\r\n
\r\nCoverage included:
\r\n- Preparation NiO catalyst on FeCrAl Subtrate Using Various Technique at Higher Oxidation Process
\r\n- Electrochemical properties of carbon- supported metal nanoparticle prepared by electroplating methods
\r\n- Fabrication of InGaN-Based Vertical Light Emitting Diodes Using Electroplating
\r\n- Integration Of Electrografted Layers for the Metallization of Deep Through Silicon Vias
\r\n- Biomass adsorbent for removal of toxic metal ions from electroplating industry wastewater
\r\n- Resistant fungal biodiversity of electroplating effluent and their metal tolerance index
\r\n- Experimental design and response surface analysis as available tools for statistical modeling and optimization of electrodeposition processes",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0471-1",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4991-0",doi:"10.5772/1913",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"electroplating",numberOfPages:178,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"18ec8cf0e50c5e8170a9d0b20af09b7f",bookSignature:"Darwin Sebayang and Sulaiman Bin Haji Hasan",publishedDate:"April 11th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1455.jpg",numberOfDownloads:21187,numberOfWosCitations:25,numberOfCrossrefCitations:10,numberOfDimensionsCitations:22,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:52,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 12th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 10th 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 14th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 14th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 13th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"92970",title:"Prof.",name:"Darwin",middleName:null,surname:"Sebayang",slug:"darwin-sebayang",fullName:"Darwin Sebayang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/92970/images/3175_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Darwin Sebayang was graduated from Rheinisch Westfaelische \nTechnische Hochschule Aachen- Germany (RWTH Aachen- Germany) on Light Structure. He is a professor in Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering at the Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia. The research focuses on light structure, engineering design and advance material and since five years ago he has been active on development of catalytic converter and exploring the application of electroplating of nickel to FeCrAl for catalytic converter.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Tun Hussein Onn University of Malaysia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"121404",title:"Prof.",name:"Sulaiman",middleName:null,surname:"Hasan",slug:"sulaiman-hasan",fullName:"Sulaiman Hasan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/121404/images/system/121404.jpg",biography:"Professor Dr Sulaiman Haji Hasan has been teaching Manufacturing Engineering since 1980. 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Introduction
Sleep is an ancestral and primitive behaviour, an important part of life thought to be essential for restoration of body and mind. As adults, we spend approximately a third of our lives asleep and as we progress through life there are certain shifts in sleep architecture, most notably in sleep quantity. These biological or physiological age-dependent changes in sleep are well documented [1], and alongside the shifts in sleep architecture there is an increased susceptibility to certain sleep disorders.
Sleep disturbances and sleep deprivation are common in modern society. Most studies show that since the beginning of the century, populations have been subjected to a steady constant decline in the number of hours devoted to sleep. This is due to changes in a variety of environmental and social conditions (e.g. less dependence on daylight for most activities, extended shift work and 24/7 round-the-clock activities) [2].
Developments in the fields of molecular genetics, behavioural neuroscience, sleep neurobiology, and the cognitive neurosciences have produced converging evidence of a fundamental role for sleep in cognition. Sleep is required for good mental health, and insufficient sleep has negative effects on mood, cognitive performance and motor function [3]. Cognition is a broad term, which encompasses a variety of mental processes including memory, problem solving, language, forward planning and attention, which can all, be differentially affected by inadequate sleep. This can have serious real-life consequences, where many industries including airlines, long-distance truck driving, manufacturing and emergency services have recognised that sleep deprivation has major effects on performance.
Epidemiologists and clinical neuroscientists have also documented significant links between degree of sleep disturbance and severity of impairment on selective cognitive functions in a variety of clinical populations, including persons at risk for various dementing illnesses [4, 5]. Sleep disorder, in fact, may be one of the earliest signs of neurodegenerative disorders, including early Alzheimer’s disease (AD) [6].
This chapter will briefly examine the relationship between sleep (quantity and quality) and cognition throughout the life course, and will consider the evidence which suggests that sleep deprivation and sleep disorders are associated with poor cognitive function. More specifically, it will examine the effects that sleep deprivation and sleep disorders have on both amnestic (memory function) and non-amnestic (non-memory function) cognitive processes.
2. Sleep quantity and cognition
Numerous studies have shown that short sleep, long sleep and sleep problems are associated with poorer cognitive function [7-9]. Self-reported short sleep, tiredness and fatigue are more strongly associated with subjective measures of cognitive function than with objective measures [7]. Findings from the Whitehall II study show that adverse changes in sleep over time (decrease from 6, 7 or 8 hours, or increase from 7 or 8 hours) are associated with lower scores on a variety of cognitive function tests, but not memory function [10]. Similarly, a Spanish study found that people who sleep for 11 hours or more per night have significantly lower global cognition scores than those who sleep for 7 hours [11]. A unique study has also reported on the effects of a post-lunch nap on subjective alertness and performance following partial sleep loss. A short nap has been found to improve alertness, sleepiness, short-term memory and accuracy, but does not affect reaction times [12].
Interestingly, there is little research into the effects of subtle changes in circadian phase on cognition, such as those that commonly occur in the general population after daylight saving time or returning to work after later weekend sleep. One study has revealed that performance on memory and verbal fluency tasks is significantly reduced on Monday morning following delayed weekend sleep [13]. Overall, proper alignment between sleep-wakefulness and internal circadian time may be crucial for cognitive performance, and humans may be very sensitive to small shifts in circadian timing.
The first recorded experiments on sleep deprivation began in the late 19th century [14], and research into the association between sleep and performance began around 50 years ago [15]. There is now clear evidence that deficits in daytime performance due to sleep loss are associated with a significant social, financial and human cost [3].
There are two types of sleep loss: acute sleep loss consisting of one continuous extended wake episode, and chronic sleep loss consisting of insufficient sleep over multiple days. A substantial amount of research has been conducted to understand the impact of short-term total sleep deprivation (<48h) on various cognitive domains. A recent meta-analysis examined the effect of sleep deprivation on six cognitive categories (simple attention, complex attention, working memory, processing speed, short-term memory and reasoning) for both speed and accuracy. Generally, effect sizes for each cognitive domain fall along a continuum, with tasks of greater complexity being less susceptible to the effects of total sleep deprivation. Simple attention, or vigilance, is most strongly affected by short-term sleep deprivation, emphasising that this deficit is the one for which compensation is least available. This has implications for tests of work fitness, where deficits in sustained attention could act as an early warning for subsequent cognitive failure in more complex situations [16].
Therefore, sleep debt can be expressed as an additional wakefulness that has a ‘cost’ (i.e. cognitive impairment), which accumulates over time [17]. Homeostatic physiological processes that occur during sleep can replenish this capacity, but how much sleep is required for satisfactory alertness and performance continues to be debated [18].
3. Sleep quality and cognition
Whereas sleep quantity is concerned with the amount of time we spend asleep, sleep quality is measured by how well we actually sleep during the night. This is usually assessed via self-reported frequency of nocturnal awakenings; difficulty initiating sleep; waking up early; or waking up feeling tired, using validated tools such as the PSQI [19]. Research has suggested that as well as sleep quantity, sleep quality may also play an important role in cognition. One such study in elderly women has found that disturbed sleep is associated with an increased risk of developing a cognitive impairment, but not with accelerated cognitive decline [20]. However, self-reported poor sleep is not independently related to cognitive function in community-dwelling older men, suggesting that there may be an interplay between sleep quantity and quality which accounts for the detrimental effects on cognitive function [21]. The Maastricht Ageing Study (MAAS) aimed to determine whether subjective sleep complaints (i.e. difficulty falling asleep, waking up too early, and restless or disturbed sleep) in middle aged and older adults predict global cognitive decline over a period of 3 years. The study found that subjective sleep complaints are negatively associated with cognitive performance at follow-up, where waking up too early has the strongest association with cognitive decline of the three sleep quality assessment questions [22]. However, the association between sleep complaints and cognitive decline disappears once depression is controlled for, raising the question of whether poor quality of sleep leads directly to poor cognitive function, or whether poor sleep causes an increase in depressive symptoms which then results in cognitive decline [22]. This finding highlights the importance of accounting for the effects of other variables, such as depression, on sleep and cognitive function when interpreting various study results and potentially contradictory conclusions.
4. Sleep and cognition: A life course perspective
The amount of time we spend asleep fluctuates across the lifespan according to changes associated with age, health and life events. Newborn infants need between 10.5 and 18 hours sleep per day, and this gradually reduces to between 9 and 12 hours by the end of the first year of life [23], before we settle into a pattern of around 7 to 8 hours sleep per night as adults [2]. Studies indicate that as we age, total sleep quantity, sleep efficiency and deep sleep tend to decline, whereas the incidence of waking after sleep onset tends to increase [24]. More specifically in terms of sleep architecture, the time spent in deep, slow wave sleep (SWS) diminishes, along with a decrease in rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, and the time spent in lighter, stage 1 and stage 2 sleep increases. As a consequence, older people often find it takes longer to fall asleep, have more fragmented sleep, and wake up earlier [1]. Furthermore, ageing is also associated with increased daytime sleep via napping and dozing. Gender and socioeconomic dynamics also play an important role during the life course in determining sleep patterns and their potential effect on health [25]. For example, in women, sleep is affected by life events such as pregnancy and the menopause. In the following sections, we consider the possible effects that these changes in sleeping patterns may have on cognitive function.
4.1. Sleep and cognition in childhood and adolescence
It is well established that sleep plays a vital role in brain maturation and in the development of important cognitive functions, such as memory consolidation and learning [26]. With modern advances in technology, many environmental factors and social activities potentially restrict the time spent sleeping once children and adolescents retire to the bedroom. For example, televisions, mobile phones and computers or video games are becoming common bedroom fixtures [27].
A typical child spends more time asleep than engaged in any other activity during the 24 hour cycle. As a rule of thumb, the optimal amount of sleep for children is more than 12 hours per night for pre-schoolers, about 12 hours per night for primary school children, and about 9 hours per night thereafter [26]. Between the ages of 3 and 5 years, there is a shift in sleep architecture, with a significant reduction in total sleep time and a decrease in the amount of time spent in ‘deep’ sleep, SWS and REM stages [28]. Further, sleep is distributed across the day until around the age of 5 years, when children shift from a polyphasic to a monophasic sleep pattern, usually due to the changes in daytime schedule associated with attending school [29]. It is commonplace for toddlers and pre-schoolers to engage in midday naps but, until recently, relatively little was known about the function and structure of this sleep period in children. Research has now shown that classroom naps consolidate learning in preschool children, and that the memory loss associated with nap-deprivation is not reversible with overnight sleep [30]. When children are allowed to nap during the day, they recall around 10% more learned material on waking than when tested after an equivalent period of being kept awake. Sleep spindle density in particular is strongly implicated in this memory consolidation process in children, highlighting that the nap does not merely protect the memory from wakeful interference, but that consolidation of learned material is a process unique to sleep [30]. This finding has implications for educational strategies, where scheduled classroom naps could enhance interventions designed to help children achieve academic goals and acquire necessary cognitive skills, with particular relevance to children with a learning delay [30].
There have been few longitudinal studies of sleep-wake patterns in children [31, 32], and only a small number of studies have investigated sleep behaviours [33, 34]. Therefore, what constitutes normal sleep patterns and normal sleep behaviour during childhood is still debatable. The lack of available data undoubtedly reflects the challenges to studying sleep in children and adolescents, which include reluctance of parents to leave children in the care of unfamiliar adults in laboratory studies, children’s sleep becoming further disrupted in unfamiliar environments, and the potential for increased risk (e.g. fall in school performance, vehicle accidents in young drivers) following sleep restriction studies [35]. However, data from available studies has shown that sleep deprivation has a significant impact on cognitive abilities in children. Children aged between 10 to 14 years who are restricted to only 5 hours sleep show impaired cognitive performance on verbal creativity and the Wisconsin Card Sorting task, in comparison to those allowed to sleep for 11 hours [36]. Similarly, in a further study, children who are allowed to sleep for one hour longer perform significantly better in continuous performance and simple reaction time tests than those who sleep for one hour less, or those who receive no intervention [37]. Longitudinal research has shown that over the course of 3 years, children who experience an increase in sleepiness also show slower improvement in verbal comprehension than children who report lower levels of sleepiness at baseline [38]. The authors highlight the need for interventions to remedy sleep disorders and reduce the deleterious effect on cognition before the transition to puberty [38].
Circadian rhythms shift developmentally and sleep physiology changes considerably during adolescence (particularly SWS), which may alter the response to sleep restriction [39]. During the weekends, bed times and waking times can change extensively and persistently in children and in adolescents. These shifts are much more likely in adolescence, when the sleep phase rhythm can be seriously disrupted during weekends, and sleep debt is common [40]. Furthermore, the effects of delayed sleep phase in adolescents (characterised by problems with falling asleep and rising at appropriate times) extend into the week, where associations with lower average school grades, and greater incidence of anxiety and depression have been reported [41]. However, the effects of sleep duration on cognition can be different for males and females during the adolescent period. Whilst male adolescents who sleep for 8 hours or more demonstrate higher overall cognitive performance than those sleeping less than 8 hours, there is no association between sleep and cognition for adolescent females [42]. This supports previous findings that cognition is more susceptible to the effects of sleep deprivation in males than in females [43], and the authors propose that this is also consistent with the evolutionary demands of the female role in child rearing and nurturing [42].
4.2. Sleep and the elderly
Cognitive ageing is a heterogeneous process, in that not everyone experiences the same rate of decline. Indeed, many neuronal changes associated with cognitive decline begin to appear during middle-age [44]. Biological or physiological age-dependent changes in sleep have been well documented, and include shifts in sleep architecture as well as increased susceptibility to certain sleep disorders [1]. In addition to changes in SWS and REM, electroencephalography (EEG) studies have shown specific changes to delta waves, sleep spindles and K complexes during sleep in the elderly. It has been hypothesized that some of these changes might be early biological markers of the gradual deterioration of the central nervous system with age [45]. Furthermore, chronic ill-health, disability, and pain and discomfort at night may also contribute to poor sleep quality in an ageing population [46].
Ageing is associated with increased daytime sleep via napping and dozing, due to excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS) or feeling not rested upon awakening [47, 48]. The Medical Research Council Cognitive Function and Ageing Study (CFAS) looked at the association between self-reported sleep measures and cognition in over 2, 000 cognitively unimpaired individuals over the age of 65 years. The authors found that daytime napping at baseline is associated with a lower risk of cognitive decline at 2 and 10 year follow-ups, and that reports of both EDS and obtaining less than 6.5 hours of night-time sleep at baseline are associated with an increased risk of cognitive decline at 10 year follow-up [49]. Sleep structure is also important in aged adults, where the duration of sleep cycles, but not the amount of REM, non-REM or SWS or total sleep time, is positively associated with morning memory performance [50].
Sleep problems are a common occurrence in those with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) [51] and dementia [52]. Those with dementia experience highly fragmented sleep, with frequent daytime napping and night-time periods of wakefulness. Furthermore, sleep disorders have been associated with, and are predictive of, cognitive decline [5], and severity of cognitive impairment in diseases such as dementia and AD [53, 54]. A study has shown that non-demented, Japanese-American men who report EDS at baseline are twice as likely to be diagnosed with incident dementia at 3 year follow-up examination than those without EDS [55]. These findings were replicated in a sample of elderly French men and women [56], with the cross-cultural validation adding weight to the association between EDS and incident dementia.
Studies have also reported on sleep disturbances in specific types of dementia. In AD, for instance, which is characterized by episodic memory impairment, there are changes in global sleep architecture [57]. Modifications in the stages of sleep, including increased stage 1 sleep and reduced SWS, as well as decreases in sleep spindles, are well documented in dementia and AD [58, 59]. Less time in bed is associated with better cognitive function in AD [60], whereas EDS is strongly predictive of vascular dementia [61]. Changes in sleep architecture and sleep disturbances are found in a range of other neurodegenerative disorders such as progressive supranuclear palsy, Huntington’s disease (HD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), multiple system atrophy (MSA), dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) and Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (CJD) [57]. Only a few studies, however, have investigated the prospective association between sleep architecture and later neurodegenerative disorder. Furthermore, the available results are inconsistent, which may be due to population selection, duration of follow-up, age of participants or type of cognitive impairment [57].
4.3. Partum
Pregnant women experience prolonged sleep latency, frequent awakenings, fewer hours of night sleep, and reduced sleep efficiency, which begins in the second trimester of pregnancy and extends through at least the first 2-3 months after delivery [62, 63]. Sleep quality diminishes progressively throughout pregnancy, is most affected immediately after delivery, and then subsequently improves steadily [64]. Whilst many new mothers report feelings of confusion and forgetfulness during the early postpartum period, objective investigations thus far have not provided equivocal results. In some studies, women have significantly lower scores on tasks of immediate memory, complex mental functions (e.g. problem solving) and overall daytime function during the immediate postpartum period, with suggestions that this is influenced by sleep disturbance (e.g. fragmentation, deprivation) [62, 65, 66]. Indeed, although overall cognitive scores may not always differ between new mothers and controls, performance on memory and concentration tasks in postpartum women is significantly predicted by the amount of sleep they had the night before [63].
4.4. Menopause
Sleep complaints during or after menopause are a common medical problem. Whereas some studies have shown an association between sleepiness, sleep complaints and cognitive performance during and after menopause [67], other studies have not shown this association [68]. For example, one study showed that both self-reported and objectively-measured disturbed sleep are associated with diminished cognitive function during and after menopause. However, another study has showed that there is a higher association between self-reported poor sleep quality, rather than objectively measured poor sleep quality, and decreased cognitive test performance [69]. Weber et al found that memory complaints in particular are associated with increased sleep disturbance in perimenopausal women [70]. However, it has been suggested that it is age, rather than the menopause per se, which contributes to the decrease in cognitive performance [68].
5. Sleep disruption and work
Modern society depends on the continuous operation of a diverse array of crucial services. Thus the 24-hour culture-with shift work, night work, and longer, irregular working hours, and the associated shorter quantity of sleep-is becoming a frequent occurrence throughout the world [71, 72]. Sleep deprivation and consequent disruption of the circadian rhythm is a common situation experienced by individuals in many different professions, such as medical staff. After 8 hours of work, an individual’s performance and ability to concentrate decreases, whilst the risk of fatigue [73] and cognitive errors increases [74]. Consequently, working at night and working excessive hours that restrict sleep opportunity are implicated in compromised health and safety at work [75]. A combination of factors are involved in this process including age, shift pattern, changes in sleep quality and quantity, sleep disruption and shorter daytime sleep (as compared to the usual night-time sleep), sleepiness and fatigue, and repeated stress induced by desynchronization of the circadian system [76, 77].
Sleepiness in the medical profession is a common occurrence due to the extensive hours worked and disturbed sleep [78]. During a typical shift, physicians perform complex problem solving whilst undertaking a multitude of different tasks. There is extensive research into the effects of sleep deprivation on specific tasks (such as endotracheal intubation and catheterization) [79], and in many different specialties such as anaesthetics [80], emergency medicine [81], surgery or intensive care [82]. A landmark study of medical residents working in an adult intensive care unit shows that residents make more medical errors when they work frequent shifts of at least 24 hours, than when they work shorter shifts [83]. Thus, the effect of sleep deprivation on physicians could have a direct impact on quality of health care.
Subjectively, medical residents report disturbances of sleep, alertness and mood during the night float rotation [84]. Studies have also shown that residents are more likely to have a motor vehicle crash or ‘near miss’ after a night of on-call duty [85], or after a shift lasting 24 hours or longer [86]. Sleep-deprived residents also have more attention lapses, experience more adverse events and make more diagnostic errors while on duty overnight [86, 87]. From a training perspective, sleep deprivation may affect residents’ skill acquisition and retention.
Aviators and aviation crews are also at a profound risk of sleep deprivation and disturbance given the nature and requirements of their work. Military pilots are required to synthesize vast amounts of information and subsequently make critical decisions. Thus, factors, which may impair cognitive performance, such as fatigue and sleep disruption, must be identified and alleviated wherever possible. A survey of US Army aircrew found that almost 62% of respondents did not feel that they received adequate daytime sleep while on shift [88]. A further study showed that there is a significant positive association between level of effectiveness (as determined by sleep–wake patterns) and neurocognitive functioning before flight operations [89]. In addition, the influence of chronic jet lag on cognitive efficiency in cabin crew has been investigated. Prolonged cortisol elevations (over 8 hours jet lag per week, for more than 3 years) results in a reduced temporal lobe volume within the brain, as well as deficits in spatial learning and memory, which become apparent after just five years of exposure to high cortisol levels [90].
Alongside studies into the effects of shift work and subsequent sleep disruptions on cognitive function, there has been on-going research into performance enhancers for shift and night workers. Various studies have found that improvements in alertness and performance during night shifts are associated with the use of stimulants such as caffeine [91] and modafinil [92, 93], and even exposure to bright light [94]. Laboratory and field studies corroborate that scheduled exposure to bright light (for work) and darkness (for sleep) shifts the circadian clock to align completely with a night work/day sleep schedule [95, 96]. As mentioned previously regarding post-lunch naps [12], short naps may also be useful for improving alertness during night shifts [91]. However, these countermeasures do not address the underlying cause of the problem, which is misalignment between circadian rhythms and the sleep and work schedule.
Few studies have assessed the long-term consequences of chronic sleep deprivation and repeated disruption of circadian rhythms on cognitive function. Findings from the Whitehall II study show that working more than 55 hours per week is associated with short sleep and lower scores in many cognitive performance tests, including vocabulary and reasoning, at both baseline and 5 year follow-up [97]. Another key study has found that male shift workers have lower cognitive scores and slower cognitive processing than those who have never been exposed to shift work, and that memory performance decreases with increasing shift-work duration [98]. Interestingly, individuals who ceased shift work more than 4 years earlier demonstrated no cognitive impairments, which suggest that the effect of shift work on cognitive function may be reversible [98]. Overall, these results imply that long term exposure to shift work, resulting in insufficient sleep due to a disrupted circadian rhythm, leads to the deterioration of cognitive function (at least in men).
6. Sleep and amnestic and non-amnestic cognition
The term ‘cognition’ refers to various higher mental processes, which allow us to think, perceive, remember, imagine and plan ahead in everyday life. These specific processes can be grouped into two broader categories of ‘amnestic’ (memory) and non-amnestic (not involving memory) cognitive function. This is a useful dichotomy when considering age-related cognitive decline and the conversion from normal cognitive ageing to MCI, since MCI is typically diagnosed as amnestic (aMCI) or non-amnestic (naMCI) type [99]. These two types of MCI have different trajectories, with aMCI potentially developing into AD, and naMCI possibly developing into various forms of dementia (e.g. vascular dementia, DLB, frontotemporal dementia) [100].
Despite the advance in knowledge of MCI subtypes, to date, most studies into the effects of sleep on cognitive function have reported results from tests of ‘global’ cognitive function, such as the Mini-Mental State Exam (MMSE) [101]. Nevertheless, it is possible to distinguish between amnestic and non-amnestic function using the MMSE, as reported recently in a study on sleep characteristics and subsequent cognitive impairment at one-year follow up [102]. In this study, amnestic cognitive impairment is distinguished from non-amnestic impairment by scores on the delayed recall task in the MMSE. That is, if participants cannot recall any of the three items in the memory task, or can only recall one of the items, this is categorised as a failure and thus the participant is attributed with an amnestic cognitive impairment. With regards to sleep quantity, amnestic cognitive impairments at one-year follow up are significantly predicted by long sleep durations (≥ 9 hours) in women, and by short sleep durations (≤ 5 hours) in men. It is possible that women are more resilient to the effects of short sleep due to environmental demands [42], or that men are more susceptible than women to cognitive impairment following sleep deprivation [43], although the authors urge that sex differences in these results should in interpreted with caution [102]. That is, males made up a smaller proportion of the sample and so some effects may not be detected due to a lack of statistical power. In addition, there was no association between sleep quantity and non-amnestic function in this sample of community-dwelling older adults.
Gaining knowledge of different predictors of amnestic and non-amnestic cognitive impairment is important, now more than ever, owing to the advances in MCI and dementia research which will eventually allow earlier, and more accurate, diagnoses of cognitive impairments and dementia. Although Potvin et al. (2012) have shown that the MMSE can be used to extract amnestic and non-amnestic cognitive scores; the findings should be interpreted with caution [102]. Relying on the results of one item from a test of global cognition is not a robust method of diagnosing memory impairment, not merely because there are so many more tests, which comprise the non-amnestic score on the MMSE. Further research is now needed to validate and standardise specific tests of amnestic and non-amnestic cognitive function, which will allow more accurate and specific diagnoses of MCI subtypes, thus giving way to earlier detection and diagnoses of dementia and AD, which in turn will improve the level of support provided to patients and their families.
7. Sleep disordered breathing, sleep disorders and cognitive function
The term sleep-disordered breathing (SDB) refers to conditions, which are characterised by intermittent reduction (hypopnoea) or cessation (apnoea) of breathing due to narrowing of the upper airways. These apnoeas and hypopnoeas occur during sleep, causing recurrent arousals from sleep and subsequent EDS. The condition is very common in the elderly, with reports of prevalence rates between 24 and 42% [103]. Each of the two consequences of SDB (sleep fragmentation and hypoxia) is associated with the risk of developing neurocognitive impairments in various domains [5, 104, 105].
7.1. Sleep apnoea
The most common form of sleep apnoea is obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) or obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome (OSAS). OSAS is associated with frontal lobe and subcortical damage, which in turn is associated with diminished attention span, memory, delayed recall, impaired language and executive functions [106]. Research suggests that the specific brain damage associated with OSAS could therefore increase the risk of developing dementia [107]. Furthermore, a significant positive correlation between the apnoea index (the number of apnoeas occurring per hour) and severity of dementia has also been reported in AD patients [108]. Indeed, SDB may exacerbate cognitive dysfunction in patients with dementia and AD [109].
The EDS associated with OSAS usually becomes worse as AD progresses. Several studies have suggested a relationship of EDS with the occurrence of dementia [55, 56, 61], but it remains unclear as to whether SDB precedes cognitive impairment or vice versa. It is imperative that the causal associations are established as SDB has a high rate of associated morbidity, and utilisation of established and effective treatments (such as continuous positive airways pressure (CPAP)) might prevent or slow future cognitive decline. For instance, research has shown that treatment of OSA via CPAP improves some aspects of cognitive function in dementia patients as well as in non-demented elderly patients with OSA [109, 110]. However some neurobehavioural deficits, such as impairments in driving performance, may not be reversed by CPAP treatment in patients with severe OSA, and so further research is needed to assess the causes of such impairments [111].
7.2. Rapid eye movement sleep behaviour disorder (RBD)
RBD is a parasomnia, which is characterized by recurrent dream enactment and loss of normal voluntary muscle atonia during REM sleep, causing excessive motor activity [112]. These movements can cause excessive limb or body jerking leading to complex violent behaviours. RBD is now recognized to be a symptom or prodrome of the group of diseases, which include PD, MSA and DLB [113]. The first study to document this relationship reported that 38% of patients diagnosed with isolated, idiopathic RBD later went on to develop a Parkinsonian disorder after a mean of 12.7 years from RBD onset [114]. Subsequent studies have confirmed similar findings, with typical mean intervals from RBD to PD, DLB, or MSA of around a decade [115-117]. This lengthy preclinical phase has important implications for interventions, which are designed to slow or halt the neurodegenerative process [4], and could therefore potentially slow the rate of associated cognitive decline.
7.3. Insomnia
Insomnia is a commonly reported sleep disorder in Western European countries. It is estimated that between 10% and 35% of the population of Western Europe have varying degrees of insomnia symptoms [118]. Insomnia has been defined in a variety of different ways in epidemiological research, from the presence of any difficulty initiating or maintaining sleep through to validated diagnostic criteria provided by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders [119], with prevalence rates varying with each definition [120].
There is a growing amount of literature showing that insomniacs are at increased risk of cognitive decline (see [121] for a review). One study has shown that insomniacs have decreased memory ability compared to normal sleepers, where the detrimental performance is not attributable to sleepiness [122]. Furthermore, performance deficits in reaction times and vigilance tests often found in insomniacs may be related to specific SWS deficiencies [123].
8. Mechanisms
The underlying mechanisms regarding the association between sleep and cognition are still relatively poorly understood. However, specific brain regions involved with certain neurocognitive domains, including executive attention, working memory and higher cognitive functions, are known to be particularly vulnerable to sleep deprivation [3]. Furthermore, it has been suggested [124] that fragmented daytime sleep (following a night shift) is associated with large reductions in activity in the corticothalamic network, which mediates alertness, attention and higher-order cognitive processes. Performing higher-order cognitive tasks, such as decision-making, at night may be reliant on prefrontal brain areas, which suggests either the recruitment of a focused attentional strategy, cortical compensation for sleep deprivation, or both [125].
Despite decades of research, the significance and functions of sleep and its various stages, in particular REM sleep, are still not fully understood. A close association with cognitive functions was assumed shortly after the discovery of REM sleep and its relationship to dreaming [126] and there is now considerable evidence showing that newly learned material and skills are consolidated during REM sleep [127]. Furthermore, studies show a link between brain cholinergic activity, timing and density of REM sleep and cognitive functioning [128]. Thus, deficiencies of REM sleep might correlate with or predict cognitive deficits in the elderly.
Research linking SWS to mental restorative processes has been somewhat limited and less convincing. Only a few studies have attempted to examine the relationship between nocturnal SWS and subsequent daytime performance. In one study of healthy young male subjects, those who had slower reaction times on a daytime vigilance test also had lower amounts of nocturnal SWS than did age-and gender-matched individuals who had relatively faster reaction times [129]. Further to findings of the importance of SWS to daytime performance in younger people, Spiegel et al. report both confirmatory and contradictory results concerning the associations between loss of SWS and cognitive decline in adult life. They speculate that the role or functional significance of SWS may change over the course of the life span, which could account for their inconsistent findings, where SWS plays a restorative role in the cognitive functioning of older adults [130]. It is however possible that these studies are measuring different aspects of SWS and that the observed differences may reflect a lack of resolution in the available measurements.
The formation of long-term memories requires a process of consolidation, which is facilitated by sleep. The formation of declarative (consciously recalled) memories, which are hippocampus-dependent, appears to benefit mainly from SWS [131]. Recently, the focus has also been placed on stage 2 sleep and more precisely on sleep spindles, where research shows that overnight verbal memory retention is highly correlated with an increase in the number of sleep spindles [132].
Substantial inter-individual differences in vulnerability to the effects of sleep loss have been demonstrated by various studies [133]. These differences are partly due to tolerance of disturbances in circadian and social rhythm, which varies considerably between individuals [134]. There is also substantial individual variability in the magnitude of age-related cognitive decline [135]. Suggested sources for this variability focus on individual differences in the amount of age associated brain dysfunction, such as cortical [136], white matter pathology [137], and reductions in neurotransmitter receptor binding [138].
Sleep deprivation, mental fatigue, depression, or sleep disorders such as narcolepsy may result in an individual experiencing a transient loss of perception of external stimuli. This is known as a microsleep, and may last up to 30 seconds [139]. Microsleeps can occur at any time without warning, and the sufferer is usually unaware of the occurrence. As such, microsleeps are extremely dangerous in situations that require constant attention or vigilance, such as driving or operating heavy machinery [140]. Through a combination of EEG and neuroimaging techniques, research has shown that there are distinct and localised increases in activity in the fronto-parietal cortex which accompany microsleeps [141]. This activity may be part of a mechanism to restore responsiveness during the transient loss of arousal. Positron Emission Tomography (PET) studies have also confirmed that the ‘resting brain’ is surprisingly active. Raichle and Mintun (2006) report that, not only are there specific areas of the brain associated with higher regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) during rest than during attention-demanding tasks, but that attention-demanding tasks are associated with just a 10% increase in global brain metabolism compared to periods of rest [142]. The Default Mode Network (DMN) is responsible for the default state of ‘resting’ brain activity, which is vital for brain functioning and possibly consciousness [143]. The DMN comprises the posterior and anterior cingulate cortex, and the temporo-parietal cortex [144], where activity decreases during attention-demanding tasks and increases when no such tasks are preformed (i.e. during rest) [145]. Interestingly, Picchioni et al. (2008) also found a transient increase in activity within the DMN during early stage 1 sleep [146].
Closely related to the DMN is the process of ‘mind wandering’ (or daydreaming), which is described as the default mode of operation of the brain [144]. It has been argued that rather than being a passive process, mind wandering is vital to healthy cognition, for example by integrating past and present experiences to facilitate future planning and personal goal resolution [147]. There has been speculation regarding the similarity between thought processes involved in mind wandering during wakeful periods and dream mentation during sleep [148], encouraging a more scientific enquiry into whether daydreaming and dreaming are mediated by the same neural networks. Indeed, meta-analyses of neuroimaging data show overlaps in activation of areas of the DMN during mind wandering, and dreaming during REM sleep [148].
9. Public health importance
There is no doubt that sleep is an integral part of life, and many studies have suggested that it should not be overlooked by clinicians, especially in older adults. Studies have shown that poor sleep quality can be an early sign of amnestic cognitive decline [102] and that EDS may be an early marker and potentially reversible risk factor of cognitive decline and onset of dementia [56].
Cognitive failures associated with total sleep deprivation are of great interest and importance, as their real-world consequences are often catastrophic [149, 150]. Night work is associated with safety risks for both the individual worker as well as society [149, 151]. Deficits in many aspects of cognition such as decision-making, memory processes and importantly in sustained attention are implicated in errors and accidents [16]. Diminished alertness during night shifts has been linked to ability to drive a motor vehicle, which can result in accidents [80, 85, 152]. There is also evidence that air traffic controller (ATC) performance declines and error rates increase on the night-shift, and that ATCs may be falling asleep while on-duty [153]. This, together with the evidence that flying performance decrements occur due to fatigue [154], poses a real worry. Considerable controversy exists regarding optimal work hours for physicians and surgeons, especially those in training [86]. There is a trade-off between providing a continuity of care; educational opportunities; and traditionally defined professionalism vs. clinicians’ fatigue and health; erroneous decision-making and performance; patient care and safety; and overall cost of health care [152, 155].
The implementation of the European Working Time Directive (EWTD) has dramatically shortened doctors’ working hours in an effort to reduce resident fatigue, with the anticipated result of decreasing fatigue-related medical errors and improving residents’ well-being [156]. Following the implementation of these regulations, increasing attention has been focused on the role of resident physicians’ fatigue and the occurrence of medical errors, percutaneous needle sticks, laceration injuries and post-call motor vehicle crashes [157]. Although certain aspects remain controversial, there seems to be a positive effect on residents’ fatigue levels, quality of life and job satisfaction, which may positively influence patient safety [158, 159]. Despite these changes, long working hours remain a common feature in health care worldwide [160]. An evidence-based approach is needed to minimize the risk that current work hour practices bestow while optimizing education and continuity of care [86].
Research shows that the effect of sleep deprivation on cognition is an important public health issue. Results of these studies have important implications in many areas of society, from new policies in medical education [87] to flight psychologists, improving overall sleep patterns and enhancing the war-fighting efforts of aviators in combat [89]. Understanding the fundamental properties and mechanisms through which sleep disruption and sleep disorders are related to cognition, and how sleep regulates alertness and performance in humans, also has therapeutic implications for the development of treatment and prevention strategies, as well as novel wake-promoting therapies [18].
10. Conclusions
Studies to date suggest that sufficient quantity and quality of sleep are required for many aspects of amnestic and non-amnestic cognition, most notably executive attention, working memory and higher cognitive functions. The amount of sleep required continues to be debated, but it is generally agreed that people at the extremes of the sleep distribution, i.e. short (<5hr) and long (>9hr) sleepers [20], are subject to cognitive deficits and accelerated cognitive ageing. Proper alignment between sleep-wakefulness and internal circadian time is crucial for optimal cognitive performance.
A vast amount of research has been conducted into the effect of sleep on cognition in specific scenarios as highlighted in this review. Shift workers who may have shortened sleep patterns have been implicated in compromised health and safety at work due to cognitive deficits. Furthermore, during pregnancy, postpartum and the menopause, women are vulnerable to sleep disturbances, which can have profound effects on different areas of cognition, most notably memory. Age-dependent changes in sleep have been well documented, and research has been conducted into the association between these changes and effects on normal and pathological cognitive decline. Sleep disorders have also been shown to negatively affect cognitive function across the lifespan.
Further research is required to understand the associations and mechanisms involved in more detail, where the findings could have huge impacts in many areas of medicine, from normal ageing to neurocognitive disorders and public health.
Acknowledgments
The study is part of the Sleep, Health & Society Programme of The University of Warwick. This project was supported by a small grant from the University of Warwick Undergraduate Research Scholarship Scheme (URSS). We thank Patricia McCabe for help with the preparation of the manuscript.
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Miller, Hayley Wright, Josie Hough and Francesco P.\nCappuccio",authors:[{id:"77507",title:"Dr.",name:"Michelle A",middleName:null,surname:"Miller",fullName:"Michelle A Miller",slug:"michelle-a-miller",email:"Michelle.Miller@warwick.ac.uk",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Warwick",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Sleep quantity and cognition",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Sleep quality and cognition",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Sleep and cognition: A life course perspective",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1. Sleep and cognition in childhood and adolescence",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2. Sleep and the elderly",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.3. Partum",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.4. Menopause",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. Sleep disruption and work",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"6. Sleep and amnestic and non-amnestic cognition",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"7. Sleep disordered breathing, sleep disorders and cognitive function",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"7.1. Sleep apnoea",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"7.2. Rapid eye movement sleep behaviour disorder (RBD)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"7.3. Insomnia",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15",title:"8. Mechanisms",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"9. Public health importance",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"10. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'[Bliwise DL. Normal aging. Principles and practice of sleep medicine. Forth ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders Company; 2005. p. 24-38.]'},{id:"B2",body:'[Cappuccio FP, Miller MA, Lockley SW. Sleep, health, and society: the contribution of epidemiology. In: Cappuccio FP, Miller MA, Lockley SW, editors. Sleep, Health, and Society: From Aetiology to Public Health. 1 ed. 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'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Hayley Wright",address:null,affiliation:'- University of Warwick, Warwick Medical School, Coventry, UK
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Josie Hough ",address:null,affiliation:'- University of Warwick, Warwick Medical School, Coventry, UK
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Francesco P. Cappuccio",address:null,affiliation:'- University of Warwick, Warwick Medical School, Coventry, UK
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At the historic reunion of 1996 in Rome, in World Food Summit of Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), food security is met when “all people, at all times have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life”. Due to its central role in human development, food security is recognized as a universal human right [1].
Promoting food security is a complex mission with political, economic, environmental, social and cultural dimensions. For food security to be achieved, the population should have unrestricted access to a healthy and nutritious diet, which depends on adequate economic resources and food available in the country, region and communities in which people are located. The national availability of food for human consumption is a function of the balance between food grown in the country, import and export of food, reduction of waste and destination of food [2]. At the cultural and sociopolitical level, countries must provide incentives for advancing locally based and culturally relevant ethnic foods. The critical knowledge and creativity gained from long-term accumulated traditional knowledge can inform contemporary food science and nutritional and health science to advance more sustainable strategies based on experiences of diverse ecologies and cultures around the world [3].
The health is directly related with the balanced nutrition. Hippocrates “the father of medicine”, over two millennia ago, mentioned about 400 medicinal plants and uttered the maxim, “let food be your medicine and let medicine be your food” [4]. Nutraceutical is the hybrid of ‘nutrition’ and ‘pharmaceutical’. Nutraceuticals, in broad, are food or part of food playing a significant role in modifying and maintaining normal physiological function that maintains healthy human beings [5]. Grain legumes contain numerous phytochemicals useful for their nutritional or nutraceutical properties [6].
During the last decade, legumes have emerged as an interesting and balanced source of nutrients, being currently widely cultivated and consumed in different parts of the world [7, 8]. Legumes are consumed worldwide as an alternative source of proteins, since they are rich in amino acids like lysine and tryptophan and they are much cheaper than animal proteins [5]. Legumes are an excellent source of many essential nutrients, including vitamins, minerals, fibres, antioxidants and other bioactive compounds [9, 10, 11], including enzyme inhibitors, lectins, phytates, oligosaccharides and phenolic compounds that play metabolic roles in humans consuming these foods frequently [12].
The health organizations around the world recommend consuming legumes as part of a healthy diet, particularly because they have an important role in the control and prevention of chronic non-communicable diseases (NCDs) such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and cancer [13, 14, 15]. The legumes also favour the control of body weight, since they give greater satiety, prevent the accumulation of fat at the abdominal level and regulate blood sugar levels [15, 16, 17].
Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata [L.] Walp) is grain legume originated in the African continent with large economic and social importance in the developing world. Cowpea is a food of major importance for millions of people, especially in less developed countries of the tropics, being the major source of protein and carbohydrate dietary of the large part of the world population. Cowpea is not only rich in nutrients, but also nutraceuticals such as dietary fibre, antioxidants and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and polyphenols [18, 19, 20, 21].
Widely consumed in many countries, with excellent nutritional and nutraceutical properties and several agronomic, environmental and economic advantages, contributing to food security and maintenance of environment [22, 23]; cowpea is a strategic culture for the promotion of food security and health of populations on all continents.
2. Production and food security
2.1. Aspects of production
Cowpea is one of the key food sources in the arid, semi-arid and tropical parts of Asia, Oceania, southern Europe, Africa, southern United States and Central and South America [24]. Cowpea is grown as a main legume crop in Africa (Egypt, Nigeria), South America (Colombia, Brazil), the USA, Mexico, Asia (China, Pakistan and Japan) and in South and Southeast Europe (Spain, Italy, Portugal, Greece and Cyprus) [25]. It is truly a multifunctional crop, providing food for man and livestock and serving as a valuable and dependable revenue-generating commodity for farmers and grain traders [24, 26, 27].
According to the data from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (http://www.fao.org), approximately 5.8 million tons of dry cowpea cereal is produced annually with a minimum of 11 million hectares planted all over the world [27], an average productivity of 527 kg ha−1. However, due to the low productivity in regions that grow cowpea for subsistence, with low technological level and use of traditional genotypes, this productivity is below the potential of the crop that is 6000 kg ha−1 [28].
Recent studies to evaluate the “adaptability and stability” and the productive performance of different genotypes (e.g. cultivar, lineage and hybrid) in different environmental conditions has allowed to obtain dry grain yields close and/or higher than 3000 kg ha−1 for various genotypes [29, 30]. In addition to the positioning of genotypes suitable to crop environments, simple adjustments in production systems such as determination of planting time, spacing and plant density, are capable of promoting large productivity increases. Therefore, increased productivity and economic viability of cowpea is possible in all growing regions, using appropriate genotypes and improvements in production systems, reducing dependence on external inputs.
Cowpea is an essential component of sustainable cropping systems in the sub-humid tropics and, generally, dry regions across the globe. Cowpea is particularly important as a rotation crop with cereals. Cowpea can enhance the fertility of the soil with respect to nitrogen and phosphate, thereby benefiting subsequent cereal crops [23, 24]. Cowpea has great realization capacity of “biological nitrogen fixation (BNF)”. BNF converts the atmospheric dinitrogen (N2) into usable nitrogen (N) by plants. BNF occurs in specialized plant structure called nodules formed by the symbiosis between roots and diazotrophic bacteria, which confer to leguminous crops the ability to satisfy their own and other plants’ N-source demand [31, 32].
Cowpea is able to fix N in an amount greater than 100 kg ha−1, replacing nitrogen fertilization [33], contributes to the low production cost of this culture [34]. BNF has contributed to the increase in cowpea yield, which along with other technological strategies has led to the expansion of the culture to news agricultural frontiers, competing as off-season culture with traditional commodities, such as corn [35]. Besides the fixation of N, the inclusion of cowpea in the rotation crop systems favours the accumulation of organic matter and greater fixation of carbon. This accumulation of organic matter contributes to the improvement of soil fertility and physical characteristics such as water infiltration and retention capacity, soil conservation and sustainability of production systems.
2.2. A strategic culture for food security
Increasing demands for nutritious, safe and healthy food because of a growing population and the pledge to maintain biodiversity and other resources pose a major challenge to agriculture that is already threatened by changing climate [36]. The access to healthy diet depends on the availability of nutritious foods at prices compatible with the purchasing power of populations [2]. Therefore, for a crop to be included in food safety programs, in addition to being nutritious and safe, it must have high relative productivity, production stability and high tolerance to environmental stresses (e.g. drought, salt soil, high temperature). They must also have economic viability, low environmental impact and contribute to the conservation of natural resources and the sustainability of production systems.
Cowpea is one of the most important edible grain legumes in underdeveloped and developing countries contributing to food security and maintenance of environment for millions of small-scale farmers and of the local populations [22, 37, 38]. In developed countries, cowpea is also considered as a healthy alternative to soya bean as consumers look to more traditional food sources that are low in fat and high in fibre and that have other health benefits [39].
The availability of food is directly related to the agricultural production policies of each nation, which defines the agricultural crops that will receive investments in research, development of production technologies, financing, as well as the destination of production. This is especially relevant in case of ethnically and culturally relevant legumes, such as cowpea, where food support and subsidies in many countries favour a restricted choice of cereal crops over balanced co-production of legumes [40].
The research investment combined with the wide genetic diversity allowed us to obtain high-yield productive cowpea genotypes, early maturity and with plant architecture favourable to the mechanized harvest. These genotypes have greater resistance to the adverse environmental conditions to the cultivar (e.g. dry and temperature variation) and the attack of pests and diseases. In the last decade, cowpeas have ceased to be a subsistence crop, cultivated largely by family farmers and have aroused the interest of large farmers. With this, the relative increase in cowpea production in the first decade of the twenty-first century surpassed all other pulses1 [41]. Cowpea is truly a multifunctional crop strategic for food security.
3. Nutritional properties
Cowpea plays a critical role in the lives of millions of people in the developing world, providing them a major source of dietary protein that nutritionally complements low-protein cereal and tuber crop staples [39]. With recognised nutritional value, cowpea can be consumed such as mature beans (i.e. dried grain), green beans or green pods. The cowpea leaves also can be consumed as food. Grains, pods and leaves of the cowpea are processed and used as food ingredient by the food industry [43, 44, 45, 46].
The cowpea seeds are eaten boiled, parched, fried, roasted, mixed with sauce or stewed and consumed directly. Its seeds provide important vitamins, phytonutrients including antioxidants besides carbohydrates, minerals and trace elements. Cowpea due to its nutrients and functional benefits has also gained industrial importance for being used as a potential ingredient in food formulations [47].
Regarding the need for consumption, nutrients in the human diet can be classified as macronutrients (primary contributors to energy intake, which include total carbohydrate, total fat, protein and alcohol), micronutrients (minerals, vitamins and dietary fibre), and to include other food components such as bioactive compounds [48].
The consumption of cowpea supplies most of the macro and micronutrients of the diet. Chemical composition and nutritional properties of cowpeas vary considerably according to cultivar. For effective utilization of newly developed cowpea cultivars for human nutrition, the removal or reduction of antinutrients and evaluation of their nutritional properties are necessary [49].
3.1. Macronutrients
3.1.1. Protein
The nutritional profile of cowpea grain is similar to that of other pulses with a relatively low fat content and total protein content that is two- to fourfold higher than cereal and tuber crops [39]. Under the Harvest Plus initiative funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and others, a systematic breeding program to develop improved cowpea varieties with enhanced levels of protein and micronutrient contents was initiated in 2003. Approximately, 2000 genotypes (e.g. cultivars and breeding lines) have been evaluated revealing significant genetic variability in seed protein contents, with values ranging from 21 to 30.7% [39]. The nutritional ranking of 30 Brazilian genotypes of cowpea revel protein contents ranging from 17.4 to 28.3%. [50]. For improved cowpea breeding lines, the protein content can be bigger than 30% [51, 52].
Similar to other pulses, the storage proteins in cowpea seeds are rich in the amino acids lysine and tryptophan when compared to cereal grains, but low in methionine and cysteine when compared to animal proteins [39]. Cowpea possess some undesirable properties that are common to other legume seeds, such as methionine and cysteine deficiency as well as considerable contents of antinutritional factors like protease inhibitors, lectins, phytic acid, tannins, among others [49, 53].
A protein has a good amino profile when it presents all the essential amino acids (i.e. those that cannot be synthesised by the body and therefore must be obtained by the diet) in significant quantity [54]. Genetic and agronomic factors may influence the amino acid profile of cowpea [55]. Analyses carried out by Frota et al. [56] and Vasconcelos et al. [57] have shown that cowpea presented cysteine and methionine as limiting amino acids, whereas the other essential amino acids met the recommendations of the amino acid standard of the FAO/WHO [58] for children (2–5 years). However, other authors have found values of all the essential amino acids below the recommendation in some cowpea cultivars [59, 60].
Given its nutritional value as well as the reduced environmental impact of the production systems, intense research efforts must be redirected to the evaluation of nutrients and antinutrients of cowpea, its digestibility and development of processing alternatives that may allow the production of foods with lower impact on human health as well as its potential contribution to human nutrition [7]. Conventional processing methods, such as soaking, boiling, germination and fermentation, are widely used to decrease the content of these undesirable components, which results in enhanced acceptability and nutritional quality in addition to optimal utilisation of this legume as human food [61].
Cowpea protein isolate is an alternative for incorporation into food products [56]. Protein isolation is an alternative for the minimisation of antinutritional factors, improved digestibility and bioavailability of leguminous amino acids [62]. A mixed food of legumes and cereals, particularly in developing countries, can compensate deficiencies or a low level of lysine and sulphur amino acids, in cereals and grain legumes, respectively [63]. The utilization of a nutritional quality index will allow pinpointing the genotypes that gather the largest number of desirable nutritional attributes and then assist in the planning of new crosses in the breeding program [50].
3.1.2. Carbohydrate
Cowpea is one of the main sources of calories for a large segment of world population [18, 57]. Cowpea seeds contain approximately 53–66% carbohydrate, most of which is found in the form of starch, has high amylose content and C-type starch crystallinity [64, 65, 66].
Legumes, such as cowpea, contain a considerable amount of resistant starch (i.e. starch that resists to digestion by amylase in the small intestine and progresses to the large intestine for fermentation by the gut bacteria) and also have a higher ratio of slow-digestible to rapid-digestible starch, compared to other carbohydrate foods. Resistant starch is associated with reduced glycemic response, which can be beneficial to insulin-resistant individuals and those with diabetes [67, 68, 69]. Carbohydrates that are digested slowly also result in a low glycemic index (GI) [70]. The consumption of low GI foods could prevent the emergence of several diseases, such as obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and even certain cancers [71]. Other important constituents in cowpea seeds are the α-galactosides, with a recognized prebiotic function [72].
3.1.3. Lipids
Recently, cowpea has been stressed on a low fat content, comparatively to other legumes (chickpea, split pea, lentil, green gram and lupine), which makes it, according to nutritional guidelines, a legume with potential application in weight restriction diets [7]. The content and profile of lipids in cowpea seeds, such as other nutrients, vary among genotypes and are also influenced by environmental conditions during cultivation. According to Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA), the content of lipids in cowpea seeds, on average, is 2% [73]. The nutritional ranking of 30 Brazilian genotypes of cowpea revel lipids contents range from 1.0 to 1.6% [50]. Frota et al. [74], found lipid content of 2.2% in seed cowpea BRS-Milênio, a cultivar obtained by genetic improvement, and its fatty acids profile was 29.4% saturated and 70.7% unsaturated. Iqbal et al. [13], on the other hand, obtained approximately double the lipid content (4.8 g 100 g−1) in relation to the cultivar BRS-Milênio analysed in the study performed by Frota et al. [74].
The triglycerides are the most abundant lipids in the cowpea seeds, corresponding to 41.2% of the total fat. The cowpea seeds lipid profile includes still 25.1% of phospholipids, 10.6% of monoglycerides, 7.9% of free fatty acids, 7.8% of diglycerides, 5.5% of sterols and 2.6% of hydrocarbons + sterol esters [75, 76]. Of the total fatty acids, most of it (40.1–78.3%) consists of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Ranging from 20.5 to 67.1%, the palmitic acid is the most abundant fatty acid. The content of linoleic acid can be ranging from 20.8 to 40.3% and of the linolenic acid ranges from 9.6 to 30.9%. In smaller proportion (2.9–14.0%), the stearic acids complete the profile of fatty acids of the cowpea seeds [7].
3.2. Micronutrients
Micronutrients are organic or inorganic compounds present in small amounts and are not used for energy, but are nonetheless needed for good health. Nonessential micronutrients encompass a vast group of unique organic phytochemicals that are not strictly required in the diet, but when present at sufficient levels are linked to the promotion of good health. Essential micronutrients in the human diet include 17 minerals and 13 vitamins required at minimum levels to alleviate nutritional disorders (See [77]).
3.2.1. Vitamin
Cowpea is rich in vitamin A and C and also has appreciable amount of thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B6 and pantothenic acid as well as small amount of foliate [78]. Vitamins are indispensable to the maintenance of various functions of physiological importance such as muscle contractility, nerve function, blood coagulation, digestive processes and acid–base balance [79].
The major vitamins present in cowpea are those belonging to the B complex, being reported in the following decreasing order: niacin (7.0–40.0 × 10−3 g kg−1) > panthothenic acid (17.0–22.0 × 10−3 g kg−1) > thiamine (2.0–17.0 × 10−3 g kg−1) > pyridoxine (2.0–4.0 × 10−3 g kg−1) > folic acid (1.0–4.0 × 10−3 g kg−1) > riboflavin (1.0–3.0 × 10−3 g kg−1) > biotin(0.2–0.3 × 10−3 g kg−1) > cobalamin (traces). Cowpea appears to be a particularly good source of vitamin C, with levels in seeds ranging from 52.0 to 554.0 × 10−3 g kg−1. Carotenoids, precursors of vitamin A, are also present in cowpea contributing to the antioxidant compounds provided by this legume. Lastly, from the various vitamin E vitamers present in cowpea, 𝛿-tocopherol has been observed with the highest concentration (15.1–109.7 × 10−3 g kg−1), followed by 𝛾-tocopherol (4.3–92.3 × 10–3 g kg−1), and 𝛾-tocotrienol (0.7–3.4 × 10−3 g kg−1). The vitamin E composition of cowpea seems to differ significantly from that of most legumes, where 𝛾-tocopherol dominates (reviewed by [7]).
3.2.2. Minerals
An appropriate intake of micro minerals is necessary for the human organism to meet its metabolic needs, and hence avoid a wide range of associated health problems [80, 81]. Cowpea is rich in potassium with good amount of calcium, magnesium and phosphorus. It also has small amount of iron, sodium, zinc, copper, manganese and selenium [78].
The mineral composition of 30 newly developed Brazilian cowpea genotypes obtained by conventional plant breeding reveals the following contents of minerals in the seeds: iron 61–81 ppm; zinc 27–44 ppm; sodium 84–177 ppm; potassium 9570–12,510 ppm; calcium 290–440 ppm; magnesium 1310–1160 ppm; manganese 17–29 ppm; copper 20–22 ppm [50].
The cowpea seed analysis of 87 lines originated from a set of crosses involving 3 accessions of the IITA (‘IT97K-1042-3’, ‘IT99K-216-48-1’ and ‘IT97K-499’) and accessions adapted for cultivation in the Brazilian semi-arid tropical areas (‘BRS Tapaihum’, ‘BRS Pujante’ and ‘Canapu’), reveals high variation in minerals values: calcium 420–6260 ppm; iron 42.0–137.0 ppm; zinc 38.0–55.5 ppm; potassium 21,000–27,000 ppm; sodium 29.2–88.0 ppm [80]. In the analysis of approximately 2000 cowpea genotypes under the Harvest Plus initiative [39], the typical calcium, iron, zinc and potassium values showed large variations among genotypes (e.g. calcium ranging from 545 to 1300 ppm and zinc ranging from 23 to 48 ppm). These analyses reveal that cowpea have high levels of these micronutrients in comparison with other cultures, and that the variation in the levels of these micronutrients favours the genetic improvement of the species and the obtaining of more nutritious genotypes [39, 80].
4. Nutraceuticals compounds
Nutraceuticals, in broad, are food or part of food playing a significant role in modifying and maintaining normal physiological function that maintains healthy human beings [5]. The food sources used as nutraceuticals are all natural and can be categorized as dietary fibre, probiotics, prebiotics, polyunsaturated fatty acids, antioxidant vitamins, polyphenols and other different types of herbal/natural foods [5, 82, 83].
4.1. Dietary fibre
Dietary fibre has been shown to have important health implications in the prevention of risks of chronic diseases such as cancer, CVD and diabetes mellitus [84]. Dietary fibre can be soluble or insoluble depending upon solubility in water. Cowpea has high level of dietary fibre, mainly of insoluble fibre. Water-soluble fibre can form viscous solutions. The insoluble fibre (i.e. lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose) has high water-holding capacity and acts on the regulation of the defecation process [12, 13], while that the soluble fibre can contribute for reducing the postprandial blood glucose and insulin levels, and serum cholesterol [85].
In cowpea flours, (i.e. dehulled, ground and defatted cotyledons) the total dietary fibre (calculated as % of dry matter) is 14.1 ± 0.3, being 1.0 ± 0.0% of soluble fibre and 13 ± 0.2 of insoluble fibre [86]. The dietary fibre composition of 30 newly developed Brazilian cowpea genotypes showed great genetic variability among the genotypes, with values ranging from 19.5 to 35.6 g 100 g−1 [50].
4.2. Probiotics
Probiotics can be defined as live microbial feed supplements that beneficially affect the host animal by improving its intestinal microbial balance [87]. Food cultures that have such beneficial effects on human health have been termed “probiotic” [88].
Probiotics are associated with fermented foods, latter having a long tradition of acceptability in communities where they are produced, safe use and the established as well as postulated claims of health benefits [89, 90]. The probiotic potential of fermented foods, such as cowpea, sorghum and peanut plant seed extracts have been reported [91].
4.3. Prebiotics
Prebiotics are non-digestible food ingredients that selectively stimulating the growth and/or activity of one or a limited number of beneficial bacteria in the colon [92, 93]. The prebiotics resist hydrolysis by digestive enzymes and/or are not absorbed in the upper part of the gastrointestinal tract and pass into the large bowel and promote the growth of Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus, contributing for the right balance of intestinal bacterial flora and the immune system. The growth of Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus to dominate pathogenic organisms and thus invigorate human health is facilitated by certain oligosaccharides [94, 95]. Cowpea seeds are rich in α-galactosides (raffinose, stachyose and verbascose) [7, 96], also known as the raffinose family oligosaccharides (RFOs) [99].
The α-galactosides are beneficial compounds when ingested in amounts up to 3 g day−1. However, when consumed in high doses the α-galactosides can cause flatulence and interference with the absorption of other nutrients during the digestive process [97]. As RFO act as substrate for intestinal bacteria, they are also considered as prebiotics [98]. The Galactosyl-cyclitols, present in legume seeds, are considered as important phytochemicals related to disease prevention [99].
4.4. Polyunsaturated fatty acids
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are also called “essential fatty acids” as these are crucial to the body’s function and are introduced externally through the diet [100]. PUFAs have two subdivisions: omega-3- (n-3) fatty acids and omega-6-(n-6) fatty acids. In cowpea, the bulk of fatty acids consist of polyunsaturated fatty acids that range from 40.1 to 78.3% of total (reviewed by [7]). This high level of unsaturated fatty acids is a nutritionally desirable feature [101].
Studies suggest that PUFAs have therapeutic effects in cardiovascular and hypolipidemic diseases. Emerging research evidence shows the benefits of omega-3-oils in other areas of health including premature infant health, asthma, bipolar and depressive disorders, dysmenorrhea and diabetes (reviewed by [5]).
4.5. Antioxidant vitamin
Cowpea appears to be a particularly good source of vitamin C, with levels in seeds and pods ranging from 52.0 to 554.0 × 10−3 g kg−1 [7]. Carotenoids, precursors of vitamin A, are also present in cowpea contributing to the antioxidant compounds provided by this legume. Among the carotenoids present in cowpea seeds, lutein makes up over 70.0%.Other carotenoids present in cowpea are 𝛽-carotene, 𝛾-carotene and cryptoxanthin [7, 102].
From the various vitamin E vitamers present in cowpea, 𝛿-tocopherol has been observed with the highest concentration, followed by 𝛾-tocopherol -tocotrienol (0.7–3.4 × 10−3 g kg−1) [7]. The vitamin E composition of cowpea seems to differ significantly from that of most legumes, where 𝛾-tocopherol dominates [103, 104].
4.6. Phenolic compounds
Cowpea is a good source of dietary phenolics mainly phenolic acids, flavonoids and anthocyanins and proanthocyanidins. These compounds are reportedly responsible for the antioxidant and other health promoting properties of cowpea [105].
Phenolic compounds (tannins, flavonoids and phenolic acids) are secondary metabolites in plants and are present in some plant foods [106, 107]. Phenolic compounds are responsible for various beneficial effects in a multitude of diseases [108]. Phenolic compounds have antioxidant properties and ability to modulate the activity of various enzymes. These phenolics are also potent inhibitors of a-amylase and a-glucosidase, the two important enzymes involved in the regulation of glucose homeostasis [109].
5. Conclusion
In the current scenario of population growth, the demand for nutritious and functional, safe, and healthy food poses a major challenge for producers, which in times of climate change are enjoined to conserve natural resources, and for the governments of nations in need invest in the production of crops that can be included in food security programs and contribute to the health of populations.
With excellent nutritional and nutraceutical properties and several agronomic, environmental and economic advantages, cowpea is able of contribute to food security, maintenance of environment and promotion health for populations. This is possible due to the great genetic variability of the cowpea and the numerous researches to develop new genotypes more productive, biofortified, adapted to different environments and production systems. Cowpea is a much studied culture, which has its composition known, with great value for the food industry.
The use of cowpea as functional food has encouraged the industry and farmers to produce this legume. Considering the great demand worldwide for consumption, the excellent nutritional and nutraceutical properties, the availability of production technology and the wide possibility of choice of genotypes for production, cowpea is undoubtedly a strategic legume specie for food security and health.
Acknowledgments
The author thank the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES-Brazil).
\n',keywords:"diseases prevention, nutraceuticals, nutrition, phytochemicals, Vigna unguiculata",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/62227.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/62227.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62227",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62227",totalDownloads:1742,totalViews:456,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"February 28th 2018",dateReviewed:"May 22nd 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:null,dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"In this chapter, several characteristics of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), including nutritional and nutraceutical properties, and economic and social aspects of production were analysed with the objective to demonstrate that cowpea is a culture suitable for inclusion in food security programs. Cowpea is rich in diverse nutrients, highlighting high levels of protein. Cowpea also is rich in nutraceuticals compounds such as dietary fibre, antioxidants and polyunsaturated fatty acids and polyphenols. Widely cultivated and consumed cowpea is the very important legume for the nutrition and health of millions of people in many countries. In addition to being nutritious and safe, cowpea has high relative productivity, production stability and high tolerance to environmental stresses such as drought. Cowpea also has economic viability, low environmental impact and contributes to the conservation of natural resources and the sustainability of production systems. Cowpea is a safe food, always available in most regions, low priced compared to other sources of protein. Based on the analyses performed, it is possible to infer that cowpea is a strategic culture for the promotion of food security and health of populations on all continents.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/62227",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/62227",signatures:"Alexandre Carneiro da Silva, Dyego da Costa Santos, Davair Lopes\nTeixeira Junior, Pedro Bento da Silva, Rosana Cavalcante dos Santos\nand Amauri Siviero",book:{id:"7337",title:"Legume Seed Nutraceutical Research",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Legume Seed Nutraceutical Research",slug:"legume-seed-nutraceutical-research",publishedDate:"February 13th 2019",bookSignature:"Jose C. Jimenez-Lopez and Alfonso Clemente",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7337.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"33993",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez-Lopez",slug:"jose-carlos-jimenez-lopez",fullName:"Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Production and food security",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Aspects of production",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. A strategic culture for food security",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Nutritional properties",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1. Macronutrients",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"3.1.1. Protein",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"3.1.2. Carbohydrate",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"3.1.3. Lipids",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.2. Micronutrients",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"3.2.1. Vitamin",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"3.2.2. Minerals",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13",title:"4. Nutraceuticals compounds",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"4.1. Dietary fibre",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"4.2. Probiotics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"4.3. Prebiotics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"4.4. Polyunsaturated fatty acids",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"4.5. Antioxidant vitamin",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"4.6. Phenolic compounds",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'[FAO. World Food Summit [Internet]. Rome (Italy): FAO; 1996. [cited 2018 Abr 5]. Available from: http://www.fao.org/wfs/index_en.htm]'},{id:"B2",body:'[Pérez-Escamilla R. Food Security and the 2015-2030 Sustainable Development Goals: From Human to Planetary Health: Perspectives and Opinions. 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Breeding biofortified cowpea lines for semi-arid tropical areas by combining higher seed protein and mineral levels. Genetics and Molecular Research. 2013;12(4):6782-6789]'},{id:"B81",body:'[Welch RM, Graham RD. Breeding for micronutrients in staple food crops from a human nutrition perspective. Journal of Experimental Botany. 2004;55:353-364]'},{id:"B82",body:'[Kokate CK, Purohit AP, Gokhale SB. Nutraceutical and Cosmaceutical. Pharmacognosy. 21st ed. Pune, India: Nirali Prakashan; 2002. pp. 542-549]'},{id:"B83",body:'[Kalia AN. Textbook of Industrial Pharmacognosy. New Delhi: CBS Publisher and Distributor; 2005. pp. 204-208]'},{id:"B84",body:'[Roberfroid M. Health benefits of non-digestible oligosaccharides. In: Kritchevsky D, Bonfield C, editors. Dietary Fiber in Health and Disease (Advances in Experimental Biology). New York: Plenum Press; 1997. p. 427]'},{id:"B85",body:'[Anderson JW, Chen WJL. Cholesterol-lowering properties of oat products. In: Webster FH, editor. 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International Dairy Journal. 2008;18:714-728]'},{id:"B91",body:'[Schaffner DW, Beuchat LR. Fermentation of aqueous plant seed extracts by lactic acid bacteria. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 1986;51:1072-1076]'},{id:"B92",body:'[Gibson GR, Roberfroid MB. Dietary modulation of the human colonic microbiota: introducing the concept of prebiotics. The Journal of Nutrition. 1995;125:1401-1412]'},{id:"B93",body:'[Swennen K, Courtin CM, Delcour JA. Non-digestible oligosaccharides with prebiotic properties. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2006;46:459-471]'},{id:"B94",body:'[Salminen S, Bouly C, Boutron-Ruault MC, Cummings JH, Franck A, Gibson GR, Isolauri E, Moreaou MC. Functional food science and gastrointestinal physiology and function. The British Journal of Nutrition. 1998;80:S147-S171]'},{id:"B95",body:'[Roberfroid M. Functional food concept and its application to prebiotics. Digestive and Liver Disease. 2002;34:S105-S110]'},{id:"B96",body:'[Sreerama YN, Sashikala VB, Pratape VM, Singh V. Nutrients and antinutrients in cowpea and horse gram flours in comparison to chickpea flour: Evaluation of their flour functionality. Food Chemistry. 2012;131(2):462-468]'},{id:"B97",body:'[Martínez-Villaluenga C, Frías J, Vidal-Valverde C. Alpha-galactosides: antinutritional factors or functional ingredients? Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2008;48(4):301-316]'},{id:"B98",body:'[Swennen K, Courtin CM, Delcour JA. Non-digestibleoligosaccharides with prebiotic properties. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2006;46:459-471]'},{id:"B99",body:'[Ruiz-Aceituno L, Rodríguez-Sánchez S, Ruiz-Matute AI, Ramos L, Soria AC, Sanz ML. Optimisation of a biotechnological procedure for selective fractionation of bioactive inositols in edible legume extracts. Journal of Science and Food Agriculture. 2013;93:2797-2803]'},{id:"B100",body:'[Escott-Stump E, Mahan LK. Krause’s Food, Nutrition and Diet Therapy. 10th ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders Company; 2000. pp. 553-559]'},{id:"B101",body:'[Onwuliri VA, Obu JA. Lipids and other constituents of Vigna unguiculata and Phaseolus vulgaris grown in northern Nigeria. Food Chemistry. 2002;78:1-7]'},{id:"B102",body:'[Hashim N, Pongjata J. Vitamin A activity of rice-based weaning foods enriched with germinated cowpea flour, banana, pumpkin and milk powder. Malaysian Journal of Nutrition. 2000;6:65-73]'},{id:"B103",body:'[Kalogeropoulos N, Chiou A, Ioannou M, Karathanos VT, Hassapidou M, Andrikopoulos NK. Nutritional evaluation and bioactive microconstituents (phytosterols, tocopherols, polyphenols, triterpenic acids) in cooked dry legumes usually consumed in the Mediterranean countries. Food Chemistry. 2010;121:682-690]'},{id:"B104",body:'[Tsuda T, Makino Y, Kato H, Osawa T, Kawakishi S. Screening for antioxidative activity of edible pulses. Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry. 1993;57:1606-1608]'},{id:"B105",body:'[Apea-Bah FB, Serem JC, Bester MJ, Duodu KG. Phenolic composition and antioxidant properties of koose, a deep-fat fried cowpea cake. Food Chemistry. 2017;237:247-256]'},{id:"B106",body:'[Manach C, Scalbert H, Morand C, Remesy C, Jimenez L. Polyphenols in foods and bioavailability. The American Journal. Clinical Nutrition. 2004;79(5):727-747]'},{id:"B107",body:'[Wu X, Beecher GR, Holden JM, Haytowitz DB, Gebhardt SE, Prior RL. Concentrations of anthocyanins in common foods in the United States and estimation of normal consumption. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2006;54(11):4069-4075]'},{id:"B108",body:'[Soobrattee MA, Neergheen VS, Luximon-ramma A, Aruomab OI, Bahorun T. Phenolics as potential antioxidant therapeutic agents: Mechanism and actions. Mutation Research. 2005;579(1-2):200-213]'},{id:"B109",body:'[McDougall GJ, Stewart D. The inhibitory effects of berry polyphenols on digestive enzymes. BioFactors. 2005;23(4):189-195]'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:"Pulses are defined by the FAO as “limited to crops harvested solely for dry grain, thereby. Pulses exclude vegetable crops such as green peas and green beans, crops which are used primarily such oil crops (e.g. soybeans) and leguminous forage crops, such as alfalfa [42]."}],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Alexandre Carneiro da Silva",address:"alexandre.silva@ifac.edu.br",affiliation:'- Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Acre (IFAC), Xapuri, Brazil
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'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Rosana Cavalcante dos Santos",address:null,affiliation:'- Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Acre (IFAC), Rio Branco, Brazil
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Amauri Siviero",address:null,affiliation:'- Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation, Rio Branco, Brazil
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While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
",metaTitle:"Our story",metaDescription:"The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/our-story",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\\n\\nIn the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n\\nThe IntechOpen timeline
\\n\\n2004
\\n\\n\\n\\t- Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\\n\\t- Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n
\\n\\n2005
\\n\\n\\n\\t- IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\\n
\\n\\n2006
\\n\\n\\n\\t- IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\\n
\\n\\n2008
\\n\\n\\n\\t- Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\\n
\\n\\n2009
\\n\\n\\n\\t- Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\\n
\\n\\n2010
\\n\\n\\n\\t- Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\\n\\t- IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\\n
\\n\\n2011
\\n\\n\\n\\t- Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\\n\\t- IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\\n\\t- IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\\n\\t- IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\\n
\\n\\n2012
\\n\\n\\n\\t- Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\\n\\t- IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\\n
\\n\\n2013
\\n\\n\\n\\t- IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\\n
\\n\\n2014
\\n\\n\\n\\t- IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\\n\\t- IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\\n
\\n\\n2015
\\n\\n\\n\\t- Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\\n\\t- Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\\n\\t- 40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\\n\\t- Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\\n
\\n\\n2016
\\n\\n\\n\\t- IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\\n
\\n\\n2017
\\n\\n\\n\\t- Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\\n\\t- Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
\\n
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\n\nIn the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n\nThe IntechOpen timeline
\n\n2004
\n\n\n\t- Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\n\t- Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n
\n\n2005
\n\n\n\t- IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\n
\n\n2006
\n\n\n\t- IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\n
\n\n2008
\n\n\n\t- Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\n
\n\n2009
\n\n\n\t- Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\n
\n\n2010
\n\n\n\t- Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\n\t- IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\n
\n\n2011
\n\n\n\t- Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\n\t- IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\n\t- IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\n\t- IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\n
\n\n2012
\n\n\n\t- Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\n\t- IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\n
\n\n2013
\n\n\n\t- IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\n
\n\n2014
\n\n\n\t- IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\n\t- IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\n
\n\n2015
\n\n\n\t- Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\n\t- Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\n\t- 40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\n\t- Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\n
\n\n2016
\n\n\n\t- IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n
\n\n2017
\n\n\n\t- Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\n\t- Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
\n
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