Plant growth-promoting Rhizobacteria used in rice production.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83969-164-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-163-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-165-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"918540a77975243ee748770aea1f4af2",bookSignature:"Dr. Aakash Goyal",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9651.jpg",keywords:"GWAS, Cereals, Breeding, Disease Resistance, Wheat, Rice, Maize, Drought Tolerance, Genetics, Production, Quality, Yield",numberOfDownloads:6,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 21st 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 4th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 2nd 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 23rd 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 22nd 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Elected fellow member of the International College of Nutrition (FICN) and Society of Applied Biotechnology (FSAB) with research experience at Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Bayer Crop Science, ICARDA, InnoTech Alberta, and Palm Gardens Inc.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"97604",title:"Dr.",name:"Aakash",middleName:null,surname:"Goyal",slug:"aakash-goyal",fullName:"Aakash Goyal",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/97604/images/system/97604.jpg",biography:"Aakash Goyal was born in India, and graduated from MDU, Ajmer (Biology) in 1999, then obtained Master’s in Biotechnology in 2002 from GJU, Hissar specialization in Plant biotechnology & molecular breeding, and PhD. in Genetics and Plant Breeding in 2007 from CCSU, Meerut India, specialization in Wheat Breeding. After completion of PhD, he obtained NSREC Visiting Fellowship (in 2008) and thus, joined the wheat and triticale breeding program at Lethbridge Research Center, Agriculture and Agri Food Canada (AAFC), Lethbridge, AB., Canada. In 2012, he achieved a position as a Wheat Breeder for Bayer Crop Science, Saskatoon, Canada. In 2014 he had the honor to obtain Senior Research Scientist position with International Center of Agriculture Research in Dry Areas (ICARDA). In 2017, he moved back to Canada and joined as Native Plant Research Scientist with InnoTech Alberta. In November 2019 he joined as an Agriculture Specialist with Palm Gardens Inc. to help in breeding and cultivation of Cannabis. In this time (2002-2020), he has published nine Books and 50 research papers, reviewed articles, book chapters and book reviews. He is also an elected fellow member of International College of Nutrition (FICN) and Society of Applied Biotechnology (FSAB).",institutionString:"Palm Gardens Inc. 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technology in all fields of life. On the other hand, the fossil fuel had been taken to decrease, and the alternatives of energy sources are still under research to raise their efficiency. Besides, the fossil fuel has led to the environment degradation and global warming [1].
Revolution of nanotechnology and its unique features compared with the large scale of its originality has been given a major focus. This dramatic growth stemmed from the multiapplications in various fields of life: medicine, agriculture, engineering, and industry. Nanotechnology, as a scientific major, studies the properties of nanoscale materials. Nanotechnology-based techniques could be produced by small particles in the size of nano of some solid materials such as alumina and titanium oxide that have relatively high thermal conductivity. The word “nano” is described as 1 billionth of meter or 10−9 m. Figure 1 shows a comparative sample of different sizes of materials from large scales to nanoscales. These nanosized particles are mixed in the base fluid of heat transfer forming a colloidal solution in the stable case, while its addition to the base fluids of low thermal conductivity probably increases the heat transfer characteristics of the base fluids. This creative fluid is known as nanofluid, which has a new heat transfer characteristic as one of the recent outcomes of nanotechnology. This makes, of course, saving energy exactly similar to reducing the volume of heat transfer equipment.
A comparative of things from large scale to nanoscale.
Nanotechnology has been widely used in various engineering applications as a promising alternative in saving energy and reducing the cost of producing engineering facilities. This important application is represented by the reduction of nanoparticles to the size of the nanoparticles and their mixing with fluids of low thermal properties to give a good type of fluid known as nanofluid.
With the advancement of nanotechnology and its ability to increase the performance of solar devices by exploiting it, a new fluid known as nanofluid has been originated. This is assembled by mixing the base fluid of low thermal conductivity with solid nanoparticles of high thermal conductivity, and hence the new fluid (nanofluids) has high transfer characteristic compared with the base fluids [1, 2]. A nanofluid is a fluid in which nanometer-sized particles, suspended in the base fluid, form a colloidal solution of nanoparticles in a base fluid. The nanoparticles used in nanofluids are typically made of metals, oxides, carbides, or carbon nanotubes, while the base fluids include water, ethylene glycol, and oil. Nanofluids have novel properties that make them potentially useful in many applications in heat transfer, including microelectronics, fuel cells, pharmaceutical processes, and
Nanofluids are produced by several techniques: first step, second step, and other techniques. To avoid the sedimentation of nanoparticles during its operation, surfactant may be added to them. Nanofluid preparation is the first step ahead of any implementations. Therefore, it entails more focus from researchers to obtain a good stage of stability. Colloidal theory states that sedimentation in suspensions ceases when the particle size is below a critical radius due to counterbalancing gravity forces by the Brownian forces. Nanoparticles of a smaller size may be a better size in the different applications. However, it has a high surface which leads to the formation of agglomerates among them [3, 4]. Therefore, to obtain a stable nanofluid with optimum particle diameter and concentration, it is considered a big challenge for researchers. Two common methods are used to produce nanofluids, the two-step method and the one step method, and others have worked up some innovations.
The two-step method is the common method to produce nanofluids. Nanoparticles of different materials including nanofibers, nanotubes, or other nanomaterials are first produced as nanosized from 10 to 100 nm by chemical or physical methods. Then, the nanosized powder will be dispersed in base fluids with the help of intensive magnetic force agitation, ultrasonic agitation, high-shear mixing, homogenizing, and ball milling. As resulting from high surface area and surface activity, nanoparticles tend to aggregate reflecting adversely on the stability of nanofluid [4, 5, 6, 7, 8]. To avoid that effect, the surfactant is added to the nanofluids.
The two-method preparation has been done by many researchers [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14].
Figure 2 shows a block diagram of preparation of two-step method [15].
Two-step method of preparation of nanofluids [15].
The one-step process is simultaneously making and dispersing the particles in the base fluids which could be reduced to the agglomeration of nanoparticles. This method makes the nanofluid more stable with a limitation of the high cost of the process [16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25].
Some researchers create other methods to obtain new prepared methods for nanofluid with relatively high characteristics and more stability. Wei et al. [26] developed a method to synthesize copper nanofluids. This method can be synthesized through a novel precursor transformation with the help of ultrasonic and microwave irradiation [27]. Chen et al. [28] obtain monodisperse noble-metal colloids through using a phase-transfer method. Feng et al. [29] have used the aqueous-organic phase-transfer method for preparing gold, silver, and platinum nanoparticles with the solubility in water. Phase-transfer method is also used to prepare stable kerosene-based F3O4 nanofluids [30]. As stated above, the research proved that nanofluids synthesized by chemical solution method could be enhanced in conductivity with more stability [31].
Nanofluids have novel properties different from base fluids that included thermophysical properties such as specific heat, density, viscosity, and thermal conductivity.
Mixing the nanoparticles into the base fluid changes the thermophysical properties of the base fluid. The most important thermophysical properties of nanofluids are nanofluid viscosity, nanofluid convective heat transfer, nanofluid thermal conductivity, and nanofluid specific heat.
The value of specific heat and density of the nanofluids can be determined by correlations, whereas the viscosity and thermal conductivity have different correlations.
Conventional heat transfer fluids, such as oil, water, and ethylene glycol (EG) mixture, are poor heat transfer fluids. Hence, many trials by researchers to enhance the heat transfer convection of these fluids through increasing their thermal conductivity. High thermal conductivity is obtained for the nanofluids by adding nanoparticle of solid materials of high thermal conductivity.
Nanofluids are basically advanced heat transfer fluids as an alternative to the pure base fluids to improve the heat transfer process through the addition of nanoparticle materials that have the properties of higher thermal conductivity. This attracted the attention of researchers to test many nanoparticles that have different thermal conductivity to obtain a high rate of heat transfer and use them in different applications.
The literature reported multiequations describing the thermal conductivity of nanofluids. The prominent results reported that there are improvements of 5–10% of the thermal conductivity of nanofluids using the base fluid (water, PAO). As is reported, there is no critical improvement in the thermal conductivity in comparison to the conventional base fluid dependent on particle size and base fluid thermal conductivity [32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37].
Conventional models of effective thermal conductivity of suspensions are reported for some researchers [32].
where keff is the effective thermal conductivity of the suspension, n is a shape factor of nanoparticle, ν is nanoparticle volume fraction, and km and kc are the thermal conductivity of the suspending medium and solid particle, respectively. Also α and β are empirical fitting parameters which are defined as (kc/km) and (α −1)/(α +1).
Nanofluids have been proven a great potential for heat transfer enhancement [44, 45, 46, 47]. Nanofluids have been presented as a promising tool and a good alternative to base fluids to save energy, compact devices of low cost and design of multiequipment used in a different applications with nanofluids as working fluids.
Experimental investigation [38] on Cu- or water-based nanofluids has demonstrated great enhancement of heat transfer and also reported that friction factor has a very meager part in the application process. Other scholars [39] have concluded that a systematic and definite deterioration of the natural convective heat transfer occurs for the forced convection reliant on the solution concentration, the particle density, and the aspect ratio of the cylinder. Experimental investigation on Al2O3 nanofluids using water as base fluid has been studied by various research groups, and they concluded that the heat transfer coefficient in laminar flow [40, 41, 42] increases up to 12–15% and in the case of turbulent flow, it ranges up to 8% [43, 44]. CNT, CuO, SiO, and TiO2 nanofluids using water have been investigated [45, 46, 47]. Among these, CNT nanofluid produced similar results to that of Al2O3 nanofluid. Ding et al. [48] have concluded that the enhancement of heat transfer could be obtained by varying the flow condition and the fluid concentration. Alternatively, CuO has been investigated for several wall boundary conditions, and it has reached good results [3]. The increase in the concentration of the nanofluid on contrary gives very weak results on the heat transfer coefficient for volume fraction greater than 0.3% [49]. It is noted from the experiments that the heat transfer coefficient enhancement can be achieved in the range of 2–5%.
Viscosity is one of the parameters that influences the behavior of nanofluids. Researchers have conducted experiments to test the viscosity through adding the nanoparticles to the different base fluids, and hence they found out that the viscosity is significantly affected by both variations of temperature and volume fraction of nanoparticles [50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56]. They have reported correlated equations to quantify the viscosity based on their experiments using different nanofluids. The following correlated equations are examples that have been reported by some researchers.
Model for spherical nanoparticles [57]:
Model for simple hard sphere systems, the relative viscosity increases with particle volume fraction ø [57]:
The model is valid for spherical nanoparticles and for 0.5236 ≤ Φ ≤ 0.7405 [55]. Meaning of Φ = volume fraction and
The SiO2 nanofluid has been investigated [48] and concluded that nanofluid viscosity is dependent on the volume fraction. Other researchers [58] have analyzed commercial engine coolants dispersed with alumina particles. They found out that the nanofluid produced with calculated amount of oleic acid (surfactant) has been tested for stability. While the pure base fluid demonstrates Newtonian behavior over the measured temperature, it turns to a non-Newtonian fluid with addition of a few alumina nanoparticles.
The specific heat of material is quite an important property to define the thermal performance of any material [36]. Specific heats of nanofluids may differ according to the type of base fluids, nanomaterials, and concentration of nanoparticles found in base fluids. Pak and Cho [59] have investigated the impact of volume fraction of Al2O3 on specific heat. The investigation showed that 1.10–2.27% decrease in specific heat occurred for 1.34–2.78% volume fraction of nanoparticle size of 13 nm. Zhao et al. [68] also noticed a fall in the specific heat capacity of CuO nanofluid by 1.16–5% compared to base fluid EG for volume fraction of 0.1–0.6% and particle size which ranges from 25 to 500 nm. Some nanofluids show inconsistent behavior with volume convergence. Shahrul et al. [60] have conducted a comparative revision on the specific heat of nanofluids used in energy applications. They have concluded that for most nanomaterials in base fluids, specific heat decreases with the increase in volume fraction. Sonawane et al. [61] have investigated specific heat of Al2O3/ATF and reported the anomalous conduct of specific heat with volume convergence. Increase in specific heat capacity has also been reported in experimental observations [36, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68]. Fakoor Pakdaman et al. [69] have found out that there is 21–42% decrease in specific heat capacity of MWCNT/water nanofluid for 0.1–0.4% vol. a fraction in the range of 5–20 nm size. However, Kumaresan et al. [64] have observed 2.31–9.35% gain. In specific heat capacity of MWCNT/(EG/DW, 30/70) nanofluid for 0.15–0.45% concentration, particle size was kept at 30–50 nm. Nowadays, the result of experimental data does not signal a discreet and clear-cut indication that there is the only reduction in the heat capacity with an increment of volume concentration, as has been reported by several academic figures. Experimental observations on various nanofluids show increase of specific heat capacity [62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70], whereas experimental observations exhibit decrease in specific heat capacity performed by many researchers [59, 61, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81].
The specific heat of nanofluid can be determined as function of the particle volume concentration using the following equation [80]:
And
Nowadays, nanofluids play a vital role in heat transfer equipment as a good alternative in developing the efficiency of the heat transfer equipment and in turn of reducing the size of the equipment and saving energy.
Since water is a good medium for heat transfer and it is also a good medium for receiving and storing solar energy during sunrise time, therefore, water is a good medium for the heating processes and one important source for the application of solar energy [2, 82, 83]. It is granted that the thermal efficiency of the FPSWH is relatively low, and therefore researchers have exerted many efforts to increase its performance. The thermal efficiency of the FPSWH has improved by using specific techniques [84]. Researchers to enhance the performance of FPSWH and the thermal efficiency using different methods [85, 86, 87, 88, 89] have conducted many studies.
The recent researches have revealed that nanofluids have a large effect on increasing heat transfer. This is done through mixing the nanoparticles materials that have high thermal conductivity into the working fluid (or called the base fluid).
Now, nanofluids are promising mediums as alternatives to the base fluids, and hence the researches are still under investigation to improve and develop the heat transfer equipment systems.
Many works have been conducted to improve the performance of flat plate solar water heater using different nanoparticles to the base fluid [63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73].
To improve the performance of flat plate solar collector, scholars had conducted experimental and theoretical studies on flat plate solar collector using nanofluids with different binary materials (nanoparticles + base fluids) as a working fluid.
Salem Ahmed et al. [90] have conducted an experimental work on the performance of chilled water air conditioning unit with and without alumina nanofluids.
They have used the first method to prepare Al2O3 water nanofluids with different concentrations by weight, which vary from 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, and 1% wt. Under operation conditions, experiments have been investigated including a variation of flow rate of chilled water/alumina nanofluids and the air through the cooling coil. The results have shown that less time is scored to get the desired chilled fluid temperature for all the different concentrations of nanofluids (Al2O3-water) compared with pure water.
Again, the findings have shown a reduction of the power consumption and increase in the cooling capacity, which is in turn an increase in the COP by about 5 and 17% for alumina nanoparticles, concentration of 0.1 and 1% by weight, respectively. A schematic diagram of the experimental work shown in Figures 3 and 4 shows the TEM image of the alumina nanoparticles (Al2O3) used in the experiments.
A schematic diagram of the chilled-water air conditioning unit [90].
TEM image of Al2O3 nanoparticles used in the experiments [90].
Xu et al. [91] have conducted experimental and theoretical studies comparing a novel of parabolic trough concentrator with traditional solar water heater using nanofluid, CuO/oil. Figure 5 shows a configuration of the novel parabolic trough concentrator and the traditional solar heater.
Schematics of solar collection principles. (a) A conventional indirect absorption solar collector (IASC); (b) the proposed novel nanofluid-based direct absorption solar collector (NDASC); and (c) the heat transfer around nanoparticles inside the tube of NDASC [91].
As is shown in Figure 5b, a kind of oil added with certain nanoparticles (CuO) acts as a working fluid. The nanoparticles dispersed in the oil inside the inner tube directly capture the solar radiation instead of the tube wall coating. The solar collection efficiency curves for the two collectors suggested that the NDASC was superior to a conventional IASC within a preferred working temperature range, but inferior when the tf exceeded a specific critical temperature (tcr) as shown in Figure 6.
Variations of solar collection efficiencies with tf,i for both the NDASC and the IASC [91].
Said et al. [92] have used TiO2-water nanofluid as a working fluid for enhancing the performance of a flat plate solar collector for the volume fraction of the nanoparticles 0.1 and 0.3%, respectively, and mass flow rates of the nanofluid vary from 0.5 to 1.5 kg/min, respectively. Thermophysical properties and reduced sedimentation for TiO2 nanofluid have been obtained using PEG 400 dispersant. Energy efficiency has increased by 76.6% for 0.1% volume fraction and 0.5 kg/min flow rate, whereas the highest energy efficiency obtained has been 16.9% for 0.1% volume fraction and 0.5 kg/min flow rate.
The thermal efficiency of the FPSC (μ) and the energy efficiency are given, respectively, as [92].
The schematic of the solar collector and the experiment is presented in Figure 7. They also showed that the pressure drop and pumping power of TiO2 nanofluid were very close to the base fluid for the studied volume fractions [92].
The presentation of the experimental setup in schematic diagram [92].
Polvongsri et al. [93] have performed an experimental work to study the performance of a flat plate solar collector (Figure 8) using a silver nanofluid as the working fluid, while water was mixed with 20 nm silver nano with concentrations of 1000 and 10,000 ppm. The operating conditions of experiments to be done at a flow rate of working fluid between 0.8 and 1.2 l/min-m2 and the inlet temperature were controlled in a range of 35–65°C.
Diagram of the experimental setup [93].
It is remarkable that using silver nanofluid as a working fluid could improve the thermal performance of flat plate collector compared with water, especially at high inlet temperature as shown in Figure 9.
The performance curves of silver nanofluid at 10,000 and 1000 ppm and water [93].
This chapter reviews the recent applications of nanotechnology for nanofluids. These applications revealed that nanofluids have a promising alternative to enhance the performance of heat transfer equipment considering the cost, safety, potential of size reduction, and environmental protection. The present chapter provides a comprehensive overview of nanofluid as one of the important applications of nanotechnology and how to obtain it and its thermal properties. There are challenges hindering the preparation of nanomaterials, including the stability of nanofluids to take into consideration and worthy of attention on the part of researchers.
As a consequence of the continuous population growth worldwide along with the shortage of food sustainability [1], it is necessary to create an alternative agricultural productivity systems [2, 3]. One of the sustainable alternative strategies is the utilization of plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB) in agricultural practices [4]. Promoting plant growth (PGP) has numerous correlation capabilities either by endophyte in plant tissue [5], rhizosphere in seed surface as well as plant root [6], symbiosis in root nodules, and phyllosphere in stem and/or leaf surface (Turner). PGPB involve 1-aminocyclopropane-l-carboxylic acid (ACC) deaminase that is applied to seedling which could effectively stimulate plant growth by reducing plant ethylene rates [7] under drought, salinity [8, 9], flooding, and contaminant condition [10] and increasing phosphate solubility and availability in soil, along with the increase in plant biomass, root area, and total N and P contents in rice [11].
Rice production is reduced under saline agriculture system (Figure 1); therefore, it is becoming increasingly important to imply plant growth-promoting traits for mitigation of salt stress [12, 13, 14]. Promoting plant growth was shown to enhance growth effectively, and the growth-stimulating effect was also suggested to be beneficial in crop production under stressful conditions. Mechanisms for inducing plant growth-promoting response (PGPR) toward abiotic stress are usually interpreted as the result of certain phytohormone production, including ABA, GA, or IAA, or lower ethylene levels in roots of the ACC, which generates systemic bacterial resistance and enhances exopolysaccharides.
Schematic description of the different plant promotion processes by PGPR.
A wide spectrum of endophyte bacteria is well adjusted to the rice niche under abiotic stress condition. The emergence of rice seedlings and growth and development parameters were previously reported to be significantly affected by many PGPR strains [15]. Beneduzi et al. [16] evaluated efficient bioinoculant for rice growth improvement by bacillus strain (SVPR30). Bisht and Mishra [17] reported that rice root length and shoot length increased by 9.7 and 13.9%, respectively, when inoculated with B. thuringiensis (VL4C); Nautiyal et al. [18] reported that rice inoculation with B. amyloliquefaciens (SN-13) under saline conditions in hydroponic/saline soils has improved stress sensitivity due to an altered transcription of 14 genes, including SERK1, ethylene-responding factor EREBP, NADP-malic enzyme (NADP-Me2), and SOS1. Additionally, downregulated expression of glucose-insensitive growth (IGG) and serine–threonine (Sapk4) protein kinase in the hydroponic setup and upregulated MAPK5 were observed in the greenhouse experiments [19]. The inoculation of SN13 improved the gene transcription involved in the sensitivity of ionic and salt stresses [20]. Endophytic bacteria can give N to rice without loss compared with other bacteria, because of their strong relationship with the plant [21]. Endophytic bacteria are a better N supplier to rice than other bacteria. Endophytic bacteria are the bacteria derived from the plants’ inner tissues or extracted from plants with a sterilized layer, which have no infection symptoms [22]. The rice yield achieved by N2-fixing Pseudomonas sp. was improved by 23% by Mäder et al. [23]. Several studies showed significantly greater K, N, and P levels with an increased rice output of 9.2% in co-inoculation with N2-fixing microbes relative to the use of prescribed amounts of fertilizers as N, P, and K [24, 25]. There have been detailed documentations that rice is generally infected with a large variety of endophytic bacteria (Azospirillum, Herbaspirillum, Rhizobium, Pantoea, Methylobacterium, and Burkholderia, among others) [22]. Diazotrophs colonized effectively in the roots of rice may have a higher N fixation potential [26]. Endorhizosphere bacteria contribute far more than rhizospheric bacteria to N fixation since there is no competition with other rhizospheric microorganisms in the endorhizosphere and under low oxygen; carbon sources are provided [27, 28].
The bacterial IAA was shown in Etesami and Alikhani [29] to have significant roles in improving efficiency in the use of N and in increasing nitrogen-based substances in rice. Estrada et al. [30] also found that diazotrophic P-solubilizing bacteria improved the absorption of nutrients in rice, while Rangjaroen et al. [31] suggested that Novosphingobium diazotrophic is an important microbial tool of nitrogen providing for further production which renders it as a healthy biomonitor to improve organic rice cultivation.
De Souza et al. [32] demonstrated the decrease of in vitro phosphate solubility and minimization of acetylene (low reduction in acetylene) in rice shoots by bacteria, including Herbaspirillum sp., Burkholderia sp., Pseudacidovorax, and Rhizobium sp. Therefore, non-N2 fixation growth promotion mechanisms include an IAA development and improved nutrient balanced absorption. Glick [7] shows that if a bacterium is used to produce nitrogen-solubilizing for plants, which have PGP traits (IAA, ACC deaminase, siderophore, and phosphate solubility), it should be used, and the genetic characteristics in plants should be transferred. The application of P fertilizers in rice production has continuously increased [33]. Sahrawat et al. [34] show that the use of rice P fertilizers has been continuously increased since it is one of the key restrictive factors in many regions of the world for the production of upland rice. Othman and Panhwar [35] detected that the sum of nutrition provided by aerobic rice is the same as the flooded rice, but the abundance of P is a challenge due to its immediate immobilizing and fixing with calcium (Ca2+), iron (Fe3+), and aluminum (Al3+) elements. P deficiency in aerobic crops is also widely seen as a phenomenon [36]. The secretion of organic acids and the interaction of mycorrhizal fungi are among these methods that are very weak in rice under flooding conditions. Islam and Hossain [37] have stated that P deficiency is quite normal which increases the demand for mycorrhizal fungal interactions under flood conditions. Panhwar et al. [38] detected that the rice plants need an ancillary structure that quickly goes beyond such degraded regions and receives P for exorbitant neighboring soil composition through the development of a vast network of phosphate-solubilizing bacteria (PSB) which might satisfy some of the nutrient needs.
The growth of many plants including staple rice is hindered by micronutrient-deficient soils [39]. The toxicity of Fe is also important as Fe is one of the major constraints on the production of lowland rice. Furthermore, the scarcity of Mn in upland rice is also commonly seen [40].
A significant increase in the number of tilers provided by plan (15.1%), crop panicles (13.3%), overall grain intake Zn (52.5%), and a modest yield of the dry product by pot (12.9%) has been shown by Vaid et al. [41]. This rise was detected through soil solubilization of insoluble Zn, all of which as a result of the production of bacterial gluconic acid.
Fe, Zn, Cu, and Mn concentrations were increased by 13–16% (Brevundimonas diminuta PR7) and in rice co-inoculation (Providencia sp. PR3) (Ochrobactrum anthropi PR10); Adak et al. [42] detected that Fe absorbance was enhanced by 13–46% using cyanobacterial inoculants and 15–41% in Zn with the use of cyanobacterial inoculums, in rice cultivation for various modes.
Metals as zinc (Zn), molybdenum (Mo), cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr), selenium (Se), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), magnesium (Mg), and nickel (Ni) have essential nutrients necessary for a diversity of biological and physiological functions [43]. Biological functions that are not identified are identified as nonessentials: bismuth (Bi), antimony (Sb), platinum (Pt), indium (In), arsenic (As), beryllium (Be), mercury (Hg), barium (Ba), gallium (Ge), gallium (G), gold (Au), lead (Pb), barium (Be), nickel (Ni), silver (Ag), aluminum (Al), as well as uranium (U) [44].
Ma and Takahashi [45] demonstrate that the rice PGPB ability can be used to resolve deficits in micronutrients and to biofertilize (Table 1 and Figure 1). Rice is a plant that accumulates Si and considered an Si accumulator as silicon content in dry weight of the shoots may reach up to 10%, and therefore, the plants require high Si content. Rice is associated with Si depletion in its unit area; due to the removal from the earth of 100 kg of Si for brown rice (about 20 kg/hm2 SiO2) and exports to the farm by the extraction of straw residues during harvest and the conniving for exogenous use of Si in rice growing, Si in paddy field is available [66].
Results of bacteria added to plants | References | |
---|---|---|
Mutation | Physicochemical | [3] |
PGPR; Novosphingobium | Optimize rice cultivation | [31] |
Bioindicator | Wastewater irrigation | [43, 44, 46, 47] |
Indicators | Sustainable rice cultivation | [2] |
Plant microbiome and Herbaspirillum seropedicae and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens | Plant growth | [1, 4, 5, 11, 18, 28, 48] |
Seed endosphere; PGPR and ACC Deaminase and Corynebacterium and diazotrophic spp. | Plant growth | [7, 15, 21, 22, 25, 26, 49] |
Soil Rhizobacteria | Heavy metals | [50, 51, 52, 53, 54] |
Azospirillum | N2 fixing | [55] |
Arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis and Pseudomonas putida | Salinity stress; biological control; drought stress | [20, 29, 56, 57] |
PGPR | Cu-contaminated | [43, 58] |
Exogenous application | Cd-contaminated | [10, 59, 60] |
Genomic rice | Cr-contaminated | [61] |
Ochrobactrum sp. and Bacillus spp. and biofortification | Heavy metals | [40, 62] |
Ar-contaminated | [63] | |
Endophytic and PGPR and Bacillus safensis | Salt stress | [8, 9, 12, 64] |
Genetically engineered | Hg | [65] |
Acinetobacter sp. and PGPR | Zinc solubilizing | [19, 39, 41] |
Bacterial species | Si solubilization | [42, 45, 66, 67, 68, 69] |
Phosphate-solubilizing bacteria | Phosphate solubilization | [33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38] |
Plant growth-promoting Rhizobacteria used in rice production.
Bocharnikova et al. [67] and Ning et al. [68] previously reported that Si-deficient paddy soils may be needed to generate an economically sustainable rice crop capable of producing high yield and disease resistance. Si fertilizers are being used for growing rice production in many countries and have positive effects. Vasanthi et al. [69] detected that the Bacillus globisporus, B. crustacea, B. flexus, B. megaterium, Pseudomonas fluorescens, and Burkholderia eburnean can activate K and Si in feldspar, muscovite, and biotite silicate mineral resources. Specific pathways are used to generate disproportionate protons, organic ligand, organic acid, anion, hydroxyl, EPS, and enzymes. However, the solubilizing Si, K, and P in soil might be accompanied by an increased supply of Fe and Mn metals in plants by interacting with P-fixing sites.
Gandhi and Muralidharan [19] show that the rice growth, development, yield, and Zn solubility from ZnO and ZnCO3 to Acinetobacter sp. have been greatly increased.
This gene recombination processing was also extended to rice, which produces rice transgenics generated via a partial weapon bombardment containing a 250 lM HgCl2-resistant merA gene [65]. Recently, mercury toxicity has been identified as a triggering factor in aromatic amino acid biosynthesis (tryptophan and phenylalanine), aggregation of calcium, and activation of MAPK in rice [70]. The synthesis and accumulation of the Glybet were stimulated by Pseudomonas alkaline inoculation in rice plants [64]. Chakrabarty et al. [63] detected that the As (III)-treated rice seedlings proposed signal transduction regulation and hormonal and crop defense signaling mechanisms (ABA metabolism). Comparative rice-treated transcriptomic study showed explicitly the shifts in plant reaction to metal pressure in the rates of phytohormones: As and Pb resistant by Bacillus spp. There are various PGPR features that contribute to the bioremediation and rice cultivar growth promotion; Cd-resistant Ochrobactrum sp. was first reported by Pandey et al. [62]. The presence of CDPKs was demonstrated by Cr pressure as their activity increased with increasing Cr (VI) concentration. Huang et al. [61] showed that rice roots have long- and short-term stress transcription profiling. Yeh et al. [59] have demonstrated Cd-induced gene transcription of OsMAPK2 and MBP kinase in rice plant. The activation of heavy metal mediated MAPK by ROS production, build-up, and alteration of the antioxidant system in the rice; ROS is well-rated for its disruption specific pathways such as auxin, ethylene, and jasmonate (JA) phytohormone. However, exposure to JAs has shown that antioxidant reaction has been enhanced due to rice stress sensitivity of Cd [60]. However, an extensive study on heavy metal in plants has shown great interest in the extensive study of the plant microbial-metal relationship due to its direct impact on enhanced production of biomass and improved metal tolerances [50].
Plants have developed a number of defense mechanisms to resist heavy metal stresses and toxicities such as reducing heavy metal consumption, sequestering metal into vacuoles, binding phytochelatins or metallothionein, and antioxidant activation [51]. The toxic substances As, Pb, Cd, and Hg are considered by Disease Registry Agency as the most toxic metals (Figure 1) for their toxicity frequency and above all their flora and fauna exposure potential. Pb toxicity leads to ATP inhibition, lipid peroxidation, and damage to DNA through the production of ROS [43].
In recent decades there has been rapid progress in the area of plant reactions and the tolerance of stress of metal when related bacteria are present with plants. The activation of these genes, which are crucial to heavy metal stress signaling, also suggests dynamic crosspieces of stress and resistance between plant, microbes, and heavy metals [52]. Heavy metal remediation is necessary to protect and preserve the environment. There are only a small number of evidence that heavy metals are remediated by extracellular capsules, heavy metal precipitation, and oxidation reduction [53].
It will be used in the immediate future for remediation of contaminated soils, as shown by the beneficial effects of microbe causes and the planned interconnection between heavy metal resistance and plant growth abilities [58]. Additionally, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) ecological species and ecotypes, metal and edaphic conditions of its availability, and soil and water, including soil fertilizer and requirements of plants for growing under light or root conditions, depend on various factors of exposure to heavy metals in the environment [56].
AMF changes salt stress toxicity. AMF exists due to enhanced mineral nutrition and as a result of various physiological processes such as photosynthesis, water usage efficiency, osmoregulator production, higher K+/Na + ratio, and molecular changes caused by the expression of genes [57].
The synergistic effects on plant growth, particularly in growth restrictions, of the co-inoculation with PGPR and AMF, have shown that the growth responses are significant when rice plants are inoculated with AMF and Azospirillum. All of these findings thus show that rice mycorrhization is important [55].
The methods employed by PGPB to promote plant remediation cycle include enhancing plant metal resistance and increasing plant growth as well as altering plant metal accumulation; however, the recent PGPB studies in metal phytoremediation showed that plant inoculation with plant-building bacteria-induced metal phytotoxicity can be alleviated and the production of plant biomass produced in metal-contaminated soils can be strengthened [48, 49, 54]. The reuse of wastewater as a strategy to adjust to climate change is shown in Vietnam. Chung et al. [46] illustrated that rice wastewater effluents can be irrigated for at least 22,719 ha (16% of the urban rice area) in plants annually. Additionally, Jang et al. [47] found that there is no significant environmental risk to rice paddy agroecosystems that were associated with wastewater irrigation (Table 1 and Figure 1).
The main limiting factors for cultivation worldwide are water stress conditions [71]. Wastewater water has a negative effect on the production and yield of rice. Selected PGPR might be the perfect candidate for heavy metal pollution and related surface constraints for growth and yields of rice plants irrigated with wastewater as PGPR extracted wastewater strains of bioremediation products show positive results in the literature.
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