\r\n\tThis book is intended for Pharmaceutical industry personnel (especially those working in drug safety), clinical investigators, medical evaluators, those seeking regulatory approval, students, and professors in Clinical Pharmacology, Epidemiology, and Pharmacovigilance.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-126-4",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-125-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-127-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"285bf79944a2c5be22d603ae51d58936",bookSignature:"Dr. Charmy S. Kothari",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11679.jpg",keywords:"Risk-Benefit Assessment, Drug Development, Signal Detection, Current Trends, Regulations, Biosimilar PV, Cohort Study, Prevention of ADR, Medication Error, Plan, Policy, Parameters",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 28th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 25th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 26th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 15th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 13th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Researcher in the area of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Quality Assurance, and Regulatory Affairs, a member of the RAPS, ACS, APTI, IPA & ISTE, and twice the recipient of Dr. P. D. Sethi memorial annual national award for research paper certificate (2007, 2017).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"216161",title:"Dr.",name:"Charmy S.",middleName:null,surname:"Kothari",slug:"charmy-s.-kothari",fullName:"Charmy S. Kothari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/216161/images/system/216161.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Charmy S. Kothari has more than 17 years of teaching and research experience. Her research areas of interest are analytical and bioanalytical method development and validation, impurity profiling and stability studies as well as Isolation, identification, and characterization of marker compounds from plants and formulations. Her research area also includes regulatory guidelines, registration procedures, evaluation and approval procedures of various regulatory agencies worldwide, and the Pharmacovigilance system. She has more than 50 research and review papers published in reputed Indian and International journals. She is a recognized Post Graduate and Ph. D. Guide at the Institute of Pharmacy, Nirma University. She received several research grants from government funding agencies like GUJCOST, ICMR, International Travel Grant from DST-SERB.",institutionString:"Nirma University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Nirma University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"19",title:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",slug:"pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"444315",firstName:"Karla",lastName:"Skuliber",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/444315/images/20013_n.jpg",email:"karla@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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1. Introduction
This chapter describes how the tillage operations contribute to the weed control. It is important to understand that the weed pressure, both perennials and annual germinating species, depends on the common conditions controlled by the cropping system, involving the crop rotation, the soil fertility, nutrient strategy, tillage, and direct control methods as weed harrowing and hoeing. The different actions that contribute to weed control can be considered like filters that favor some plant traits and filter out others. The challenge then is to design the growing system like a system of filters such that all weed species are controlled such that they do not grow unrestrained [1, 2]. By all means, diversity is important in the growing system. As a part of this, it is important that the crop rotation includes different crops, seeded in both spring and autumn. It is important to have in mind that fast-germinating and established crops are highly competitive and contribute substantially to weed control [3]. Another specific element is the benefit of cutting perennial forage grass in the rotation three times or more per year to control quack grass and other root-emerging weeds. With respect to the direct control methods, it is important that the crop rotation allows for space to perform dedicated quack grass control after harvest. The presence of row crops allows one to perform the control by hoeing during the growing season. This potentially gives a good weed control but can also cause substantial problems if the operation fails.
The tillage operations are, in general, divided to be part of the primary tillage or the preparation of the seedbed. The primary tillage is aimed to obtain a good turnover of the plant residuals and to maintain a healthy soil structure. In this multi-oriented context, the demands for the tillage operations can be different if it is related to optimizing the soil fertility or the weed control. An example here is the performance of the moldboard plowing. Aiming for an effective control of perennial weeds demands that the plants are cowered deep in the soil or that they are dried out in a starvation strategy. Whereas the requirements related to the soil fertility can with good conditions be fulfilled by more superficial treatments. In fact, an unnecessary intensive tillage strategy will cause harm to the soil fertility [4, 5]. Therefore, in the operative planning, it is very important to be aware of the actual field conditions for the specific year, and thereby also the infield variations.
The performance of the operations for seedbed preparation and seeding also affect the weed germination and the weed control. The goal of this operation is to do the final leveling of the soil surface and to establish the right structure for the soil aggregates to form the best possible conditions for the seeds to germinate and establish growth. If the time schedule allows, it can be beneficial to perform a weed harrowing prior to the seeding to reduce the density of the first generation of germinating weeds. In the seeding operation, it is off course important to establish the best possible conditions for the seed. A quick and fast germination and establishment of the crop is important to optimize the competitiveness against the weed. In addition, a uniform seeding depth is important for the subsequent weed control, in a way that this enables room for weed harrowing prior to the crop seeds that break through the soil surface [6, 7]. A uniform seeding depth causes a uniform germination and propagation of the crop plants, and thereby the best possible conditions for the following weed control by weed harrowing or hoeing.
All this together makes good sense to involve the principles of precision agriculture, also to support the effectiveness of the contribution to the weed control. This can be site-specific primary tillage, site-specific seedbed preparation, fixed tracking and controlled traffic, implement control in general, and row control of the hoeing process.
2. Primary tillage
The primary tillage aims at maintaining or improving the soil structure and soil fertility. In addition, the strategy and operational execution of tillage greatly affect the weed. The soil structures enable the drainage and water absorption. The porosity for drainage and the water capacity of the upper soil layer is controlled by the microbes and the content of organic matter. This is maintained by the incorporation of fresh organic matter with smooth tillage operations. At the same time, at stable conditions, the planning and performance of the primary tillage must ensure that no increase in the occurrence of the root-emerging weeds occurs. To control root-emerging weeds, the plant must be covered in the soil layer the deeper the better. Normally a depth of approx. 20 cm is recommended. This conflicts with the preferred conditions for the turnover of plant residuals and is supported by the presence of a smooth mix into the soil having access to the oxygen from the air and soil moisture getting into contact with the soil fungal and fauna that catalyze the process. Jacobs et al. [8] test has shown that the best conditions for the turnover of plant residuals are placements in the upper soil layer—0–5 cm. In practical the working depth of approx. 20 cm for the primary tillage is used. The experience is that this gives a good balanced result, just that the operator must be aware, that the working depth must be as shallow as possible. Deeper working depth increases the effect due to weed control but reduces the access to oxygen. Tillage operations may not be overdone in intensity as the operations are highly energy consuming. Also, that the tillage is not only positive. Unnecessary tillage damages the soil structure, this both due to the workability in the seed bed preparation, and the porosity. The challenge for the tillage operations is to support the dynamics of the growing system, not the operation itself.
If it occurs from the monitoring of the fields, that it is necessary to apply a dedicated treatment to reduce the occurrence of root emerging weeds this can be done in more ways. One obvious method is to increase the working depth for the primary tillage operation, and to make sure, that all the residuals are effectively covered deeply under the soil layer. Another more dedicated method is to make space in the crop rotation; this allows for a series of operations in the period after harvest. Here there are in principal two different methods: “drying” and “starving”. Convenient conditions allow additionally to cultivate just prior to a period with temperatures below 0°C.
2.1. The type of operation
In Scandinavian countries, as in many other countries, the primary implements used for the primary tillage has been the moldboard plow and the stubble cultivator. Often, the stubble cultivator is used for a shallow operation immediately after harvest to stop the growth and cut the roots of weed plants and to catalyze the contact from the microbiological life to the residues. Hereafter, the strategy is different and highly dependent on the crop rotation and local conditions. If there is a need for a dedicated treatment to reduce the occurrence of perennial weeds, it is generally after harvest that a series of repeated stubble cultivations can be performed [4]. Danish tests show that repeated stubble cultivations in the autumn can reduce the density of perennial weeds up to 90%. Similar results can be seen in a test in Norway and Germany [9, 10]. Under wet conditions in Norway, it has been observed that the best results are obtained by applying the treatment in spring prior to moldboard plowing and seeding. By this method, the time for seeding becomes too late and too costly in yield reduction. In the autumn, as the temperatures are getting lower, the plowing operation is performed. Here, the growth is stopped, and the turnover of the residuals are continued, now integrated into the soil and sowed in some depth.
In areas having problems with erosion and where the farmers want to perform a strategy that is highly focused on soil fertility, deeper cultivation with chisel plows are used instead of the moldboard plowing. Under nonchemical conditions, success rate for this strategy to work is hard to come by. One major challenge is keeping a check on the development of the weed species in a way that it damages the yield and growth conditions for the crops. Although more tests have shown that the most important factor in weed control is the soil fertility and the composition of the crop rotation [11, 12, 13], It is shown that when the crops are healthy and the yield is high, it can be acceptable that there is some presence of weed the tests also shows that it is possible to control the weed not to develop uncontrolled. Although the earlier mentioned tests have shown that tillage, especially stubble cultivation or hoeing can be helpful in practical use to control the weed.
2.2. Data and precision agriculture in primary tillage
The system of precision agriculture has been developed during the last three decades. The focus has primarily been on fertilizing and pesticide applications. There has been limited focus on the tillage no matter that there are big potentials both due to savings in cost and energy and in the optimization of the operations. The problem is that the controlling parameters such as “soil fertility” are almost impossible to measure by commercially available sensors or sensor systems. In addition, it is quite difficult to transform to a mathematical model.
Though there are potentially gains both in a planning and graduated intensity over the field that can be performed by use of existing technology. For example, the plowing depth can be controlled by both semi-automated means and automatically [14]. From an overall point of view, the precision-based application can be performed at least due to tree challenges that normally occur locally and delimited on the field:
Emerging problems with root-emerging weeds
Dense soil with low capacity of water accessible for the crop
Compacted soil with reduced efficiency in the drainage
The abovementioned effects can be mapped by manual inspection. In recent years, the use of drones for these types of inspections is developed for commercial use [15, 16]. Since the last approx. 2 decades, the global positioning system (GPS) positioning, the tractor computers, and auto guidance have been commercially developed and are now installed on more than 50% of new tractors. Having the digital application map, it is therefore possible to perform precision-controlled tillage operations. This can be done using selected implements that allow for the wanted adjustments, where the precision-based operations in farm level are introduced in the strategy of utilizing possible benefits and build the necessary profile of knowledge and technology needed to be prepared to utilize the upcoming versions of the new implement prepared for precision applications. One example here is the plow. Here, it is already possible to adjust the plowing depth within a given range using existing technology. New developments [14] show systems that are dedicated for depth control in the individual plowing sections. It is also possible to build on double plow sections in front of the main moldboard that controls if plant residuals primarily are mixed in the lower layer of the plowing profile or if they are placed into the bottom of the profile to optimize the control of root-emerging weeds.
The dedicated strategy in relation to optimizing the soil structure by using existing technology relies more on the operation only for the areas, where the operation is needed. In these situations, it is important to be aware, that the tillage operation is only a part of the solution. The aim here is in a gentle way to loosen the soil as a part of a plan involving more actions that together are aiming to revitalize the soil fertility, that beneficially also involves the introduction of dedicated crops, where the roots actively contribute to soil loosening and applying organic matter from manure, compost, or similar.
The state-of-art research in drone technology is concerned not only with mapping the density of weeds but also determining the species [15, 16]. This information will be beneficial as the growing weed species can be used as indicators for soil fertility, and hereby there are also problems with drainage and water capacity. This is important due to crop growth and yield, but it also plays a very important role in weed management as the fertile soil generates vital and robust grooving crops, that compete effectively with the weed.
Due to this context, it makes sense to pay most attention to the optimization of soil fertility by means of the tillage system and other means.
3. Seed bed preparation and seeding
Ideally, the seed bed preparation must take place some days prior to seeding. This performs the task smoothly in the soil. During the days of rest prior to seeding the soil aggregates stabilize, such that the soil structure after seeding has less risk to slam and potential for erosion. Due to weed control the seed bed preparation prior to the seeding operation has another advantage as it can be used as a false seed bed, initiating weed seeds to germinate, and then removed in the seeding operation. In the planning of crop rotation, it makes good sense to make space for the false seed bed operation prior to the seeding of selected spring crops. More tests have been performed to reduce the pool of weed seeds in the soil. Results show that this is almost impossible [17, 18]. The seeding operation is normally performed by the use of implements, that also involves some tillage in the top layer. For a good establishment of the crop, precise seeding depth is important. This is also an advantage for weed control, as it is possible then to perform a weed harrowing operation just prior to the time where the new seeds breakthrough the soil surface. Hereafter it is important that crops perform a fast and robust establishment in this that the crops benefit from fertile soil, due to access to fertilizers, moisture, and the soil structure. Problems with slammed soil surface restrict the access for oxygen into the soil and thereby inhibit the growth. For more cases, the first establishment of the crop is essential. Due to weed control, it is in this period that the competitive strength of the crop due to weeds is established. In the next section, it is described how the competitive strength for crops improves the possibility of getting good results with weed harrowing. More tests [19, 20] show the importance of the timing in the tillage and weed management operations. Due to competitive characteristics there can be two alternative systems for seeding: one is that the seed is distributed evenly over the area to give the best coverage possible and thereby the best competitive strength against weeds. Danish experiences show good results with this system for crops such as rye and barley. If the crop is less competitive in general, or particularly in the early stage, another system can be favorable, to grow crops in rows this enable the possibility of performing weed harrowing and hoeing. In row cropping, the competitive strength due to weeds in the in-row area has improved substantially, as also the overall resistance for the crop in operations as weed harrowing is improved. The disadvantage of row cropping is that operations for weed control are needed in the inter-row area. Due to yield the crop is not that sensitive. The Danish test has shown that for row distances, up to approx. 18 cm for cereals, there is almost no decrease in yield. Other crops such as rape are even less sensitive to the open row distance.
3.1. Digital tools
Due to seeding there are commercial systems that allow for graduated seed density over the field. The graduation can aim for eliminating locally weak conditions for germination or if an improved coverage is required in the early stage. The control input for this must be given by the operator prior to the operation, as there are no systems available that can sense the input for this. Modern seeding implements are designed to operate with a constant seeding depth, with mechanical means that is adjusted prior to the operation in the field. Ongoing research aims to develop systems that by monitoring the actual working depth are adjusted by a dedicated control system. In the system tested the control systems are operating individually on each seeding section. With such a system in operation I will make sense to expect a coming version designed for adaptive control of the seeding depth, for example, to ensure the access to moister and thereby the best possible conditions for germination.
Systems for automatic change from broad seeding to row cropping are also commercially available. Though not fully flexible, they are designed such that every second seeding unit can be closed. Whit such systems, row cropping can be established only in the areas where it makes sense due to reduced soil fertility or structure. For more reasons, there is a big interest in establishing cover crops. This can be quiet challenging under Nordic conditions as the cover crops in general require early seeding for success. Here, row cropping also enables some good conditions under seeding in the inter-row band prior to harvest. In good conditions cover crops can contribute in stabilizing the growing system due to harvest of nitrogen and controlling weed growth. Though the capacity from cover crops to control weeds is not good enough as it can be used to solve problems, stubble cultivation must be brought into play.
3.2. Weed harrowing and hoeing
To avoid weed problems it is important that all means to control the weed is integrated and optimized together with other elements in the cropping system. The interactions and the connections to the tillage operations and other factors are described in the sections earlier.
The weed harrow is normally designed with a flexible frame mounted with more sections, equipped with a set of long elastic tines that all are in touch with the soil surface. It is commercially available to have systems, where the load on the individual sections is equally distributed by an active control system. The intensity from the tines to the soil surface is controlled by the load on the section and the working angle for the tines. This working angle can also be controlled by a central control system that is normally controlled by the operator. The challenge for the operator is to adjust the settings for the harrow and the operation forward speed such that the damage on the crop is limited and the effect on the weeds is optimized. One important factor here is to make the best use of all factors to optimize the growth difference, such that the crop continuously is bigger and more established than the weed. It is also important that the soil is workable without a slammed and hard surface. In an optimal setup the first treatment is performed approx. 1 week before the seeding process to initiate the germination of the first generation of weed seeds. Hereafter follows a precision seeding as earlier described; this does reset the weeds. Then, just before the crop breaks the soil surface, a weed harrowing operation is again performed. Hereafter a break is needed for the crop to be established such that it sustains a next operation. For this operation the operator needs to pay the most attention to the timing and to the adjustment of the harrow as the best result is achieved by carrying out the operation as early as possible, without damaging the crop and when it is still possible to control the weed. Hereafter two more operations can be performed.
As described the weed harrow is a uniform implement that work in the full working with based on the preconditions that it is possible to establish a difference in the sensitivity for the crop and the weed to the treatment. In comparison to this is the hoe that only operates in the inter-row area without crops. By modern implements the guidance of the hoe can be automatically controlled by a vision-based system that enables the hoe to operate quite precisely in relation to the row. As the competitiveness from the row of crops is bigger and closer to the row, it is important to perform hoeing as close as possible without absolutely damaging the crops. A very precise and dedicated operation can be performed by a hoe equipped with elements such as brushes or other tools that work close to the row. The advantage of the hoe is that it has very high efficiency in the inter-row area.
A normal cropping system does normally include weed harrowing for weed control. The overall effect and weed control can be improved by also introducing the hoe for operations where it can be possible operated. Compared to weed harrowing the hoe is less sensitive on hard surfaces and so on, which means that the effect of hoeing is more reliable. Hoeing can also be an important part of the strategy to bring the system back to normal for areas where the weed has had the chance to develop to a level that is problematic for balance in the system. This can be done by opening the rows to make space for the hoe operations in the problematic areas in the field. The hoe is very efficient in the inter-row area. For the operation close to the row some additional systems can be built [21] such as flexible tines or rotating fingers.
4. Discussion and conclusion
Many farmers and research activities have shown that it is possible to control the weed in cropping systems only by use of mechanical and agronomic means. It is essential that the cropping system is carefully planned and adaptively optimized in relation to the local conditions and challenges. The fertile soil is key both to the growth and to the yield of the crops but also in relation to create the best conditions for successful tillage operations and weed control. One of the core elements is if the cropping system makes space for cutting grass. A perennial grass for feed that is cut three times or more in the growing season contributes substantially to weed control and to the optimizing the soil fertility and hereby the soil structure.
Going a little into the details and interdependency of the different elements and operations in the cropping systems, it appears that there are many balances to be aware of and many optimizations to be made. Here, many new technologies can assist in positive results. In this matter it is important also to follow technical development. Some of the concepts that automatic solutions. This must create value in the operation and the cropping system, but it also prepares the farmer to take in the new technical solutions when they are ready and when they potentially can create value in the individual cropping system.
\n',keywords:"tillage, weed control, adaptive, soil fertility",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/61078.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/61078.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61078",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61078",totalDownloads:967,totalViews:136,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:71,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"November 9th 2017",dateReviewed:"March 22nd 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"September 5th 2018",dateFinished:"April 27th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The tillage systems and performance of the operations have an important impact on the weed control. The primary goal for the tillage is to establish the best possible conditions for the crop establishment and growth under the given conditions as soil texture, moisture and so on. In addition, the tillage system also strongly influences the weed pressure and conditions for weed control. As tillage requires a substantial amount of fuel, and affects the leak of nitrogen and CO2 from the soil, there is a big motivation in optimizing the tillage operations due to the local conditions in the field. A big challenge is how to sense the local conditions and information that are needed to optimize the tillage system for local treatment and intensity. This chapter focuses on how to optimize the tillage operations in a local adaptive approach aiming at the best possible weed control.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/61078",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/61078",book:{id:"6611",slug:"biological-approaches-for-controlling-weeds"},signatures:"Martin Heide Jorgensen",authors:[{id:"233348",title:"Dr.",name:"Martin Heide",middleName:null,surname:"Jorgensen",fullName:"Martin Heide Jorgensen",slug:"martin-heide-jorgensen",email:"mahej@mmmi.sdu.dk",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Primary tillage",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. The type of operation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Data and precision agriculture in primary tillage",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Seed bed preparation and seeding",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1. Digital tools",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.2. Weed harrowing and hoeing",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Discussion and conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Melander B, Holst B, Rasmussen IA, Hansen PK. Direct control of perennial weeds between crops e implications for organic farming. Crop Protection. 2012;40:36-42'},{id:"B2",body:'Cardina J, Herms C, Doohan D. Crop rotation and tillage system effects on weed seedbanks. Weed Science. 2002;50:448-460'},{id:"B3",body:'Sardana V, Mahajan G, Jabran K, Chauhan BS. Role of competition in managing weeds: An introduction to the special issue. Crop Protection. 2017;95:1-7'},{id:"B4",body:'Melander B, Munier-Jolain N, Charles R, Wirth J, Schwarz J, Weide R, Bonin L, Jensen PK, Kudsk P. European perspectives on the adoption of nonchemical weed management in reduced-tillage systems for arable crops. Weed Technology. 2013;27:231-240'},{id:"B5",body:'Yagioka A, Komatsuzaki M, Kaneko N, Ueno H. Effect of no-tillage with weed cover mulching versus conventional tillage on global warming potential and nitrate leaching. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 2015;200:42-53'},{id:"B6",body:'Scherner A, Melander B, Jensen PK, Kudsk P, Avila LA. Reducing tillage intensity affects the cumulative emergence dynamics of annual grass weeds in winter cereals. European Weed Research Society. 2017;57:314-322'},{id:"B7",body:'Nielsen SK, Munkholm LJ, Lamande M, Norremark M, Edwards TC, Green O. Seed drill depth control system for precision seeding. Computers and electronics in Agriculture. 2018;144:174-180'},{id:"B8",body:'Jacobs A, Helfrich M, Dyckmans J, Rauber R, Ludwig B. Effects of residue location on soil organic matter turnover: Results from an incubation experiment with 15N-maize. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science. 2011;174:634-643'},{id:"B9",body:'Perkrun C, Claupein W. The implication of stubble tillage for weed population dynamics in organic farming. Weed Research. 2006;46:414-423'},{id:"B10",body:'Brandsæter LO, Mangerud K, Helgheim M, Berge TW. Control of perennial weeds in spring cereals through stubble cultivation and mouldboard ploughing during autumn or spring. Crop Protection. 2017;98:16-23'},{id:"B11",body:'Shahzad M, Farooq M, Jabran K, Hussain M. Impact of different crop rotations and tillage systems on weed infestation and productivity of bread wheat. Crop Protection. 2016;89:161-169'},{id:"B12",body:'Gruber S, Claupein W. Effect of tillage intensity on weed infestation in organic farming. Soil & Tillage Research. 2009;105:104-111'},{id:"B13",body:'Benaragama D, Shirtliffe SJ, Gossen BD, Brandt SA, Lemke R, Johnson EN, Zentner RP, Olfert O, Leeson J, Moulin A, Stevenson C. Long-term weed dynamics and crop yields under diverse crop rotations in organic and conventional cropping systems in the Canadian prairies. Field Crops Research. 2016;196:357-367'},{id:"B14",body:'Nielsen SK, Munkholm LJ, Aarestrup MH, Kristensen MH, Green O. Plough section control for optimised uniformity in primarry tillage. Advances in animal bioscience. Precision Agriculture. 2017;8(2):444-449'},{id:"B15",body:'Huang J, Poe R. Weed Spotting By Drone. Vol. 65. Washington: Agricultural Research; 2017. pp. 1-3'},{id:"B16",body:'Lambert J P T, Hicks H L, Childs C Z, Frexkleton R P. Evaluating the potential of unmanned aerial systems for mapping weeds at field scales: A case study with Alopecurus myosuroides. Weed Research. 2018;58:35-45'},{id:"B17",body:'Murphy S D, Clements D R, Belaoussoff S, Kevan P G, Swanton C J. Promotion of weed species diversity and reduction of weed seedbanks with conservation tillage and crop rotation. Weed Science. 2006;54:69-77'},{id:"B18",body:'Legere A, Samson N. Tillage and weed management effects on weeds in barley-red clover cropping systems. Weed Science. 2004;52:881-885'},{id:"B19",body:'Lyon DJ, Young FL. Integration of weed management and tillage practices in spring barley production. Weed Technology. 2015;29:367-373'},{id:"B20",body:'Cordeau S, Smith R G, Gallandt E R, Brown B, Salon P, DiTommaso A, Ryan M R. Timing of tillage as a driver of weed communities. Weed Science. 2017;65:504-514'},{id:"B21",body:'Pannacci E, Lattanzi B, Tei F. Non-chemical weed management strategies in minor crops: A review. Crop Protection. 2017;96:44-58'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Martin Heide Jorgensen",address:"mahej@mmmi.sdu.sk",affiliation:'
University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"6611",type:"book",title:"Biological Approaches for Controlling Weeds",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Biological Approaches for Controlling Weeds",slug:"biological-approaches-for-controlling-weeds",publishedDate:"September 5th 2018",bookSignature:"Ramalingam Radhakrishnan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6611.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78923-655-2",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-654-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-589-9",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",numberOfWosCitations:8,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"219072",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramalingam",middleName:null,surname:"Radhakrishnan",slug:"ramalingam-radhakrishnan",fullName:"Ramalingam Radhakrishnan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"29"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited 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1. Introduction
Bacteria, fungi (yeasts and molds), mycobacteria, prions, protozoa, and viruses are common pathogens infecting humans and animals. They typically exist within the host or in the environment. It has been observed that these microorganisms exhibit a notable difference in the natural survivability in the environment, as well as susceptibility to chemical and physical inactivation. For example, under ambient and dried conditions, human coronaviruses seem to lose their infectivity in a matter of several hours to several days [1], whereas endospores and prions may remain infectious for years to decades or even indefinitely [2, 3].
As more and more data have become available regarding the survivability and susceptibility of pathogens to microbicides, it has been observed that the pathogens seem to demonstrate an order of susceptibility to chemical and physical inactivation. E. H. Spaulding first proposed a classification system for the sterilization and disinfection of medical instruments based on the infection risk in 1939 [4]. On the basis of this classification, the concept of a hierarchy of pathogen susceptibility was proposed, in which microorganisms are placed into several groups and ranked from least susceptible to most susceptible. In this hierarchy concept, bacterial spores were ranked the least susceptible, followed by mycobacteria, non-enveloped viruses, fungi, vegetative bacteria, and enveloped viruses. The susceptibility hierarchy was also believed to be related to the biochemical and biophysical characteristics of a pathogen [5, 6].
This hierarchy concept has been slightly modified and expanded over the years. For example, prions were added and considered less susceptible to inactivation by microbicides than bacterial spores; small non-enveloped viruses were considered less susceptible than large non-enveloped viruses; and the order between mycobacteria and small non-enveloped viruses was sometimes reversed (Figure 1) [7, 8, 9, 10]. Additionally, it has been suggested that the hierarchy concept may be applied either “vertically” (i.e., ranking of susceptibility between classes of pathogens) and/or “horizontally” (i.e., ranking of susceptibility within a class of pathogens) [11].
Figure 1.
Proposed hierarchy of susceptibility of pathogens to microbicides. Note: slightly different versions of the hierarchy concept have been proposed in the literature. Mycobacteria have been placed above small non-enveloped viruses, and molds have been placed above large non-enveloped viruses in certain versions. In some versions, the small and large non-enveloped viruses are combined; and yeasts and molds may be combined.
The hierarchy concept has been quite useful for enabling scientists to better understand the innate difference among various types of pathogens. In the case of newly emerged pathogens, especially, the hierarchy concept has helped stakeholders design and implement a disinfection strategy swiftly with a reasonable level of confidence. The concept also helps the contaminant control for food, pharmaceutical, and biopharmaceutical products, as it is impractical to test every possible contaminating pathogen, and a robust infectivity assay system may be lacking for certain pathogens (e.g., hepatitis E virus).
Despite its usefulness, the hierarchy concept should be interpreted with caution, as it may oversimply the differences and trending of pathogen susceptibilities. Further examination and refinement of the concept may be necessary; and several important questions should be answered. For example, how often do exceptions to the hierarchy occur and what are the underlying reasons? Could a trending be specific to a given type of chemistry? Is the hierarchy the same between susceptibility to both chemical and physical inactivation? Why do pathogens in the same group, or even the same family or genus, sometimes exhibit striking differences in susceptibility? Is there a way to identify and separate reliable/consistent trending versus blurred/variable trending? A deeper look at the efficacy data for various types of microbicidal actives, especially for non-enveloped viruses, may help stakeholders understand the scope, reliability, and limitation of the hierarchy concept so that it can be best utilized.
This chapter reviews the inactivation efficacy data from the literature against non-enveloped viruses for several commonly used types of chemistries, either in formulated or unformulated form, in an effort to generate a separate relative order of susceptibility among these non-enveloped viruses for each type of chemistry and to differentiate consistent versus variable trending. Physical inactivation approaches are not covered in this chapter, although a significant degree of variation also exists for physical treatments. It is not clear that the physical inactivation approaches, in general, are governed by the same hierarchy to susceptibility as is observed for chemical inactivation approaches [12].
2. Common families of mammalian non-enveloped viruses
Currently, there are a total of 21 families of viruses (including enveloped and non-enveloped) identified for humans [13], which represent only a small part of the entire paradigm of viruses in nature, whose host ranges extend from vertebrates to plants to bacteria. The most common families of non-enveloped viruses for humans and animals include Adenoviridae, Astroviridae, Caliciviridae, Circoviridae, Hepeviridae, Papillomaviridae, Parvoviridae, Picornaviridae, Polyomaviridae, and Reoviridae. The genome structure, size of viral particle, and some representative viruses for each viral family are presented in Table 1.
Family
Example virus
Abbreviation
Genus
Genome
Size (nm)
Adenoviridae
Adenovirus type 2
AdV-2
Mastadenovirus
ds DNA
70–90
Adenovirus type 5
AdV-5
Mastadenovirus
ds DNA
70–90
Adenovirus type 8
AdV-8
Mastadenovirus
ds DNA
70–90
Astroviridae
Human astrovirus
HAstV
Mamastrovirus
ss RNA
28–35
Caliciviridae
Feline calicivirus
FCV
Vesivirus
ss RNA
28–40
Human norovirus
HuNoV
Norovirus
ss RNA
28–40
Murine norovirus
MNV
Norovirus
ss RNA
28–40
Tulane virus
TuV
Recovirus
ss RNA
28–40
Circoviridae
Porcine circovirus
PCV
Circovirus
ss DNA
∼17
Hepeviridae
Hepatitis E virus
HEV
Orthohepevirus
ss DNA
32–34
Papillomaviridae
Human papillomavirus
HPV
Papillomavirus
ds DNA
50–60
Parvoviridae
Bovine parvovirus
BPV
Bocaparvovirus
ss DNA
20–28
Canine parvovirus
CPV
Protoparvovirus
ss DNA
20–25
Human parvovirus B19
B19V
Erythroparvovirus
ss DNA
23–26
Minute virus of mice
MVM (MMV)
Protoparvovirus
ss DNA
20–25
Porcine parvovirus
PPV
Protoparvovirus
ss DNA
20–25
Picornaviridae
Bovine enterovirus
BEV
Enterovirus
ss RNA
30–32
Coxsackievirus
Cox
Enterovirus
ss RNA
30–32
Echovirus 11
Echo11
Enterovirus
ss RNA
30–32
Encephalomyocarditis virus
EMCV
Cardiovirus
ss RNA
30–32
Enterovirus 71
EV-71
Enterovirus
ss RNA
30–32
Enterovirus D68
EV-D68
Enterovirus
ss RNA
30–32
Foot and mouth disease virus
FMDV
Aphthovirus
ss RNA
30–32
Hepatitis A virus
HAV
Hepatovirus
ss RNA
30–32
Poliovirus type 1
PV1
Enterovirus
ss RNA
30–32
Rhinovirus
RV
Enterovirus
ss RNA
30–32
Seneca Valley virus
SVV
Senecavirus
ss RNA
30–32
Polyomaviridae
Bovine polyomavirus
BPyV
Polyomavirus
ds DNA
40–50
Simian virus 40
SV40
Betapolyomavirus
ds DNA
40–50
Reoviridae
Bluetongue virus
BTV
Orbivirus
ds RNA
60–80
Reovirus type 3
REO-3
Orthoreovirus
ds RNA
60–80
Rotavirus
Rota
Rotavirus
ds RNA
60–80
Table 1.
Common families of human and animal non-enveloped viruses.
ss single-stranded;
ds double-stranded.
Among these, the Adenoviridae and Reoviridae families of viruses are generally considered large, non-enveloped viruses. Other non-enveloped viruses are generally considered small, non-enveloped viruses, although it should be noted that the particle sizes of Papillomaviruses and Polyomaviruses are notably larger than those for the rest of the small non-enveloped virus group (Table 1).
It is worth noting that viruses are typically classified taxonomically on the basis of virion properties (size, shape, envelope, physical, and chemical properties, etc.), genome organization, replication mechanism, antigenic properties, and biological properties [13, 14, 15]. The final classification is a combined consideration of these properties. However, the stability and susceptibility to inactivation of a virus may not relate to all of these properties and, as such, may not always align with the taxonomic classification system. For example, the susceptibility of a virus to surfactants may primarily be related to the envelope of the virion and not related to the genome structure or mode of replication.
The susceptibilities of non-enveloped viruses to chemicals have been found to be highly variable and somewhat hard to predict, since they do not always agree with the hierarchy concept. For example, according to the hierarchy concept as modified by Sattar [8], small non-enveloped viruses should be less susceptible than large non-enveloped viruses. Additionally, if there is a fixed hierarchy, all small non-enveloped viruses should either display similar levels of susceptibility or should demonstrate a definitive trend of relative susceptibility, regardless of the type of microbicide. Based on the literature, neither of these predictions appear to hold in every case. The relative order of susceptibility seems chemistry-dependent; and sometimes viruses within the same family or even genus have been found to exhibit unequivocal differences in their susceptibilities (reviewed in [16]). Any trending or hierarchy, therefore, must be reviewed in the context of the type of chemistry, and it should not be assumed that non-enveloped viruses within the same family or genus will always display similar susceptibilities to a given microbicide.
3. Overview of chemical viral inactivation approaches
Viral inactivation may be achieved by chemical and/or physical methods. The subset of chemicals commonly used for inactivation of non-enveloped viruses includes alcohols, oxidizers, halogen compounds, quaternary ammonium compounds, phenolics, aldehydes, acids, and alkalines [17, 18, 19]. These differ with respect to efficacy, stability, toxicity, material or surface compatibility, cost, and sensitivity to organic soil load. Soil load is a term used to signify an organic matrix used to challenge the inactivating efficacy of a microbicide. It is intended to mimic secretions or excretions in which the virus would be released from an infected person or animal. Some chemistries (e.g., sodium hypochlorite, phenolics, and aldehydes) are mostly used for environmental or medical device disinfection. Other chemistries (e.g., ethanol) are more commonly used for hand hygiene, while some others (e.g., quaternary ammonium compounds) may be used for both environmental disinfection and skin antisepsis (Table 2).
Class
Chemical
Typical conc.
Usage
Mechanism of viral inactivation
Sensitivity to soil load
Alcohols
Ethanol
50–95%
Disinfection; Antisepsis
Protein denaturation
+
Isopropanol
70–90%
Disinfection
Protein denaturation
+
Oxidizers
Sodium hypochlorite
0.01–0.5%
Disinfection
Protein/genome damage
++
Chlorine dioxide
0.1–1 mg/L
Disinfection; Water treatment
Protein/genome damage
—
Hydrogen peroxide
0.1–10%
Disinfection; Antisepsis
Lipid/protein/genome damage
+
Hypochlorous acid
0.002–0.1%
Disinfection; Water treatment
Protein/genome damage
++
Peracetic acid
0.01–1%
Disinfection; Sterilization
Protein denaturation
—
Povidone-iodine
0.02–8%
Disinfection; Antisepsis
Protein/genome damage
++
Chlorohexidine
0.02–0.2%
Antisepsis
Protein denaturation
+
QAC
BKC, DDAC, etc.
0.01–0.2%
Disinfection
Lipid/protein damage
+
Low pH
Acids
≤ pH 4
Sanitization; Biomanufacturing
Capsid/protein damage
—
High pH
NaOH, etc.
≥ pH 10
Disinfection; Tissue processing
Capsid/genome damage
—
Aldehydes
Glutaraldehyde
0.02–2%
HLD; Sterilization
Crosslinking/protein & genome damage
—
Formaldehyde
0.1–5%
Disinfection/Preservation
Alkylating/protein & genome damage
—
OPA
0.02–2%
HLD; Sterilization
Crosslinking/protein damage
—
Phenolics
Phenylphenol, etc.
0.05–5%
Disinfection
Protein damage
—
Table 2.
Common types of chemistries used for non-enveloped viral inactivation.
The virucidal efficacy of a product is not only determined by the type and concentration of the chemical, but is also heavily influenced by the formulation, pH, exposure (contact or dwell) time, organic soil load, temperature, and surface characteristics (as applicable), etc. [10, 20, 21, 22]. Given the differences between various testing methods, as well as the intrinsic variability of viral infectivity (titration) assays, a general conclusion on the efficacy of a particular type of active ingredient will be enhanced if the efficacy is derived from multiple sets of data and under various application conditions (such as the concentration of the microbicidal active(s), contact time, formulation matrix (as applicable), and organic soil load, etc.) Additionally, in order best to explore the relative ranking of susceptibility between viruses, or the lack thereof, efficacy data from side-by-side studies wherein the same test methodologies and conditions were used would be preferable. Care should be taken when comparing data from different studies, especially if the formulations, test methods, and test conditions were different.
4. Inactivation of non-enveloped viruses by alcohols
Alcohols, primarily ethanol and isopropanol, are widely used for hand hygiene and environmental disinfection, and their efficacies against bacteria and viruses have been extensively studied [23, 24, 25]. Ethanol at a concentration of 70–90% and isopropanol at 70% have been broadly shown to be effective against enveloped viruses; however, their efficacies against non-enveloped viruses are much more variable.
The trending of the degree of susceptibility of non-enveloped viruses to ethanol and isopropanol is generally clearer and more consistent than it is for many other types of chemistries, thanks to the large amount of data in the literature. The relative ranking of susceptibility of non-enveloped viruses seems to differ between ethanol and isopropanol; and the ranking does not appear to align well with the classical virological taxonomy.
For ethanol, parvoviruses and the polyomavirus simian virus 40 have low susceptibility, while rotavirus (a reovirus) is susceptible (Table 3). Viruses in the Picornaviridae family display clear differences in their susceptibilities to ethanol; and even viruses within the same genus display marked differences. For example, hepatitis A virus and human enterovirus 71 are much less susceptible than rhinovirus; and poliovirus, foot-and-mouth disease virus, and coxsackie virus seem to exhibit intermediate levels of susceptibility compared with the aforementioned viruses. The viral family Caliciviridae also has shown drastic differences among family members in the susceptibility to ethanol. Murine norovirus is quite susceptible to ethanol, whereas feline calicivirus, human norovirus, and Tulane virus are significantly more difficult to inactivate with ethanol. The Adenoviridae is another non-enveloped virus family that has shown intrafamily differences, wherein adenovirus 5 is rather susceptible but adenovirus 2 and adenovirus 8 are much less susceptible. The relative order of susceptibility between murine norovirus (a small, non-enveloped virus) and adenovirus types 2 and 8 (two large, non-enveloped viruses) clearly conflicts with the simplified hierarchy concept (Figure 1).
Entries in purple font indicate results from undiluted or diluted formulations with the indicated microbicidal active ingredients.
Interestingly, the above order of susceptibility does not appear to hold the same for isopropanol (Table 3). For example, the polyomavirus simian virus 40 is much more susceptible to isopropanol than many other non-enveloped viruses; and poliovirus appears to display a lower susceptibility, similar to that of hepatitis A virus and human enterovirus 71. Murine norovirus is still more susceptible than feline calicivirus to isopropanol, but not as susceptible as simian virus 40 or rotavirus. The apparent difference between adenovirus 5 and adenovirus 8 that has been observed for ethanol has not been observed for isopropanol.
5. Inactivation of non-enveloped viruses by oxidizers
An oxidizer or oxidizing agent is a chemical that has the ability to oxidize other molecules, i.e., to accept their electrons. Common oxidizing agents used for disinfection, sterilization, or antisepsis include hydrogen peroxide, peracetic acid, ozone, and halogen-containing compounds such as sodium hypochlorite (bleach), hypochlorous acid, povidone-iodine, chlorohexidine, and chlorine dioxide, etc. These compounds can react with and alter the proteins and nucleic acids of non-enveloped viruses and render them noninfectious. Oxidizers comprise a large group of chemicals, and the relative order of susceptibility of non-enveloped viruses to oxidizers seems to vary by specific type of active ingredient (Table 4).
Viral-inoculated lettuce was washed with PAA solution for a defined period of time.
Entries in purple font indicate results from undiluted original or diluted formulations with microbicidal active ingredients.
Parvoviruses are generally among the least susceptible viruses to various types of oxidizers, including sodium hypochlorite, hydrogen peroxide, and peracetic acid. However, for sodium hypochlorite, minute virus of mice appears to be more susceptible than porcine parvovirus and canine parvovirus. All picornaviruses appear to exhibit a similar degree of susceptibility to sodium hypochlorite; but within the family of Caliciviridae, feline calicivirus appears to be more susceptible than murine norovirus. Both adenovirus and rotavirus are susceptible to sodium hypochlorite.
The trending for hydrogen peroxide seems more complex than that for sodium hypochlorite. For example, there seems a higher level of variability within the Picornaviridae family. Rhinovirus is quite susceptible to hydrogen peroxide, whereas hepatitis A virus is much less susceptible. Poliovirus seems to be more susceptible than hepatitis A virus but less susceptible than rhinovirus. Similar to the case for sodium hypochlorite, feline calicivirus seems more susceptible than murine norovirus to hydrogen peroxide. Interestingly, adenovirus and rotavirus, two larger non-enveloped viruses, seem to be less susceptible than rhinovirus, a smaller virus, to inactivation by hydrogen peroxide. This is another case where the size of viral particle alone does not appear to dictate the level of susceptibility to a microbicide.
For peracetic acid, hepatitis A virus also seems less susceptible than poliovirus. Both feline calicivirus and murine norovirus are susceptible to peracetic acid and so is adenovirus.
6. Inactivation of non-enveloped viruses by quaternary ammonium compounds
Quaternary ammonium compounds (QAC) are widely used as active ingredients for disinfectants. Among the advantages of QAC are good stability, dual function of disinfection and cleaning, surface activity, low toxicity, and lack of odor, etc. The potential limitation in the microbicidal efficacy and possible effect in promoting antimicrobial resistance of QAC have also been discussed in the literature [54, 55].
Quaternary ammonium compounds are generally efficacious on most vegetative bacteria and enveloped viruses. Their efficacies against non-enveloped viruses, however, are generally much weaker. Nevertheless, several non-enveloped viruses, such as rotavirus, rhinovirus, and coxsackievirus A11, have been shown to be susceptible to QAC. The susceptibility levels among the Adenoviridae family of viruses seem to vary, with adenovirus 8 displaying less susceptibility than adenovirus 5. Both feline calicivirus and murine norovirus display low susceptibility to QAC (Table 5). The relative order of susceptibility of non-enveloped viruses to QAC does not seem to align well with the relative size of the virions; and the efficacy of QAC is often dependent on the product formulation.
Entries in purple font indicate results from original or diluted formulations with microbicidal active ingredients.
7. Inactivation of non-enveloped viruses by low pH and high pH
Acids and alkalines, either used alone or in combination with other active ingredients in formulated products, can be an effective means for viral inactivation. Acids may be used for disinfection, sanitization, textile or face mask pretreatment, or viral clearance during biopharmaceutical manufacturing. Alkalines may also be used for disinfection, sanitization, and viral clearance during biopharmaceutical manufacturing and can be effective against even the least susceptible of pathogens, the prions [58].
It has been widely reported that a low-pH treatment (typically at pH 4 and below) can effectively inactivate most enveloped viruses, although some enveloped viruses, such as bovine viral diarrhea virus, still exhibit a relatively low susceptibility to this treatment pH [22]. The range of susceptibilities of non-enveloped viruses to low pH seems quite scattered and often goes against the “conventional wisdom” that non-enveloped viruses are not susceptible to acidic pH (Table 6). For instance, in the family of Parvoviridae, human parvovirus B19 has been found to be markedly susceptible to low pH (completely inactivated after 1–2 h treatment at pH 4), whereas animal parvoviruses, such as minute virus of mice, are not inactivated at all under the same conditions. Interestingly, another human parvovirus (type 4) appears to be less susceptible than B19, but more susceptible than minute virus of mice.
The Picornaviridae family also exhibits disparity with respect to susceptibility to low pH. For instance, hepatitis A virus, poliovirus, human enterovirus 71, and coxsackievirus A9 display low susceptibility (less than 1-log10 reduction at pH 3–4 for 1–2 h), whereas rhinovirus, foot-and-mouth disease virus, and enterovirus EV-D68 are highly susceptible (more than 4-log10 reduction or complete inactivation at pH 3–4 after 20–45 min). Note that human enterovirus 71, coxsackievirus A9, rhinovirus, and enterovirus EV-D68 are all members of the same genus (Enterovirus).
Feline calicivirus and murine norovirus in the family Caliciviridae represent another interesting and convincing example that not all viruses within the same family exhibit the same degree of susceptibility. As an example, feline calicivirus is susceptible to low pH, whereas murine norovirus is much less susceptible. Rotavirus and reovirus (family Reoviridae) also display low susceptibility to low pH. The low susceptibility of murine norovirus and rotavirus to low pH may not be a surprise, since these viruses naturally exist in the digestive track, which has an acidic environment. Feline calicivirus, on the other hand, acts more like a respiratory virus.
Viruses, both enveloped and non-enveloped, are generally susceptible to high pH. At an environment of pH 12 or above, most if not all non-enveloped viruses would be inactivated, with extent depending both on temperature and contact time. Reovirus, simian virus 40, hepatitis A virus, canine parvovirus, poliovirus, murine norovirus, and Tulane virus seem to be less susceptible than minute virus of mice, feline calicivirus, adenovirus, rotavirus, and foot-and-mouth disease virus. It may be worth noting that the order of susceptibility to high pH seems to be in discord with the hierarchy concept by the greatest degree: in this case, an enveloped virus, bovine viral diarrhea virus, seems to be less susceptible than most, if not all, non-enveloped viruses [22]; parvoviruses are not necessarily less susceptible than many other non-enveloped viruses; and the size of the viral particle does not seem to matter much with regard to the degree of susceptibility (Table 7).
Entries in purple font indicate results from undiluted or diluted formulations with microbicidal active ingredients.
8. Inactivation of non-enveloped viruses by aldehydes
Aldehydes, such as glutaraldehyde, formaldehyde, and ortho-phthaldehyde, are widely used for sterilization, high-level disinfection for critical and semi-critical medical devices, biomanufacturing, and preservation. Their use for regular disinfection, sanitization, or antisepsis has been more limited, primarily due to human toxicity concerns. The efficacy of aldehydes, similar to the case for other types of actives, is concentration-dependent. There have been limited side-by-side comparison studies of the susceptibility of non-enveloped viruses to aldehydes; however, it may be concluded that animal parvoviruses seem to be less susceptible than other viruses, such as poliovirus, hepatitis A virus, feline calicivirus, adenovirus, reovirus, and rotavirus [74]. Within the parvoviruses, porcine parvovirus seems to be less susceptible to aldehydes than minute virus of mice (Table 8).
Entries in purple font indicate results from original or diluted formulations with microbicidal active ingredients.
9. General order of susceptibility of non-enveloped viruses to chemical inactivation
In the simplified hierarchy of susceptibility of pathogens to microbicides concept, small non-enveloped viruses are considered less susceptible than large non-enveloped viruses, and both groups of non-enveloped viruses are believed to be less susceptible than enveloped viruses. The hierarchy concept also assumes that the ranking applies to all types of microbicidal actives. Additionally, the hierarchy concept can generally lead to common notions that viruses that share similar virological properties (e.g., same family or genus of virus) may be expected to display similar degrees of susceptibility and that the smaller a virus is, the less susceptible it will be to microbicides in general.
These generalizations are correct, to a degree. For example, most enveloped viruses are indeed more susceptible than non-enveloped viruses to chemical inactivation. It should be noted though that exceptions to the hierarchy concept do exist, e.g., especially in the case of viral susceptibility to acids and alkalines [22], and exceptions are not uncommon for certain other chemistries. The hierarchy concept was never applied specifically to physical inactivation approaches, nor should it be. The evidence for heat inactivation, UV inactivation, and gamma irradiation indicates differing rankings of susceptibility to these modalities. Envelope status and particle size do not, in each case, relate to susceptibility for inactivation by these physical approaches [22, 78, 79, 80].
The validity of the hierarchy concept among non-enveloped viruses is much more blurred. Firstly, the order of susceptibility among non-enveloped viruses, if any generalization may be made, is dependent upon the type of chemistry, and there is no universal order that holds true for all types of chemistries. Secondly, large non-enveloped viruses (adenoviruses, reovirus, rotavirus, etc.) are not always more susceptible than small non-enveloped viruses (parvoviruses, picornaviruses, caliciviruses, etc.). Thirdly, viruses within the same group (e.g., same family or genus) can exhibit profound and unequivocal differences in susceptibility. Finally, the rankings between viruses can be flipped (reversed), or nonexistent, depending on the type of microbicide. This implies that caution should be taken when interpreting the hierarchy concept for making predictions of efficacy for the non-enveloped viruses.
The accuracy and usefulness of a hierarchy concept can be improved if the model is broken into separate chemistries for non-enveloped viruses, since many viruses do exhibit a reliable and consistent trend of susceptibility for a specific type of chemical. Table 9 and Figure 2 provide a summary of the relative order of susceptibility for selected non-enveloped viruses under specific types of chemistry.
Chemical
Lower susceptibility
Medium susceptibility
Higher susceptibility
Ethanol
Animal parvovirus
Poliovirus
Murine norovirus
Simian virus 40
Foot and mouth disease virus
Rhinovirus
Hepatitis A virus
Human norovirus
Adenovirus 5
Enterovirus 71
Feline calicivirus
Rotavirus
Adenovirus 2, 8
Isopropanol
Animal parvovirus
Adenovirus 5, 8
Simian virus 40
Hepatitis A virus
Murine norovirus
Rotavirus
Enterovirus 71
Poliovirus
Feline calicivirus
NaOCl
Porcine parvovirus
Minute virus of mice
Feline calicivirus
Hepatitis A virus
Hepatitis A virus
Adenovirus
Poliovirus
Rotavirus
Enterovirus 71
Murine norovirus
H2O2
Animal parvovirus
Poliovirus
Rhinovirus
Hepatitis A virus
Murine norovirus
Feline calicivirus
Adenovirus
Rotavirus
PAA
Animal parvovirus
Poliovirus
Feline calicivirus
Hepatitis A virus
Murine norovirus
Adenovirus
QAC
Animal parvovirus
Feline calicivirus
Rotavirus
Poliovirus
Murine norovirus
Rhinovirus
Adenovirus 8, 25
Adenovirus 5
Coxsackievirus A11
Low pH
Minute virus of mice
Human parvovirus 4
Feline calicivirus
Hepatitis A virus
Rhinovirus
Poliovirus
Foot and mouth disease virus
Enterovirus 71
Enterovirus EV-D68
Coxsackievirus A9
Human parvovirus B19
Murine norovirus
Rotavirus
Reovirus
High pH
Bovine viral diarrhea virus
Reovirus (enveloped virus)
Murine minute virus
Simian virus 40
Feline calicivirus
Hepatitis A virus
Adenovirus
Canine parvovirus
Rotavirus
Poliovirus
Foot and mouth disease virus
Murine norovirus
Tulane virus
Aldehydes
Porcine parvovirus
Minute virus of mice
Poliovirus
Hepatitis A virus
Feline calicivirus
Adenovirus
Reovirus
Rotavirus
Table 9.
Relative order of susceptibility of non-enveloped viruses to chemical inactivation.
Relative order of susceptibility of non-enveloped viruses per microbicidal chemistry. Note: various types of adenoviruses exhibit different degrees of susceptibility to ethanol and quaternary ammonium compounds.
10. Discussion
The Spaulding concept of the hierarchy of susceptibility of pathogens to microbicidal inactivation, along with its modifications, has been widely influential. Multiple industries as well as regulatory agencies have adopted or referenced this concept to various degrees [9, 10, 81, 82]. The concept does provide a good tool for understanding the innate differences and trending of susceptibility among various types of pathogens. For the most part, the hierarchy is insightful and valuable. It is particularly helpful when a pathogen is newly emerged, and limited or no knowledge is yet available regarding its level of susceptibility to microbicides [83, 84]. In fact, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (U.S. CDC) use the hierarchy concept as the basis of the Emerging Viral Pathogen Guidance for Antimicrobial Pesticides and public hygiene [10, 82, 85, 86] specifically to deal with just such a possibility.
It should be cautioned, however, that the hierarchy concept is largely oversimplified and by no means perfect [87]. For viruses, although enveloped viruses are usually more susceptible than non-enveloped viruses, certain enveloped viruses such as bovine viral diarrhea virus can be less susceptible than some non-enveloped viruses (e.g., feline calicivirus) under certain chemistries (e.g., low pH and high pH).
The accuracy and applicability of the hierarchy concept are more complex and limited among non-enveloped viruses. The trending is highly dependent on the type of chemistry; and the size of the virion is not always a primary determinant of viral susceptibility among non-enveloped viruses. If a clearer and more consistent trending can be identified among non-enveloped viruses, albeit only specific to a given type of chemistry, the knowledge should be useful.
To generalize an order of susceptibility, for a specific chemistry, data from side-by-side studies wherein viruses are evaluated concurrently by the same test method and under the same conditions should, ideally, be used. When results from different studies are used, caution should be taken to exclude conditional or case-specific differences that result from the test methodology and/or condition. For instance, a surface (carrier) test may give different log10 reduction results than a suspension test of the same microbicide or formulation under certain situations [88]. For example, the data of Kindermann et al. [47] and Tyler et al. [31] indicate that sodium hypochlorite causes a higher log10 reduction value (LRV) when tested in a suspension test than in a surface test. On the other hand, glutaraldehyde has been found to cause similar log reduction in either methodology, while hydrogen peroxide causes higher LRV in the surface test, which is thought to be likely related to the consumption of hydrogen peroxide by the protein in the virus-suspending solution [31].
The organic soil load in which the challenge virus is suspended prior to inoculation can also impact the viral inactivation outcome, especially for oxidizers, alcohols, and QAC. It would be inaccurate or even misleading if a result from a light organic load (e.g., 5% animal serum or phosphate-buffered saline) were to be directly compared with a test that used a heavier organic load (e.g., 90% blood or 20% fecal suspension). Tung et al. [29] reported that 500 ppm sodium hypochlorite inactivated MNV and FCV by ∼3-log10 in the absence of fecal suspension but only 0–0.5 log10 for these viruses in the presence of 20% fecal suspension.
Other testing conditions may also affect the reduction results. For instance, a higher contact temperature may work in the favor of the virucide under investigation, which may result in a higher log reduction. Nemoto et al. [56] reported that a 0.125% glutaraldehyde solution completely inactivated rotavirus after 10 min under ambient temperature, but not when evaluated on ice. The pH and other components in the product formulation could also affect the viral reduction outcome, presumably by activating the chemical and/or by a synergistic or additive effect between the pH and the active chemical [22, 39, 89]. The efficacy of formulated versus non-formulated microbicides may differ even within the same type and concentration of active(s). For example, formulated QAC and ethanol products have been reported to exhibit strong activities against certain non-enveloped viruses albeit the efficacy may be weaker for non-formulated solutions [45, 54, 90, 91]. Therefore, the formulation of the microbicidal active must be considered. The viral stock (i.e., inoculum) preparation method and the challenge viral titer may also affect the reported viral reduction efficacy. For example, purified virus may be more susceptible than crude virus preparations [49]; viral clumps can make the virus less susceptible [92]; and a higher viral challenge titer could make the chemical harder to achieve an expected log10 reduction. Sometimes, viruses propagated in different host cell types may behave differently. It would therefore be ideal if all studies could use a standardized viral preparation and infectivity assay protocol. This is, of course, practically challenging. Last, but not least, the method for preparing the microbicide and the verification of the active concentration might also differ from lab to lab, thus potentially influencing the efficacy results obtained.
Despite these practically hard-to-avoid differences in test methodology and conditions, some generalizations on the pattern of susceptibility among non-enveloped viruses can still be made with confidence. For instance, it is quite apparent that the Picornaviridae family of viruses do not always exhibit a similar level of susceptibility to each other [16, 93]; and even the genus is not a good predictor for susceptibility to microbicides within this family. This reflects the ability of certain members of this family to infect the gastrointestinal tract (i.e., enteroviruses), while others infect primarily the respiratory system. The variation of susceptibility within this viral family is particularly striking for ethanol, hydrogen peroxide, QAC, and low pH.
The family Caliciviridae is another example of the existence of unequivocal intrafamily differences in susceptibility to microbicides [16]. For feline calicivirus and murine norovirus (the two most commonly used surrogate viruses for human norovirus), not only can their levels of susceptibility be very different, but the relative order of susceptibility between these two family members can be entirely reversed. For instance, murine norovirus is susceptible to ethanol but not very susceptible to low pH, whereas feline calicivirus is not very susceptible to ethanol but quite susceptible to low pH. For some other types of chemicals, such as peracetic acid and QAC, notable differences in susceptibility to these two viruses are not observed. Given the importance of human norovirus to public health and the lack of a convenient and robust tissue culture model for the virus, a more detailed research and discussion are needed with respect to the choice of feline calicivirus and murine norovirus as the best surrogate for evaluating inactivation products against human norovirus. This topic has been discussed extensively [94, 95, 96].
Different types of adenoviruses seem to exhibit varying degrees of susceptibility to ethanol and QAC. For example, adenovirus type 5 appears to be notably more susceptible to ethanol than are adenovirus types 2 and 8. In general, however, adenoviruses are more susceptible than many other non-enveloped viruses. Considering that adenovirus type 5 is listed as one of the allowable challenge viruses for a generic or “broad-spectrum” virucidal efficacy claim (i.e., a product that is effective for adenovirus type 5 may be considered effective against all viruses) [97, 98], this practice may not represent a challenge and lead to an insufficient safety margin, which is not supported by the published data.
Parvoviruses are among the smallest of non-enveloped viruses. The animal parvoviruses (e.g., minute virus of mice, porcine parvovirus, bovine parvovirus, canine parvovirus, etc.) are considered to exhibit very low susceptibility to chemical inactivation [99] and are commonly used as a worst-case model for viral inactivation studies. This literature review generally supports this notion, although it should be noted that the animal parvoviruses do not appear to represent a worst-case challenge for high-pH inactivation, and porcine parvovirus seems less susceptible than minute virus of mice at times. Additionally, human parvovirus B19 seems especially susceptible to acid treatment [100].
It has been observed that the particle size of a virus is not an exclusive or even a primary determinant of susceptibility to microbicides for non-enveloped viruses, albeit this characteristic may play a role. There are numerous reports demonstrating that larger non-enveloped viruses, such as adenoviruses and reoviruses, are less susceptible than some of the smaller non-enveloped viruses for certain chemistries. Interestingly though, rotavirus, a large non-enveloped virus, indeed seems to be the most susceptible among non-enveloped viruses, except to low pH.
The mechanisms underlying the large variation in susceptibility among non-enveloped viruses and the chemistry dependency are not always clear, but they could presumably be related to the physicochemical properties of the virus as well as the mechanisms of action of the chemical inactivants. For alcohols, for instance, it has been proposed that the hydrophobicity or hydrophilicity of the viral particles is an important determinant of susceptibility [101]. Poliovirus, which is hydrophilic, is more susceptible to ethanol than it is to isopropyl alcohol. This is attributed to the fact that ethanol is more hydrophilic than isopropanol. In comparison, the hydrophobic simian virus 40 is susceptible to isopropanol but not to ethanol [101]. Enterovirus 71 (EV71) and enterovirus EV-D68 (EV-D68) are both enteroviruses in the family Picornaviridae. Despite both infecting the gastrointestinal tract, EV71 displays low susceptibility to low pH, while EV-D68 is acid-labile. This can be explained by the observed acid-induced uncoating for EV-D68 but not for EV71 [67].
A review of the relative order of susceptibility for non-enveloped viruses under each chemistry reveals that the order for some chemicals (e.g. aldehydes) seems to fit the traditional hierarchy concept well (e.g., parvoviruses are less susceptible than larger viruses); but the order for some other chemistries (e.g., low pH) does not seem to agree with the concept as well.
The variability in viral susceptibility to physical treatments is not covered in this chapter; however, a marked degree of variation also exists for physical treatments, both within non-enveloped viruses and between enveloped and non-enveloped viruses [12, 16, 21, 49]. A comparison of the order of susceptibility of viruses to chemical versus physical treatments and an exploration of the underlying mechanisms would be interesting and revealing.
11. Conclusions
This chapter reviewed the literature on chemical inactivation of non-enveloped viruses, with an emphasis on the relative difference and trending of susceptibility among some relevant (from a public health perspective) non-enveloped viruses under each type of chemistry. The traditional concept of a hierarchy of susceptibility to microbicides provides a useful tool in understanding and predicting the susceptibility of a pathogen; however, the concept tends to be oversimplified. The order of susceptibility among non-enveloped viruses depends on the type of chemistry, and there is no universal order that holds true for all types of chemistries. Picornaviruses and caliciviruses exhibit a particularly high degree of intrafamily variation, and the order may even be reversed between viruses, depending on the chemistry. Additionally, larger non-enveloped viruses are not always more susceptible than some of the smaller non-enveloped viruses. It may be inappropriate to consider adenovirus type 5 as a worst-case non-enveloped virus; and even the animal parvoviruses, universally considered among the least susceptible to chemical inactivation, do not actually represent the least susceptible virus type for certain chemistries.
Acknowledgments
The author thanks Drs. Raymond Nims and M. Khalid Ijaz for the critical review of the manuscript and discussion.
Conflict of interest
The author declares no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"enveloped viruses, non-enveloped viruses, hierarchy of susceptibility, disinfection, viral inactivation, virucidal efficacy",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/80772.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/80772.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80772",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80772",totalDownloads:22,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"December 6th 2021",dateReviewed:"January 17th 2022",datePrePublished:"March 22nd 2022",datePublished:"May 18th 2022",dateFinished:"March 7th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Viruses exhibit a marked variation in their susceptibilities to chemical and physical inactivation. Identifying a trend within these variations, if possible, could be valuable in the establishment of an effective and efficient infection control or risk mitigation strategy. It has been observed that non-enveloped viruses are generally less susceptible than enveloped viruses and that smaller sized viruses seem less susceptible than larger viruses. A theory of a “hierarchy” of pathogen susceptibility has been proposed and widely referenced. This concept provides a useful general guide for predicting the susceptibility of a newly emerged pathogen. It also serves as a theoretical basis for implementing a limited scale viral inactivation study that is to be extrapolated onto many other viruses. The hierarchy concept should be interpreted with caution since the actual viral inactivation efficacy may, in some cases, be different from the general prediction. The actual efficacy is dependent on the type of chemistry and application conditions. The order of susceptibility is not always fixed; and viruses within the same family or even the same genus may exhibit drastic differences. This chapter reviews viral inactivation data for several commonly used chemistries against non-enveloped viruses, highlighting the cases wherein the order of susceptibility varied or even flipped. Possible underlying mechanisms are also discussed.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/80772",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/80772",signatures:"Sifang Steve Zhou",book:{id:"11006",type:"book",title:"Disinfection of Viruses",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Disinfection of Viruses",slug:"disinfection-of-viruses",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",bookSignature:"Raymond W. Nims and M. Khalid Ijaz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11006.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83962-416-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-415-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-417-9",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"104702",title:"Dr.",name:"Raymond W.",middleName:null,surname:"Nims",slug:"raymond-w.-nims",fullName:"Raymond W. Nims"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"215147",title:"Dr.",name:"Sifang Steve",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",fullName:"Sifang Steve Zhou",slug:"sifang-steve-zhou",email:"Steve.Zhou@microbac.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Common families of mammalian non-enveloped viruses",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Overview of chemical viral inactivation approaches",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Inactivation of non-enveloped viruses by alcohols",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Inactivation of non-enveloped viruses by oxidizers",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Inactivation of non-enveloped viruses by quaternary ammonium compounds",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Inactivation of non-enveloped viruses by low pH and high pH",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. Inactivation of non-enveloped viruses by aldehydes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"9. General order of susceptibility of non-enveloped viruses to chemical inactivation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"10. Discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"11. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Kampf G, Todt D, Pfaender S, Steinmann E. Persistence of coronaviruses on inanimate surfaces and their inactivation with biocidal agents. Journal of Hospital Infection. 2020;104(3):246-251'},{id:"B2",body:'Wiggins RC. Prion stability and infectivity in the environment. Neurochemical Results. 2009;34(1):158-168'},{id:"B3",body:'Doetsch RN, Cook TM. Introduction to Bacteria and Their Ecobiology. Berlin: Springer Science & Business Media; 1973. 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Shaheer Akhtar and Hyung-Shik Shin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10281.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"52613",title:"Dr.",name:"Sadia",middleName:null,surname:"Ameen",slug:"sadia-ameen",fullName:"Sadia Ameen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9913",title:"Carbon Nanotubes",subtitle:"Redefining the World of Electronics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"43a22b8570e841b7a26d70159b2f755d",slug:"carbon-nanotubes-redefining-the-world-of-electronics",bookSignature:"Prasanta Kumar Ghosh, Kunal Datta and Arti Dinkarrao Rushi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9913.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"294687",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanta",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Ghosh",slug:"prasanta-ghosh",fullName:"Prasanta Ghosh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10479",title:"21st Century Advanced Carbon Materials for Engineering Applications",subtitle:"A Comprehensive Handbook",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"712d04d43dbe1dca7dec9fcc08bc8852",slug:"21st-century-advanced-carbon-materials-for-engineering-applications-a-comprehensive-handbook",bookSignature:"Mujtaba Ikram and Asghari Maqsood",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10479.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"286820",title:"Dr.",name:"Mujtaba",middleName:null,surname:"Ikram",slug:"mujtaba-ikram",fullName:"Mujtaba Ikram"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10411",title:"Materials at the Nanoscale",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"be29908600b7067c583ac21da1544a2d",slug:"materials-at-the-nanoscale",bookSignature:"Awadesh Kumar Mallik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10411.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"178218",title:"Dr.",name:"Awadesh",middleName:null,surname:"Mallik",slug:"awadesh-mallik",fullName:"Awadesh Mallik"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10465",title:"Silver Micro-Nanoparticles",subtitle:"Properties, Synthesis, Characterization, and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dcc19a2b44c91940e16d82fd5eb8fffa",slug:"silver-micro-nanoparticles-properties-synthesis-characterization-and-applications",bookSignature:"Samir Kumar, Prabhat Kumar and Chandra Shakher Pathak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10465.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"296661",title:"Dr.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"samir-kumar",fullName:"Samir Kumar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10469",title:"Nanofibers",subtitle:"Synthesis, Properties and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"28dc655dde01b94399cab954663f8bff",slug:"nanofibers-synthesis-properties-and-applications",bookSignature:"Brajesh Kumar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10469.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"176093",title:"Dr.",name:"Brajesh",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"brajesh-kumar",fullName:"Brajesh Kumar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10505",title:"Colloids",subtitle:"Types, Preparation and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"55025219ea1a8b915ec8aa4b9f497a8d",slug:"colloids-types-preparation-and-applications",bookSignature:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10505.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:99,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"50566",doi:"10.5772/63234",title:"Influences of Doping on Photocatalytic Properties of TiO2 Photocatalyst",slug:"influences-of-doping-on-photocatalytic-properties-of-tio2-photocatalyst",totalDownloads:5353,totalCrossrefCites:23,totalDimensionsCites:75,abstract:"As a kind of highly effective, low‐cost, and stable photocatalysts, TiO2 has received substantial public and scientific attention. However, it can only be activated under ultraviolet light irradiation due to its wide bandgap, high recombination, and weak separation efficiency of carriers. Doping is an effective method to extend the light absorption to the visible light region. In this chapter, we will address the importance of doping, different doping modes, preparation method, and photocatalytic mechanism in TiO2 photocatalysts. Thereafter, we will concentrate on Ti3+ self‐doping, nonmetal doping, metal doping, and codoping. Examples of progress can be given for each one of these four doping modes. The influencing factors of preparation method and doping modes on photocatalytic performance (spectrum response, carrier transport, interfacial electron transfer reaction, surface active sites, etc.) are summed up. The main objective is to study the photocatalytic processes, to elucidate the mechanistic models for a better understanding the photocatalytic reactions, and to find a method of enhancing photocatalytic activities.",book:{id:"5139",slug:"semiconductor-photocatalysis-materials-mechanisms-and-applications",title:"Semiconductor Photocatalysis",fullTitle:"Semiconductor Photocatalysis - Materials, Mechanisms and Applications"},signatures:"Fei Huang, Aihua Yan and Hui Zhao",authors:[{id:"178389",title:"Dr.",name:"Fei",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",slug:"fei-huang",fullName:"Fei Huang"},{id:"185126",title:"Dr.",name:"Aihua",middleName:null,surname:"Yan",slug:"aihua-yan",fullName:"Aihua Yan"},{id:"185127",title:"Ms.",name:"Hui",middleName:null,surname:"Zhao",slug:"hui-zhao",fullName:"Hui Zhao"}]},{id:"17184",doi:"10.5772/17039",title:"Polymer Nanocomposites: From Synthesis to Applications",slug:"polymer-nanocomposites-from-synthesis-to-applications",totalDownloads:17288,totalCrossrefCites:31,totalDimensionsCites:68,abstract:null,book:{id:"1045",slug:"nanocomposites-and-polymers-with-analytical-methods",title:"Nanocomposites and Polymers with Analytical Methods",fullTitle:"Nanocomposites and Polymers with Analytical Methods"},signatures:"S. Anandhan and S. Bandyopadhyay",authors:[{id:"27050",title:"Prof.",name:"Sri",middleName:null,surname:"Bandyopadhyay",slug:"sri-bandyopadhyay",fullName:"Sri Bandyopadhyay"},{id:"44992",title:"Prof.",name:"Anandhan",middleName:null,surname:"Srinivasan",slug:"anandhan-srinivasan",fullName:"Anandhan Srinivasan"}]},{id:"9725",doi:"10.5772/8508",title:"Biosynthesis and Application of Silver and Gold Nanoparticles",slug:"biosynthesis-and-application-of-silver-and-gold-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:27927,totalCrossrefCites:23,totalDimensionsCites:58,abstract:null,book:{id:"3621",slug:"silver-nanoparticles",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",fullTitle:"Silver Nanoparticles"},signatures:"Zygmunt Sadowski",authors:null},{id:"17194",doi:"10.5772/21694",title:"Properties of Nanofillers in Polymer",slug:"properties-of-nanofillers-in-polymer",totalDownloads:20385,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:56,abstract:null,book:{id:"1045",slug:"nanocomposites-and-polymers-with-analytical-methods",title:"Nanocomposites and Polymers with Analytical Methods",fullTitle:"Nanocomposites and Polymers with Analytical Methods"},signatures:"Damien M. Marquis, Éric Guillaume and Carine Chivas-Joly",authors:[{id:"44307",title:"Dr",name:"Damien",middleName:"Michel",surname:"Marquis",slug:"damien-marquis",fullName:"Damien Marquis"},{id:"44317",title:"Prof.",name:"Carine",middleName:null,surname:"Chivas-Joly",slug:"carine-chivas-joly",fullName:"Carine Chivas-Joly"}]},{id:"52860",doi:"10.5772/65937",title:"Cerium Oxide Nanostructures and their Applications",slug:"cerium-oxide-nanostructures-and-their-applications",totalDownloads:5365,totalCrossrefCites:23,totalDimensionsCites:55,abstract:"Due to excellent physical and chemical properties, cerium oxide (ceria, CeO2) has attracted much attention in recent years. This chapter aimed at providing some basic and fundamental properties of ceria, the importance of oxygen vacancies in this material, nano‐size effects and various synthesis strategies to form diverse structural morphologies. Finally, some key applications of ceria‐based nanostructures are reviewed. We conclude this chapter by expressing personal perspective on the probable challenges and developments of the controllable synthesis of CeO2 nanomaterials for various applications.",book:{id:"5510",slug:"functionalized-nanomaterials",title:"Functionalized Nanomaterials",fullTitle:"Functionalized Nanomaterials"},signatures:"Adnan Younis, Dewei Chu and Sean Li",authors:[{id:"191574",title:"Dr.",name:"Adnan",middleName:null,surname:"Younis",slug:"adnan-younis",fullName:"Adnan Younis"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"71103",title:"Preparation of Nanoparticles",slug:"preparation-of-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:3140,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Innovative developments of science and engineering have progressed very fast toward the synthesis of nanomaterials to achieve unique properties that are not the same as the properties of the bulk materials. The particle reveals interesting properties at the dimension below 100 nm, mostly from two physical effects. The two physical effects are the quantization of electronic states apparent leading to very sensitive size-dependent effects such as optical and magnetic properties and the high surface-to-volume ratio modifies the thermal, mechanical, and chemical properties of materials. The nanoparticles’ unique physical and chemical properties render them most appropriate for a number of specialist applications.",book:{id:"9109",slug:"engineered-nanomaterials-health-and-safety",title:"Engineered Nanomaterials",fullTitle:"Engineered Nanomaterials - Health and Safety"},signatures:"Takalani Cele",authors:[{id:"305934",title:"Dr.",name:"Takalani",middleName:null,surname:"Cele",slug:"takalani-cele",fullName:"Takalani Cele"}]},{id:"72636",title:"Nanocomposite Materials",slug:"nanocomposite-materials",totalDownloads:2139,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Nanocomposites are the heterogeneous/hybrid materials that are produced by the mixtures of polymers with inorganic solids (clays to oxides) at the nanometric scale. Their structures are found to be more complicated than that of microcomposites. They are highly influenced by the structure, composition, interfacial interactions, and components of individual property. Most popularly, nanocomposites are prepared by the process within in situ growth and polymerization of biopolymer and inorganic matrix. With the rapid estimated demand of these striking potentially advanced materials, make them very much useful in various industries ranging from small scale to large to very large manufacturing units. With a great deal to mankind with environmental friendly, these offer advanced technologies in addition to the enhanced business opportunities to several industrial sectors like automobile, construction, electronics and electrical, food packaging, and technology transfer.",book:{id:"10072",slug:"nanotechnology-and-the-environment",title:"Nanotechnology and the Environment",fullTitle:"Nanotechnology and the Environment"},signatures:"Mousumi Sen",authors:[{id:"310218",title:"Dr.",name:"Mousumi",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"mousumi-sen",fullName:"Mousumi Sen"}]},{id:"38951",title:"Carbon Nanotube Transparent Electrode",slug:"carbon-nanotube-transparent-electrode",totalDownloads:3985,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"3077",slug:"syntheses-and-applications-of-carbon-nanotubes-and-their-composites",title:"Syntheses and Applications of Carbon Nanotubes and Their Composites",fullTitle:"Syntheses and Applications of Carbon Nanotubes and Their Composites"},signatures:"Jing Sun and Ranran Wang",authors:[{id:"153508",title:"Prof.",name:"Jing",middleName:null,surname:"Sun",slug:"jing-sun",fullName:"Jing Sun"},{id:"153596",title:"Ms.",name:"Ranran",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"ranran-wang",fullName:"Ranran Wang"}]},{id:"49413",title:"Electrodeposition of Nanostructure Materials",slug:"electrodeposition-of-nanostructure-materials",totalDownloads:3732,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"We are conducting a multi-disciplinary research work that involves development of nanostructured thin films of semiconductors for different applications. Nanotechnology is widely considered to constitute the basis of the next technological revolution, following on from the first Industrial Revolution, which began around 1750 with the introduction of the steam engine and steelmaking. Nanotechnology is defined as the design, characterization, production, and application of materials, devices and systems by controlling shape and size of the nanoscale. The nanoscale itself is at present considered to cover the range from 1 to 100 nm. All samples prepared in thin film forms and the characterization revealed their nanostructure. The major exploitation of thin films has been in microelectronics, there are numerous and growing applications in communications, optical electronics, coatings of all kinds, and in energy generation. A great many sophisticated analytical instruments and techniques, largely developed to characterize thin films, have already become indispensable in virtually every scientific endeavor irrespective of discipline. Among all these techniques, electrodeposition is the most suitable technique for nanostructured thin films from aqueous solution served as samples under investigation. The electrodeposition of metallic layers from aqueous solution is based on the discharge of metal ions present in the electrolyte at a cathodic surface (the substrate or component.) The metal ions accept an electron from the electrically conducting material at the solid- electrolyte interface and then deposit as metal atoms onto the surface. The electrons necessary for this to occur are either supplied from an externally applied potential source or are surrendered by a reducing agent present in solution (electroless reduction). The metal ions themselves derive either from metal salts added to solution, or by the anodic dissolution of the so-called sacrificial anodes, made of the same metal that is to be deposited at the cathode.",book:{id:"4718",slug:"electroplating-of-nanostructures",title:"Electroplating of Nanostructures",fullTitle:"Electroplating of Nanostructures"},signatures:"Souad A. M. Al-Bat’hi",authors:[{id:"174793",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamad",middleName:null,surname:"Souad",slug:"mohamad-souad",fullName:"Mohamad Souad"}]},{id:"71346",title:"Application of Nanomaterials in Environmental Improvement",slug:"application-of-nanomaterials-in-environmental-improvement",totalDownloads:1691,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"In recent years, researchers used many scientific studies to improve modern technologies in the field of reducing the phenomenon of pollution resulting from them. In this chapter, methods to prepare nanomaterials are described, and the main properties such as mechanical, electrical, and optical properties and their relations are determined. The investigation of nanomaterials needed high technologies that depend on a range of nanomaterials from 1 to 100 nm; these are scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and X-ray diffractions (XRD). The applications of nanomaterials in environmental improvement are different from one another depending on the type of devices used, for example, solar cells for producing clean energy, nanotechnologies in coatings for building exterior surfaces, and sonochemical decolorization of dyes by the effect of nanocomposite.",book:{id:"10072",slug:"nanotechnology-and-the-environment",title:"Nanotechnology and the Environment",fullTitle:"Nanotechnology and the Environment"},signatures:"Ali Salman Ali",authors:[{id:"313275",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Salman",slug:"ali-salman",fullName:"Ali Salman"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"208",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81438",title:"Research Progress of Ionic Thermoelectric Materials for Energy Harvesting",slug:"research-progress-of-ionic-thermoelectric-materials-for-energy-harvesting",totalDownloads:20,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101771",abstract:"Thermoelectric material is a kind of functional material that can mutually convert heat energy and electric energy. It can convert low-grade heat energy (less than 130°C) into electric energy. Compared with traditional electronic thermoelectric materials, ionic thermoelectric materials have higher performance. The Seebeck coefficient can generate 2–3 orders of magnitude higher ionic thermoelectric potential than electronic thermoelectric materials, so it has good application prospects in small thermoelectric generators and solar power generation. According to the thermoelectric conversion mechanism, ionic thermoelectric materials can be divided into ionic thermoelectric materials based on the Soret effect and thermocouple effect. They are widely used in pyrogen batteries and ionic thermoelectric capacitors. The latest two types of ionic thermoelectric materials are in this article. The research progress is explained, and the problems and challenges of ionic thermoelectric materials and the future development direction are also put forward.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Jianwei Zhang, Ying Xiao, Bowei Lei, Gengyuan Liang and Wenshu Zhao"},{id:"77670",title:"Thermoelectric Elements with Negative Temperature Factor of Resistance",slug:"thermoelectric-elements-with-negative-temperature-factor-of-resistance",totalDownloads:71,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98860",abstract:"The method of manufacturing of ceramic materials on the basis of ferrites of nickel and cobalt by synthesis and sintering in controllable regenerative atmosphere is presented. As the generator of regenerative atmosphere the method of conversion of carbonic gas is offered. Calculation of regenerative atmosphere for simultaneous sintering of ceramic ferrites of nickel and cobalt is carried out. It is offered, methods of the dilated nonequilibrium thermodynamics to view process of distribution of a charge and heat along a thermoelement branch. The model of a thermoelement taking into account various relaxation times of a charge and warmth is constructed.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Yuri Bokhan"},{id:"79236",title:"Processing Techniques with Heating Conditions for Multiferroic Systems of BiFeO3, BaTiO3, PbTiO3, CaTiO3 Thin Films",slug:"processing-techniques-with-heating-conditions-for-multiferroic-systems-of-bifeo3-batio3-pbtio3-catio",totalDownloads:96,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101122",abstract:"In this chapter, we have report a list of synthesis methods (including both synthesis steps & heating conditions) used for thin film fabrication of perovskite ABO3 (BiFeO3, BaTiO3, PbTiO3 and CaTiO3) based multiferroics (in both single-phase and composite materials). The processing of high quality multiferroic thin film have some features like epitaxial strain, physical phenomenon at atomic-level, interfacial coupling parameters to enhance device performance. Since these multiferroic thin films have ME properties such as electrical (dielectric, magnetoelectric coefficient & MC) and magnetic (ferromagnetic, magnetic susceptibility etc.) are heat sensitive, i.e. ME response at low as well as higher temperature might to enhance the device performance respect with long range ordering. The magnetoelectric coupling between ferromagnetism and ferroelectricity in multiferroic becomes suitable in the application of spintronics, memory and logic devices, and microelectronic memory or piezoelectric devices. In comparison with bulk multiferroic, the fabrication of multiferroic thin film with different structural geometries on substrate has reducible clamping effect. A brief procedure for multiferroic thin film fabrication in terms of their thermal conditions (temperature for film processing and annealing for crystallization) are described. Each synthesis methods have its own characteristic phenomenon in terms of film thickness, defects formation, crack free film, density, chip size, easier steps and availability etc. been described. A brief study towards phase structure and ME coupling for each multiferroic system of BiFeO3, BaTiO3, PbTiO3 and CaTiO3 is shown.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Kuldeep Chand Verma and Manpreet Singh"},{id:"78034",title:"Quantum Physical Interpretation of Thermoelectric Properties of Ruthenate Pyrochlores",slug:"quantum-physical-interpretation-of-thermoelectric-properties-of-ruthenate-pyrochlores",totalDownloads:74,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99260",abstract:"Lead- and lead-yttrium ruthenate pyrochlores were synthesized and investigated for Seebeck coefficients, electrical- and thermal conductivity. Compounds A2B2O6.5+z with 0 ≤ z < 0.5 were defect pyrochlores and p-type conductors. The thermoelectric data were analyzed using quantum physical models to identify scattering mechanisms underlying electrical (σ) and thermal conductivity (κ) and to understand the temperature dependence of the Seebeck effect (S). In the metal-like lead ruthenates with different Pb:Ru ratios, σ (T) and the electronic thermal conductivity κe (T) were governed by ‘electron impurity scattering’, the lattice thermal conductivity κL (T) by the 3-phonon resistive process (Umklapp scattering). In the lead-yttrium ruthenate solid solutions (Pb(2-x)YxRu2O(6.5±z)), a metal–insulator transition occurred at 0.2 moles of yttrium. On the metallic side (<0.2 moles Y) ‘electron impurity scattering’ prevailed. On the semiconductor/insulator side between x = 0.2 and x = 1.0 several mechanisms were equally likely. At x > 1.5 the Mott Variable Range Hopping mechanism was active. S (T) was discussed for Pb-Y-Ru pyrochlores in terms of the effect of minority carrier excitation at lower- and a broadening of the Fermi distribution at higher temperatures. The figures of merit of all of these pyrochlores were still small (≤7.3 × 10−3).",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Sepideh Akhbarifar"},{id:"77635",title:"Optimization of Thermoelectric Properties Based on Rashba Spin Splitting",slug:"optimization-of-thermoelectric-properties-based-on-rashba-spin-splitting",totalDownloads:123,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98788",abstract:"In recent years, the application of thermoelectricity has become more and more widespread. Thermoelectric materials provide a simple and environmentally friendly solution for the direct conversion of heat to electricity. The development of higher performance thermoelectric materials and their performance optimization have become more important. Generally, to improve the ZT value, electrical conductivity, Seebeck coefficient and thermal conductivity must be globally optimized as a whole object. However, due to the strong coupling among ZT parameters in many cases, it is very challenging to break the bottleneck of ZT optimization currently. Beyond the traditional optimization methods (such as inducing defects, varying temperature), the Rashba effect is expected to effectively increase the S2σ and decrease the κ, thus enhancing thermoelectric performance, which provides a new strategy to develop new-generation thermoelectric materials. Although the Rashba effect has great potential in enhancing thermoelectric performance, the underlying mechanism of Rashba-type thermoelectric materials needs further research. In addition, how to introduce Rashba spin splitting into current thermoelectric materials is also of great significance to the optimization of thermoelectricity.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Zhenzhen Qin"},{id:"75364",title:"Challenges in Improving Performance of Oxide Thermoelectrics Using Defect Engineering",slug:"challenges-in-improving-performance-of-oxide-thermoelectrics-using-defect-engineering",totalDownloads:211,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96278",abstract:"Oxide thermoelectric materials are considered promising for high-temperature thermoelectric applications in terms of low cost, temperature stability, reversible reaction, and so on. Oxide materials have been intensively studied to suppress the defects and electronic charge carriers for many electronic device applications, but the studies with a high concentration of defects are limited. It desires to improve thermoelectric performance by enhancing its charge transport and lowering its lattice thermal conductivity. For this purpose, here, we modified the stoichiometry of cation and anion vacancies in two different systems to regulate the carrier concentration and explored their thermoelectric properties. Both cation and anion vacancies act as a donor of charge carriers and act as phonon scattering centers, decoupling the electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Jamil Ur Rahman, Gul Rahman and Soonil Lee"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:6},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261",scope:"Modern physiology requires a comprehensive understanding of the integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, including the cooperation between structure and function at the cellular and molecular levels governed by gene and protein expression. While a daunting task, learning is facilitated by identifying common and effective signaling pathways mediated by a variety of factors employed by nature to preserve and sustain homeostatic life. \r\nAs a leading example, the cellular interaction between intracellular concentration of Ca+2 increases, and changes in plasma membrane potential is integral for coordinating blood flow, governing the exocytosis of neurotransmitters, and modulating gene expression and cell effector secretory functions. Furthermore, in this manner, understanding the systemic interaction between the cardiovascular and nervous systems has become more important than ever as human populations' life prolongation, aging and mechanisms of cellular oxidative signaling are utilised for sustaining life. \r\nAltogether, physiological research enables our identification of distinct and precise points of transition from health to the development of multimorbidity throughout the inevitable aging disorders (e.g., diabetes, hypertension, chronic kidney disease, heart failure, peptic ulcer, inflammatory bowel disease, age-related macular degeneration, cancer). With consideration of all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, gut, skeletal and smooth muscle, liver, pancreas, kidney, eye) and the interactions thereof, this Physiology Series will address the goals of resolving (1) Aging physiology and chronic disease progression (2) Examination of key cellular pathways as they relate to calcium, oxidative stress, and electrical signaling, and (3) how changes in plasma membrane produced by lipid peroxidation products can affect aging physiology, covering new research in the area of cell, human, plant and animal physiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/10.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 14th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:11,editor:{id:"35854",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomasz",middleName:null,surname:"Brzozowski",slug:"tomasz-brzozowski",fullName:"Tomasz Brzozowski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35854/images/system/35854.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Thomas Brzozowski works as a professor of Human Physiology and is currently Chairman at the Department of Physiology and is V-Dean of the Medical Faculty at Jagiellonian University Medical College, Cracow, Poland. His primary area of interest is physiology and pathophysiology of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, with the major focus on the mechanism of GI mucosal defense, protection, and ulcer healing. He was a postdoctoral NIH fellow at the University of California and the Gastroenterology VA Medical Center, Irvine, Long Beach, CA, USA, and at the Gastroenterology Clinics Erlangen-Nuremberg and Munster in Germany. He has published 290 original articles in some of the most prestigious scientific journals and seven book chapters on the pathophysiology of the GI tract, gastroprotection, ulcer healing, drug therapy of peptic ulcers, hormonal regulation of the gut, and inflammatory bowel disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jagiellonian University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:49,paginationItems:[{id:"80495",title:"Iron in Cell Metabolism and Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101908",signatures:"Eeka Prabhakar",slug:"iron-in-cell-metabolism-and-disease",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:null,totalDimensionsCites:null,authors:null,book:{title:"Iron Metabolism - Iron a Double‐Edged Sword",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10842.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81799",title:"Cross Talk of Purinergic and Immune Signaling: Implication in Inflammatory and Pathogenic Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104978",signatures:"Richa Rai",slug:"cross-talk-of-purinergic-and-immune-signaling-implication-in-inflammatory-and-pathogenic-diseases",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81764",title:"Involvement of the Purinergic System in Cell Death in Models of Retinopathies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103935",signatures:"Douglas Penaforte Cruz, Marinna Garcia Repossi and Lucianne Fragel Madeira",slug:"involvement-of-the-purinergic-system-in-cell-death-in-models-of-retinopathies",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81756",title:"Alteration of Cytokines Level and Oxidative Stress Parameters in COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104950",signatures:"Marija Petrusevska, Emilija Atanasovska, Dragica Zendelovska, Aleksandar Eftimov and Katerina Spasovska",slug:"alteration-of-cytokines-level-and-oxidative-stress-parameters-in-covid-19",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:27,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science and Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013. She relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the National Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to October 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is currently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology – Kandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI) Ambassador to Sri Lanka.",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. Her research interests include microalgal biotechnology with an emphasis on microalgae-based products.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7953",title:"Bioluminescence",subtitle:"Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7953.jpg",slug:"bioluminescence-analytical-applications-and-basic-biology",publishedDate:"September 25th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hirobumi Suzuki",hash:"3a8efa00b71abea11bf01973dc589979",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Bioluminescence - Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",editors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185746/images/system/185746.png",biography:"Dr. Hirobumi Suzuki received his Ph.D. in 1997 from Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan, where he studied firefly phylogeny and the evolution of mating systems. He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. 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The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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