\r\n\tThe discovery of Nylon by Wallace Hume Carothers, a Harvard-educated world-renowned organic chemist born in Burlington, IA in 1896, successfully crowned the attempts developed by E.I du Pont de Nemours & Company to investigate the structure of high molecular weight polymers and to synthesize the first synthetic polymeric fibre. \r\n\tWhen it hit the market, it was in the form of stockings and all the women in the US wanted to get their hands on a pair. Despite the successful launch of Nylon on the synthetic fibre market and the high expectations created by its extraordinary features, the unexpected war events in 1941 diverted the production of the new synthetic fibre almost exclusively on military applications. Parachutes, ropes, bootlaces, fuel tanks, mosquito nets and hammocks absorbed the production of Nylon, which helped to determine the WWII events. When the war ended and production returned to pre-war levels, consumers rushed to the department stores in search of stockings, accessories and high-fashion garments. \r\n\tEven if the world of high fashion now seems to more appreciate the use of natural fibres, Nylon is one of the most widely used polymers for the production of technical fibres and fabrics, automotive and micromechanical components. The global nylon 6 & 66 market is expected to reach USD 41.13 billion by 2025, by the following growth at 6.1% CAGR owing to the Increasing focus on fuel-efficient and less polluting vehicles.
\r\n
\r\n\t \r\n\tThe amazing success story of Nylon still continues. While its wide availability inspired the development of innovative applications, such as the additive manufacturing, on the other hand, proper disposal after use of high amounts of Nylon resin energised the development of efficient recycling methodology, including chemical recycling. Moreover, the production of Nylon precursors from biomass has become desirable due to the depletion of fossil hydrocarbons and to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This unique combination of technical and socio-economic driving forces is one that aims to further promote the development of Nylon as one of the most suitable ""best polymers"" with a low ecological footprint.
\r\n
\r\n\t \r\n\tThe aim of this publication is to unveil the relationships between the chemical structure and the outstanding properties of the broad family of polyamides and to describe the most recent use of Nylon in fostering new applications and promoting a culture aware of environmental sustainability.
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\n
1. Modelling, simulation, and optimization of distillation processes
\n
Obtaining a phenomenological model of a process consists on applying law conservations, like mass, energy, and momentum balances and constitutive relations, like vapor-liquid equilibrium, chemical reaction rate, chemical equilibrium relation, etc. A mathematical model, developed to represent (approximately) the real behavior of a process, is very important to analyze an existing plant or to evaluate the technical viability of a new chemical process plant. These analyses and evaluations normally are carried out by making changes in some process parameter and measuring the results of the respective change, in other words, carry out lots of “what if” relations. The analysis of a plant, by simulation, within the development of new processes may frequently show beforehand whether it is technically and economically viable [1].
\n
The solution process of a mathematical model is known as simulation (nowadays, simulation is synonymous of computational simulation). Analyzing a process based only in the mathematical model, is a task almost impossible, but the numerical results of simulation can be easier analyzed. The mathematical model is very important, beyond for simulation and analyses, for the optimization of a process. The mathematical model must correctly represent the quantities and reflect the state of the studied system, only so the simulation and optimization will succeed. In the step of the mathematical model construction, the engineer must analyze if some simplifications, which can make the model simpler (or much simpler), can be adopted without a significant loss in the prediction capacity of system property behavior. However complex a model may be, it cannot represent exactly the real behavior, so some simplifications can be accepted, resulting in a much more simpler model, with little loss in the result quality [2].
\n
The complexity of a distillation column is not due to the material and energy balances that normally are simple equations. This complexity comes from the constitutive relations of chemical reaction (for the case of reactive distillation), mass transfer relation (in a more simplified way, phase equilibrium), and relations to compute the enthalpy. The chemical reaction must be analyzed for chemical equilibrium limitation and chemical reaction rates to evaluate if, in the column dimensions and operation conditions, the desired conversion will be reached. The enthalpies must be precisely evaluated, because it has influence on the heat duties of the condenser and reboiler. And, the thermodynamic property that has the greatest influence on the simulation of separation processes are those related to phase equilibria, for this part is necessary the non-idealities prediction of vapor phase (usually performed with equations of state) and liquid phase (associated with the excess Gibbs energy models). A good phase equilibrium modelling can predict limitations on the separation like those ones caused by azeotrope formation.
\n
The distillation process is the most commonly used in industry to separate chemical mixtures; its applications range from cosmetic and pharmaceutical to petrochemical industries [3] and are responsible for a great part of energy consumption. Evaporation systems are some of the most energy-intensive parts of chemical plants [4], and the needed energy in a distillation column is used in the heat change process occurring in the reboiler. Finding solutions for energy saving has become one of the most demanding issues faced by almost all the governments, decision-makers, and stakeholders all over the world [5]. Energy saving is practiced for improving the efficiency, to minimize fossil and renewable fuels consumption, and to reduce resulting pollution and environmental burdens [4, 6]. This last item is closely related to climate change and other negative environmental impacts. But, high-energy consumption remains a challenge [7]. Fortunately, there are different ways of saving energy. In production, starting with the selection of production process thereby reducing the environmental stress [8]. The energy-efficient policies with renewable energy integration are not an actual trend; this is a requirement for sustainability [9].
\n
A good way to reduce the environmental impacts is using solar energy. Solar distillation (solar stills that user solar radiation in the distillation process) is a method of water purification that can be implemented at low cost and less energy consumption (if compared with conventional processes) and is environmentally friendly.
\n
Process intensification is an effective strategy to achieve increased energy efficiency. Process intensification aims at reducing the mass and heat transfer resistances while overcoming thermodynamic limitations through the integrated design and operation [10]. Recent developments in energy-related research increasingly rely upon simultaneous resource saving and pollution reduction by applying process integration [4]. Process intensification is a feasible way to reduce heat requirement [7]. One of the most common examples of the process intensification field is the reactive distillation, where the integration of reaction and separation is performed. In the cases where reactive distillation has been used, the operating and investment costs are significantly reduced, when compared to the classic set-up of a reactor followed by distillation. Reactive distillation processes offer several important advantages that include the increment of the reaction yield and selectivity, the overcoming of thermodynamic restrictions, and the considerable reduction in energy, water, and solvent consumptions [10]. So, this integration has been successfully applied in several plants. Unfortunately, the modelling and simulation (an important in the process analysis) become a quite complex.
\n
Concluding, it is very important to well design, operate, and control (for keeping the optimal condition operation) a distillation column, which can lead to a large save on energy and raw material consumption. But, having enough knowledge for making an efficient column project and establishing the best operational conditions need much experience and lots of tests on the process in study, and this type of tests can be very expensive; this is one of the reasons that justify the usage of process simulation tools. Analysis based on numerical simulation results (various virtual tests Considering lots of changes in the process parameters) probably will lead to cost reduction or increase in profit.
\n
\n\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/68300.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/68300.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68300",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68300",totalDownloads:249,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:"July 4th 2019",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"December 4th 2019",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/68300",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/68300",book:{slug:"distillation-modelling-simulation-and-optimization"},signatures:"Vilmar Steffen",authors:[{id:"189035",title:"Dr.",name:"Vilmar",middleName:null,surname:"Steffen",fullName:"Vilmar Steffen",slug:"vilmar-steffen",email:"vilmars@utfpr.edu.br",position:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Technology – Paraná",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Modelling, simulation, and optimization of distillation processes",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Steffen V, da Silva EA. Steady-state modeling of equilibrium distillation. In: Distillation—Innovative Applications and Modeling. IntechOpen; 2017. Available from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/distillation-innovative-applications-and-modeling/steady-state-modeling-of-equilibrium-distillation'},{id:"B2",body:'Narváez-García A, Zavala-Loría JC, Ruiz-Marín A, Canedo-López Y. Short-cut methods for multicomponent batch distillation. In: Distillation—Innovative Applications and Modeling. IntechOpen; 2017. Available from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/distillation-innovative-applications-and-modeling/short-cut-methods-for-multicomponent-batch-distillation'},{id:"B3",body:'Téllez-Anguiano A d C, Heras-Cervantes M, Anzurez-Marín J, Chávez-Campos GM, JAG G. Mathematical modelling of batch distillation columns: A comparative analysis of non-linear and fuzzy models. In: Distillation—Innovative Applications and Modeling. IntechOpen; 2017. Available from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/distillation-innovative-applications-and-modeling/mathematical-modelling-of-batch-distillation-columns-a-comparative-analysis-of-non-linear-and-fuzzy'},{id:"B4",body:'Klemeš JJ, Varbanov PS. Heat transfer improvement, energy saving, management and pollution reduction. Energy. 2018;162:267-271. [Accessed: 14 June 2019]. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360544218315226#bib29'},{id:"B5",body:'MAA M. Saving energy through using green rating system for building commissioning. Energy Procedia. 2019;162:369-378. [Accessed: 14 June 2019]. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1876610219313979'},{id:"B6",body:'Čuček L, Klemeš JJ, Kravanja Z. Overview of environmental footprints. In: Assessing and Measuring Environmental Impact and Sustainability. Elsevier; 2015. pp. 131-193. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780127999685000051'},{id:"B7",body:'Jin H, Liu P, Li Z. Energy-efficient process intensification for post-combustion CO2 capture: A modeling approach. Energy. 2018;158:471-483. [Accessed: 2019 June 14]. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360544218311101?via%3Dihub'},{id:"B8",body:'Tekkaya AE. Energy saving by manufacturing technology. Procedia Manufacturing. 2018;21:392-396. [Accessed: 14 June 2019]. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2351978918301756'},{id:"B9",body:'Romero RJ, Silva-Sotelo S. Energy evaluation of the use of an absorption heat pump in water distillation process. In: Distillation—Innovative Applications and Modeling. IntechOpen; 2017. Available from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/distillation-innovative-applications-and-modeling/energy-evaluation-of-the-use-of-an-absorption-heat-pump-in-water-distillation-process'},{id:"B10",body:'Segovia-Hernández JG, Hernández S, Bonilla Petriciolet A. Reactive distillation: A review of optimal design using deterministic and stochastic techniques. Chemical Engineering and Processing Process Intensification. 2015;97:134-143 Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cep.2015.09.004'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Vilmar Steffen",address:"vilmars@utfpr.edu.br",affiliation:'
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1. Historical and conceptual overview
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The concept of trauma first entered the DSM-III as a rare, catastrophic stressor outside the range of usual human experience, apt to evoke significant symptoms of distress in most people [1]. To date, it is deemed a silent epidemic [2] defined in DSM-5 as a result of either direct or indirect exposure to actual or threatened serious injury or sexual violence, death or a threatened death [3]. Meaning ‘stroke or wound’ in Greek, in psychopathology trauma refers to a lesion or an insult to the psychic organism induced by a stressor or a series of noxious events that occur suddenly and in a disruptive way in a subject’s life [4].
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The impact of trauma on the human psyche has received considerable research attention, starting with the thesis that it is a process taking place within the attachment relationships and separation [5]. Owing to the advent of neuroimaging techniques it is well-established that human experiences, whether traumatic or therapeutic, have measurable influences on the brain structure and function. As harmful pathways are etched deep into the brain following an exposure to trauma, neuroimaging studies allow to index the extend of associated cerebral damage. Therein, the level of maternal support in childhood was shown to determine hippocampus volume in adulthood [6], whilst childhood poverty was associated with reduced white matter, cortical gray matter, and hippocampal volume [7]. In some cases, the progressive impact of traumatic experience may lead to a diagnosis of debilitating psychiatric disorders such as BPD, complex PTSD or disorders of extreme stress, not otherwise specified (DESNOS) [8]. A wealth of research on neuro-functional alterations associated with trauma-exposure revealed patterns of increased amygdala activity in response to threatening stimuli, and simultaneous decreased activity in prefrontal areas of the cortex that downregulates the amygdala [9, 10, 11], as well as hyperactive hippocampus [11]. Furthermore, recent evidence has shown that trauma experience is associated with altered functional connectivity between the amygdala, and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), insula, and dCCA [10, 12], furthering the thesis of an interplay between prefrontal regions and limbic structures. With this in mind, the next section follows with an overview of trauma-related psychiatric disorders. In keeping with research trends in developmental neurosciences the main theme of the chapter is pathological pathways from trauma to BPD, focusing on trauma-induced alterations in neurobiological systems.
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2. The interface between trauma and mental illness
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Mental illness is often broadly defined, encompassing disturbances across domains of functioning in the emotional, cognitive, and/or behavioral realms. Accordingly, the biopsychosocial model of disease causation and treatment brought about a new way of conceptualizing mental health difficulties resulting from biological, psychological, and social factors [13]. In this view, adverse life events interact with genetic susceptibility, personality and social context to co-determine individual vulnerability to clinical expression of mental illness, its severity and course. In quest to unravel how different factors and processes translate into a psychiatric disturbance, researchers and clinicians have sought to understand the progressive and developmental impact of trauma experience on an individual. A wealth of research reveals that exposure to adversities, stressors and neglect can chronically and pervasively alter biological, cognitive, psychological, and social development, giving rise to disturbances in impulse and affect regulation, alterations in attention, consciousness, attribution and schema, as well as interpersonal difficulties [14, 15, 16]. On the neurobiological level, exposure to trauma triggers a surge of neurochemical factors, potent enough to interfere with integrative capacity and the ordinary process of neurodevelopment [17, 18]. Therein appraisal of adverse events and associated emotions might give rise to the stress response, prompting a cascade of biological events that alter various essential processes, namely neurogenesis, synaptogenesis, migration and neurochemical differentiation. Indeed, research exists to support that a persistent traumatic event might induce a permanent neurobiological modification of the subject’s stress response [19] evidenced in elevated urinary epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine, increase or decrease in baseline heart rate, alterations of alpha-2-adrenergic receptors, limbic and cortical abnormalities, and altered development of some cortical areas [18]. Elevated stress in turn has been shown to downregulate the process of hippocampal neurogenesis [20]. Notably, peritraumatic stress reactions within the first hours are predictors of the development of a trauma-related disorder, and therefore constitute a critical window for interventions for prevention of trauma-related disorders [21, 22]. This is presumably due to the fact that memory consolidation occurs during the first night’s sleep following the exposure [23]. Conversely, it has been shown that an adequate resilience capacity, that is the ability to adapt to an adverse situation is a crucial protective factor against the occurrence of a trauma-related disorder [24].
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3. Trauma-related disorders in DSM-5
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Unlike previous editions, DSM-5 has introduced a number of modifications, regrouping disorders that appear to be etiologically related to one another [3]. In this view, trauma- and stress-related disorders are separated from anxiety disorders and obsessive–compulsive disorder, and classified in a specific chapter clustering disorders characterized by the occurrence of one or more traumatic or stressful events in which the subject is involved. The cluster includes Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), Acute Stress Disorder (ASD), Attachment Disorders, Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder (DSED) and Adjustment Disorder. Whilst Attachment Disorders and DSED originate in childhood, the remaining diagnoses refer to trauma experience in the adult population [3].
\n
PTSD is the most complex disturbance of the cluster, characterized by intrusive re-experiencing symptoms and avoidant, numbing, and hyperarousal symptoms that manifest themselves after an insult to the person’s physical integrity or event that has caused a serious injury to the subject or to the other close to him/her [3, 18]. Unlike previous versions, DSM-5 lists specific criteria of PTSD symptoms for patients under 6 years of age, which may not be particularly manifest or verbally expressed, nevertheless a careful observation of the child’s behavior can identify the impact of trauma on interpersonal difficulties, insecure disorganized attachment style, or episodes of aggression and difficulty in affective regulation [25].
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ASD encompasses a broad array of immediate, transient reactions to a sudden impact of trauma that typically subsides within 48 hours. The disorder is characterized by intrusive memories, negative mood, dissociation, avoidance, and/or hyperarousal experienced during the first month after a traumatic event. Since the introduction of ASD into DSM-IV in order to identify those at risk for developing PTSD, concerns have been raised whether the diagnosis reliably predicted PTSD and whether it pathologized normal reactions to trauma. Furthermore, little empirical evidence exists to support the thesis that an individual with ASD endorses at least three dissociative symptoms. In response to this criticism, the ASD diagnostic criteria were changed with the publication of DSM-5 excluding the dissociative symptoms requirement resulting in a stronger predictive power.
\n
Adjustment disorder has been described as the linchpin between normalcy and psychiatric disturbance as it characterizes a severe emotional reaction to an identifiable stressor that does not meet criteria for other more specific disorder [26]. The symptoms can vary among diagnosed individuals and include hopelessness, anhedonia, sadness, irritability, sleep problems, avoidance, diminished performance, aggression and so forth.
\n
Attachment disorders are characterized by a disrupted attachment related to early social deprivation, maltreatment or neglect and are differentiated into disinhibited and inhibited or reactive attachment disorders. Whilst the former is associated with the absence of early attachment relationships and indiscriminate sociability, the latter is etiologically linked to neglect and abuse.
\n
\n
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4. Trauma and borderline personality disorder
\n
The interface between childhood trauma and Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) has been a topic of discussion and controversy in clinical research. This severe psychiatric disorder is characterized by a pervasive pattern of instability in affect regulation, impulse control, self-image, cognition and interpersonal relationships [3]. Frequent self-damaging and impulsive behaviors, such as suicide, self-harm or substance abuse exacerbate the severity and morbidity of the disorder [27, 28]. Although the diagnosis of BPD does not require a history of traumatic event, childhood trauma is considered the main environmental factor contributing to the etiology and severity of the disorder [29, 30, 31]. By way of example, in a prospective study 500 children who had suffered physical and sexual abuse and neglect were found to be significantly more likely to meet criteria for BPD in adulthood than matched controls [32]. Although childhood trauma does not always lead to psychopathology [31] there is an empirical consensus that the interaction between childhood trauma and temperamental traits constitutes the basis for the etiology and severity of BPD [33, 34]. Accordingly, the biopsychosocial model of BPD (Figure 1) posits that the disorder results from the interaction between biologically based temperamental vulnerabilities and adverse experiences in childhood [35, 36, 37, 38].
\n
Figure 1.
The biopsychosocial model of borderline personality disorder.
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\n
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5. Clinical pathways from trauma to BPD
\n
\n
5.1. Psychodynamic psychopathology and attachment
\n
From the standpoint of contemporary clinical psychology there are three perspectives firmly rooted in the attachment theory that best describe the complex psychopathology of BPD, namely the processes of mentalization, the theory of interpersonal motivational systems and the model of affective regulation.
\n
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5.1.1. Mentalization
\n
A trauma within the bond of attachment goes to generate a repeated and continuous activation of this system. Whilst looking for closeness of an attachment figure that has been traumatizing, the child will reencounter traumatic experiences. The prolonged activation of the attachment system will produce specific inhibitory responses to the mentalization, as well as those related to the physiological increase of emotional arousal. The child, in an attempt to obtain some form of control over the aggressor, might try to identify with the aggressor, internalizing the intent of the aggressor and thus generating a part of the dissociated self, so-called the alien Self.
\n
Over time, the destructive intent of the abuser will be perceived as coming from within own self and not from another person, leading to experimenting a strong sense of hatred towards oneself by child that might persist to adulthood. To deal with severe trauma and abuse a defensive operation to avoid the reflection on the content of the caregiver’s mind is triggered, thereby preventing the resolution of the experiences of abuse [39].
\n
This mechanism explains why BPD patients frequently have relationships in which they feel victimized by others perceived as persecutors. Through the defensive process called projective identification, a patient might attempt to “force” a significant person, including the psychotherapist, to assume the character of the “Alien Self/Bad Object”.
\n
\n
\n
5.1.2. Attachment and other interpersonal motivational systems
\n
In accordance with the theory of attachment, the experience of ill-treatment in the evolutionary age can have a strong negative impact on the development of the models of representation of the Self, of the figures of attachment and of the relationship between them.
\n
The theory of interpersonal motivational systems [40, 41, 42] identifies a series of systems similar to that of attachment, which are also evolutionary-based, and support individuals towards some fundamental goals of existence such as defense, attachment, care, social rank, sexuality, cooperation, predation. According to Liotti, the disorganization of attachment involves both a multifaceted and split representation of oneself and the figure of attachment, and a metaphysical deficit that makes affective regulation difficult. The structuring of an internal disorganized operating model with perceptions of the multiple self-object relationship, inconsistent and not integrated, it seems explainable through the simultaneous and incompatible activation of the attachment and defense system in the child, as the caregiver deputed to respond to the demands of the attachment system is also the figure activating the defense system endangering the child’s personal life and safety. Once they reach adulthood, when traumatic memories emerge in the mind of the parents, the pain associated with them activates the attachment system of the figures that should provide care, thus evoking feelings of anger and fear in the caregiver when care responses are needed by the baby.
\n
\n
\n
5.1.3. Affective regulation
\n
The theory of affective regulation [43, 44, 45, 46, 47] focuses more on the psychobiological or “primary” aspects of the affective experience rather than cognitive-affective aspects of the experience as indicated in the work of Fonagy and colleagues.
\n
Incorporating contributions of the clinical tradition of psychology of the Self [48] and contemporary infant research [49, 50], the theory proposes the process of tuning, defined as the synchronicity of affective states as the foundation of caregiving practices and the most compromised aspect in the relationships of attachment. Failure to tune between the child’s affective states and the caregiver prevents the affective adjustment process within the ‘tolerance window’ which constitutes the ideal metabolic conditions for neuronal metabolic development.
\n
\n
\n
\n
5.2. Cognitive psychopathology
\n
Beck and collaborators [51] have provided a conceptualization of the BPD according to the cognitive-behavioral perspective, which posits three main dysfunctional nuclear convictions at the basis if the disorder, namely the world is dangerous and malicious, I am powerless and vulnerable, and I am inherently unacceptable. The first two convictions tend to produce a sense of hypervigilance and distrust of others. There are two other central cognitive features: a dichotomic thought and a poorly articulated self-pattern, which determine a weak sense of personal identity. These aspects contribute to creating the emotional and interpersonal behaviors typical of this disorder.
\n
Within the schema therapy framework Young and colleagues [52] stress that borderline subjects tend to present too many schemas and to oscillate between extreme affective states, and it is in the excess and overlap of reference schemas that the symptomatology of the BPD resides.
\n
Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT) posits at the center of the borderline disorder a deficit of the system of regulation of the emotions with its consequences among which are: understanding the contextual, relational and transient nature of emotions; building an effective mental model of the relationships between emotions and environmental events; and semantically labeling each emotion properly [53]. This deficit is deemed to be the product of temperamental characteristics, such as emotional vulnerability, which interact with a disabling environment of the person’s emotional experiences.
\n
According to the cognitive constructivist model proposed by Dimaggio and Semerari [54] BPD is attributable to specific functional deficits of metacognition capabilities, detectable in the following functions:
deficit of integration, where different mental states are experimented without reciprocal memory (hence, the tendency to oscillate between them in little chaotic and rapid modulated);
deficit in emotional regulation, caused by a genetic-temperamental vulnerability that results in hyperreactivity to stimuli, combined with environmental-disabling experiences;
deficit of differentiation between reality and its representations as a consequence of affective dysregulation.
\n
The relationship between these deficits is manifold, where dysregulation and integration difficulties affect each other, leading to a lack of differentiation.
\n
\n
\n
Conflict of interest
The author has no relevant affiliations or financial involvement with any organization or entity with a financial interest in or financial conflict with the subject matter or materials discussed in the manuscript. This includes employment, consultancies, honoraria, stock ownership or options, expert testimony, grants or patents received or pending, or royalties. No writing assistance was utilized in the production of this manuscript.
\n',keywords:"borderline personality disorder, childhood trauma, psychopathology",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/67627.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/67627.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67627",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67627",totalDownloads:503,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"December 3rd 2018",dateReviewed:"April 22nd 2019",datePrePublished:"August 1st 2019",datePublished:"November 13th 2019",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Traumatic events are reported in a large percentage of the population, however, only in some individuals it will lead to a diagnosable trauma-related disorder. Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is deemed to be a form of acute reaction to childhood trauma. Therein experiences of childhood abuse and neglect take on an important etiological role, generating severely disorganized attachment relationships, which in turn affect the development of emotional regulation systems, and significantly inhibit the development of mentalization and metacognitive skills. Furthermore, the last decade has seen important contribution of neuroscientific research in shedding light on the neurobiological correlates of traumatic experiences. A wealth of scientific literature links the onset of BPD to the combination between genetic and environmental factors (G×E), in particular between biological vulnerabilities and the exposure to traumatic experiences during childhood. Although no research can predict with certainty which trauma will translate into symptoms, there are indications as to who is more at risk of developing a trauma-related disorder. Herein we describe the psychological and epigenetic mechanisms affected by childhood trauma and altered in BPD patients.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/67627",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/67627",signatures:"Maria Uscinska, Nicolo’ Gagliano, Andrea Polla Mattiot and Silvio Bellino",book:{id:"7834",title:"Psychological Trauma",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Psychological Trauma",slug:"psychological-trauma",publishedDate:"November 13th 2019",bookSignature:"Ana Starcevic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7834.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"182584",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Starcevic",slug:"ana-starcevic",fullName:"Ana Starcevic"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"285336",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Uscinska",fullName:"Maria Uscinska",slug:"maria-uscinska",email:"actapsy@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Turin",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"288179",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Polla Mattiot",fullName:"Andrea Polla Mattiot",slug:"andrea-polla-mattiot",email:"andrea.polla.mattiot@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"302735",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicolo'",middleName:null,surname:"Gagliano",fullName:"Nicolo' Gagliano",slug:"nicolo'-gagliano",email:"nicolo.gagliano@humanitas.it",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Historical and conceptual overview",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. The interface between trauma and mental illness",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Trauma-related disorders in DSM-5",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Trauma and borderline personality disorder",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Clinical pathways from trauma to BPD",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"5.1. Psychodynamic psychopathology and attachment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"5.1.1. Mentalization",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"5.1.2. Attachment and other interpersonal motivational systems",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"5.1.3. Affective regulation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"5.2. Cognitive psychopathology",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1980\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Kaffman A. 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New York: Guilford Press; 1999\n'},{id:"B47",body:'Hill D. Affect Regulation Theory. A Clinical Model. New York: Norton; 2015\n'},{id:"B48",body:'Kohut H. How Does Analysis Cure? Chicago: Chicago University Press; 1984\n'},{id:"B49",body:'Beebe B, Lachmann F. Infant Research and Adult treatment: Co-Constructing Interactions. Hillsdale, NJ: The Analytic Press; 2002\n'},{id:"B50",body:'Beebe B, Lachmann F, Markese S, Buck K, Bahrick L, Chen H, et al. On the origins of disorganized attachment and internal working models: Paper II. An empirical microanalysis of 4-month mother-infant interaction. Psychoanalytic Dialogues. 2012;22:352-374\n'},{id:"B51",body:'Beck AT, Freeman A, Davis DD. Cognitive Therapy of Personality Disorders. 2nd ed. New York: Guilford Press; 2004\n'},{id:"B52",body:'Young JE, Klosko J, Weishaar ME. Schema Therapy: A Practitioner’s Guide. New York: Guilford Press; 2003\n'},{id:"B53",body:'Linehan MM. Cognitive-Behavioural Treatment of Borderline Personality Disorder. New York: Guilford Press; 1993\n'},{id:"B54",body:'Dimaggio G, Semerari A. I disturbi di personalità. Modelli e trattamento: stati mentali, metarappresentazione, cicli interpersonali. Roma: Laterza; 2003\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Maria Uscinska",address:"maria.uscinska@edu.unito.it",affiliation:'
Centre for Personality Disorders, Department of Neurosciences, University of Turin, Italy
Centre for Personality Disorders, Molinette Hospital, Italy
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"7834",title:"Psychological Trauma",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Psychological Trauma",slug:"psychological-trauma",publishedDate:"November 13th 2019",bookSignature:"Ana Starcevic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7834.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"182584",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Starcevic",slug:"ana-starcevic",fullName:"Ana Starcevic"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"195053",title:"MSc.",name:"Adnan",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",email:"akhan462@uwo.ca",fullName:"Adnan Khan",slug:"adnan-khan",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Micropollutants in Wastewater: Fate and Removal Processes",slug:"micropollutants-in-wastewater-fate-and-removal-processes",abstract:"The occurrence of micropollutants (MPs) in various streams of municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), and their fate and removal processes are discussed. The fate of MPs in WWTPs largely depends on adsorption on suspended particulates, primary and secondary sludge and dissolved organic carbon, and removal occurs due to coagulation-flocculation, and biodegradation. The log Kow (>2.5) and pKa are the dominant properties of the MPs, and the concentration, organic fraction, and surface charge of suspended particulates dictate the extent of adsorption of MPs. Most of the conventional WWTPs do not remove complex MPs by biodegradation or biotransformation effectively (kbio ≤0.0042 L/gss/h), and the removal varies widely for different compounds, as well as for the same substance, due to operational conditions such as aerobic, anaerobic, anoxic, sludge retention time (SRT), pH, redox potential, and temperature. Membrane bioreactor performs better for moderately biodegradable compounds due to the diverse nature of microorganisms as well as greater adaptability due to longer SRT. Ozone and UV-based advanced oxidation processes, membrane filtration can be used for tertiary treatment due to their high rate as well as easy implementation. Various partition coefficients and rate constants values for different MPs are also provided for design and application.",signatures:"Sreejon Das, Nillohit Mitra Ray, Jing Wan, Adnan Khan, Tulip\nChakraborty and Madhumita B. 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UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
Wellcome Trust (Funding available only to Wellcome-funded researchers/grantees)
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