and use new knowledge emerging with technology; they also should be coached on how learners learn with technology and on fundamentals of the communication process. Particularly the course on educational technology, should focus on how to create and manage online courses. The 5-stage E-Moderator Model and Universal Design for Learning (UDL) are recommended as effective pedagogical scaffold for online teaching.",book:{id:"10229",slug:"teacher-education-in-the-21st-century-emerging-skills-for-a-changing-world",title:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century - Emerging Skills for a Changing World"},signatures:"Catherine Adhiambo Amimo",authors:[{id:"333482",title:"Dr.",name:"Catherine Adhiambo",middleName:null,surname:"Amimo",slug:"catherine-adhiambo-amimo",fullName:"Catherine Adhiambo Amimo"}]},{id:"75224",title:"Decoding the Digital Gap in Teacher Education: Three Perspectives across the Globe",slug:"decoding-the-digital-gap-in-teacher-education-three-perspectives-across-the-globe",totalDownloads:589,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Educational use of technology is regularly assessed, and results often show a gap between educational policies and what is actually practiced. This chapter will help clarify how teacher educators experience the changing educational contexts due to the digital revolution, how their meaning-making shifts, and how outside forces influence those processes. The results are based on comparative international studies. Central for this study is practitioners’ professional digital competence, their attitudes towards digital technology and the use of digital technology in education. We found that the influence and contribution of digital practice is carried out quite differently across the globe. Our research questions were: How do practitioners experience teaching in a rapidly changing context? How do attitudes change due to top-down governing of education? and What motivates teacher educators to implement digital technology?",book:{id:"10229",slug:"teacher-education-in-the-21st-century-emerging-skills-for-a-changing-world",title:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century - Emerging Skills for a Changing World"},signatures:"Steinar Thorvaldsen and Siri Sollied Madsen",authors:[{id:"332624",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Siri Sollied",middleName:null,surname:"Madsen",slug:"siri-sollied-madsen",fullName:"Siri Sollied Madsen"},{id:"332626",title:"Prof.",name:"Steinar",middleName:null,surname:"Thorvaldsen",slug:"steinar-thorvaldsen",fullName:"Steinar Thorvaldsen"}]},{id:"75416",title:"Self-Study Research: Challenges and Opportunities in Teacher Education",slug:"self-study-research-challenges-and-opportunities-in-teacher-education",totalDownloads:777,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This article aims to describe what self-study research is, why self-study can be a good approach to teacher educators’ professional development and improvements in practice and highlight some challenges and opportunities in this research approach. In addition, the article will shed light on some methodological aspects related to self-study. Self-study refers to teacher educators who in an intentionally and systematically way examine their practice to improve it, based on a deeper understanding of practice, as well as the context practice takes place. In the article, I argue that engaging in self-study is a learning and development process and an approach to developing personal professionalism, collective professionalism and improvements in practice.",book:{id:"10229",slug:"teacher-education-in-the-21st-century-emerging-skills-for-a-changing-world",title:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century - Emerging Skills for a Changing World"},signatures:"Kåre Hauge",authors:[{id:"332053",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Kåre",middleName:null,surname:"Hauge",slug:"kare-hauge",fullName:"Kåre Hauge"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"265",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:33,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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