Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\n
Seeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\n
Over these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\n
We are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\n
Thank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\n
Now with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n
"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\n
Seeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\n
Over these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\n
We are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\n
Thank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\n
Now with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
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1. Introduction
In reality, all physical systems are affected by uncertainties due to modeling errors, parametric variation, and external disturbances. Controlling of dynamical systems in the presence of uncertainties is extremely difficult as the controller\'s performances degrade and the system may even be led to instability. As such, active researches are continuing to develop controllers that can work successfully in spite of uncertainties. Robust control techniques such as nonlinear adaptive control, model predictive control, backstepping and sliding mode control [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 11, 19, 20, 32, 34] have been evolved to deal with uncertainties.
The classical Sliding Mode Control (SMC) leads, generally, to the appearing of an undesirable chattering phenomenon [2, 3, 9, 10, 13, 14, 15] to solve this problem we propose an approach using the Adaptive Integral High Order Sliding Mode Controller (AIHOSMC). This technique ensures a good tradeoff between error and robustness against noise and especially a good accuracy for a certain frequency range, regardless of the gain setting of the algorithm. This technique is based on estimating the successive derivatives of the sliding mode surface and transmitting them to the control block, all by using an aircraft in virtual simulated environments [24, 25]. It is real‐time virtual simulation, which is close to the real‐world situation.
The piloting technique proposed in this work is more robust and simpler to implement than the quaternion one. It only requires information about the sliding mode surface.
2. Problem statement
Through a methodology based on the confrontation of the real and the simulated worlds, the main objective of this chapter is to develop an autopilot based on a robust controller to maintain the desired trajectory (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Real trajectory.
To achieve this objective, we use the flight simulator FS2004 as a simulated world environment coupled to a hardware and a software development platform. This simulator is developed by Microsoft, with several simulated aircraft included in its airplane library. We choose the Predator MQ‐1 (Figure 2). It is considered as a reconnaissance and an intelligent system.
Figure 2.
The predator MQ‐1 flying in FS‐2004.
In this work, the main goal is to maintain the desired aircraft\'s trajectory; and to do so, we propose the following approach:
description and analysis of the aircraft system model;
implementation of a real‐time interface between the flight simulator FS2004 and the module real‐time Windows target of Simulink/Matlab;
development and implementation of the piloting law based on adaptive integral sliding mode for the design of the autopilot controller;
flight tests.
3. Characteristics of the predator
The MQ‐1 predator is an American unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) that can serve in the reconnaissance or attack role. Predator has been in the United States Air Force (USAF) service since 1995 and has seen combat in numerous theatres.
Airwrench tool gives access to flight dynamic characteristics (http://www.mudpond.org/AirWrench_main.htm). This tool allows creating and tuning flight dynamics files description of simulated planes models. This software uses aerodynamics formulas and equations described on the Mudpond Flight Dynamics Workbook. It calculates aerodynamic coefficients based on the physical characteristics and performance of the aircraft (Table 1).
4. Implementation of a real‐time interface between Microsoft flight simulator and the module “real‐time windows target” of Simulink/Matlab
We communicate with FS2004 by using a dynamic link library called FSUIPC.dll (Flight Simulator Universal Inter‐Process Communication). This library created by Peter Dowson and is downloadable from his website [36] (www.schiratti.com/dowson.html). It allows external applications to read and write in and from Microsoft flight simulator (MSFS) by the means of an IPC (interprocess communication) using a buffer of 64 Ko. The documentation given with FSUIPC explains the organization of this buffer [8, 17, 18].
To read or write a variable using the FSUIPC, we need to know its offset address, its format, and the necessary conversions. For example, the bank angle (φ) is read as a signed long S32 at the offset 0x057C. Table 2 shows the parameters used in our simulation.
Offset
Name
Var. type
Size (octet)
Usage
057C
Bank angle (φ)
S32
4
Degree
578
Elevation angle (θ)
S32
4
Degree
580
Head angle (ψ)
U32
4
Degree
02BC
Speed IAS (V)
S32
4
Knot*128
0BB2
Elevator deflection (δe)
S16
2
-16383 to +16383
0BB6
Aileron deflection (δa)
S16
2
-16383 to +16383
0BBA
Rudder deflection (δr)
S16
2
-16383 to +16383
088C
Thrust control (δx)
S16
2
-16383 to +16383
Table 2.
Flight parameters in the buffer FSUIPC.
To deal with the design of an autopilot controller, we propose an environment framework based on a software in the loop (SIL) methodology (see Figure 3) and we use Microsoft flight simulator (MSFS‐2004) as a plane simulation environment [24, 25].
Figure 3.
Software‐in‐the‐loop architecture.
This work is a real‐time virtual simulation, we read or/and write the desired parameters from and to MSFS‐2004 through the computer memory by using the FSUIPC library.
5. System modeling
The model describing the system is presented by [12, 25, 26]
x˙=f(x)+g(x).UE1
with is the aircraft state vector in the body frame:
x=[uvwpqrφθψ]T=[x1.......x9]TE2
U=[δtδeδaδr]T is the control vector and δt, δe, δa and δr denoting thrust control, elevator deflection, aileron deflection, and rudder deflection, respectively.
We propose the following output vector:
y=[ϕθψ]TE3
The nonlinear functions f(x) and g(x) are given by [16, 23, 25]:
where Δ=Ixz2−IxxIzz,a1=−(IzzCl4−IxzCn4)Δ,a2=−(IzzCl6−IxzCn5)Δ,, a4=−(IzzCn5−IxzCl6)Δ.
The coefficients Cx1,........,Cn5 are defined in Table 3 [21, 22, 25, 26].
Cx1=QSCxα˙m
Cx2=QScCxqmV
Cx3=QSCxδem
Cx4=QSCx0m
Cx5=QSCxαm
Cy1=QSbCyβ˙2mV
Cy2=QSbCyp2mV
Cy3=QSbCyr2mV
Cy4=QSCyδam
Cy5=QSCyδrm
Cy6=QSCyβm
Cy7=QSCy0m
Cz1=QScCzα˙mV
Cz2=QScCzqmV
Cz3=QSCzδem
Cz4=QSCz0m
Cz5=QSCzαm
Cl1=QSc2Clβ˙2V
Cl2=QSb2Clp2V
Cl3=QSb2Clr2V
Cl4=QSbClδa
Cl5=QSbClβ
Cl6=QSbClδr
Cl7=QSbCl0
Cm1=QSc2Cmα˙2V
Cm2=QSc2CmqV
Cm3=QScCmδeIyy
Cm4=QScCm0
Cm5=QScCmα
Cn1=QSb2Cmβ˙2V
Cn2=QSb2Cnp2V
Cn3=QSb2Cnr2V
Cn4=QSbCnδa
Cn5=QSbCnδr
Cn6=QSbCnβ
Cn7=QSbCn0
Table 3.
Expression of the modified aerodynamic coefficients.
6. Integral sliding mode controller problem formulation
Consider the following nonlinear uncertain system [31]
x˙=f(x)+g(x).Uy=S(x,t)E6
S(x,t) is a sliding variable. f and g are uncertain smooth vector fields and are differentiable.
The uncertainties in f(x) and g(x) are caused by the parameter variations, the nonmodeled dynamics, or the external disturbances.
Assumption 1 [31]: The relative degree r of system (6) is constant and known, and the associated zero dynamics are stable.
The rth‐order sliding mode is defined through the following definition.
Definition 1 [6, 7, 8, 31]: Consider the nonlinear system (6) and the sliding variable S. Assume that the time derivatives S,S˙,.....,S(r−1) are continuous functions. The manifold defined as
Σr={x|S(x,t)=S˙(x,t)=.....=S(r−1)=0}E7
is called “rth‐order sliding mode set,” which is nonempty and is locally an integral set in the Fillipov sens [30]. The motion Σr on is called “rth‐order sliding mode” with respect to the sliding variable S.
Definition 2 [6–8, 31, 32]: Consider the nonlinear system (6) and the sliding variable S. Assume that the time derivatives S,S˙,.....,S(r−1) are continuous functions. The manifold defined as
With μi≥0 (0≤i≤r−1), is named “real rth‐order sliding mode set,” which is nonempty and is locally an integral set in the Fillipov sens [30]. The motion on Σr is called “real rth‐order sliding mode” with respect to the sliding variable S. Given the form of system (6), the rth‐order sliding mode control (SMC) approach allows the finite time stabilization to zero of the sliding variable S and its (r‐1) first time derivatives by defining a suitable discontinuous control function. The rth time derivative of S satisfies the equation [6–8]:
S(r)=a(x,t)+b(x,t)UE9
With b=LgLfr−1S and a=LfrS
Assumption 2 [31, 32]: Solutions of Eq. (9) with discontinuous right‐hand side are defined in the sense of Fillipov [30].
Assumption 3 [31, 32]: Functions a(t,x) and b(t,x) are smooth and uncertain but bounded functions; furthermore, they can be partitioned into a well‐known nominal part (respectively, a¯(t,x) and b¯(t,x) is an uncertain bounded one, respectively, a(t,x) and Δb(t,x).
a(t,x)=a¯(t,x)+Δa(t,x)b(t,x)=b¯(t,x)+Δb(t,x)E10
Functions a(t,x) and a¯(t,x) are such that a≻0 and a¯≻0 there is an upper bound constant ξ and a priori known constant 0≺γ≤1 such that the uncertain functions satisfy the following inequalities [33]:
|Δb(t,x)b¯(t,x)|≤1−γ,|Δa(t,x)|≤ξE11
The rth‐order sliding mode controller (SMC) of Eq. (6) with respect to the sliding variable S is equivalent to the finite time stabilization of
z˙i=zi−1z˙i=a(t,x)+b(t,x)E12
With 1≤i≤r−1 and z=[z1z2……zr]T=[SS˙…….S(r−1)]T
Consider the following state feedback control
U=1b¯(x,t)(−a¯(t,x)+σ)E13
with σ the auxiliary control input. Note that this state feedback control linearizes (by an input‐output point of view) the nominal system, i.e., system (12) with no uncertainties.
The control objective is now the following: how to define a discontinuous control law ensuring the stabilization of the previous system, in a finite time and in spite of the uncertainties?
6.1. Control design
We proposed two high‐order sliding mode controllers based on integral sliding mode concept [27]: the first requires knowledge of the uncertainties bounds, whereas, for the second one, no knowledge of the bounds is required. This latter feature is due to an adaptation law for the control gain.
6.1.1. Finite time stabilization of an integrators’ chain system
The following theorem proposes a continuous finite time stabilizing feedback controller for a chain of integrators, by giving an explicit construction involving a small parameter. One gets an asymptotically stable closed‐loop system; the system is homogeneous of negative degree with respect to a suitable dilation, which implies the finite time stability. Consider the system (12) with no uncertainty (Δa(t,x)=0 and Δb(t,x)=0).
Let k1,…,kr≻0 be such that the polynomial λr+krλr−1+…+k2λ+k1 is Hurwitz. There exists ε∈]0,1[ such that, for every α∈]1−ε,1[, the origin is a globally finite time stable equilibrium point for system (15) under the feedback
σ=k1sign(z1)|z1|α1−…−krsign(zr)|zr|αrE16
With α1,….,αr−1 satisfy αi−1=αiαi+12αi+1−αi
For i=2,…,r with αr=α and αr+1=1.
6.1.2. Robust finite time controller design based on integral sliding mode [31, 32]
Consider the following function, named “integral sliding variable,” defined as (t0 being the initial time)
S(z(t))=zr(t)−zr(t0)−∫t0tσnom(τ)dτE17
with the term σnom defined by Eq. (16) in Theorem 1. Note that, S(z(t0))=0: then the system is evolving on the sliding manifold early from the initial time.
This latter feature is a key point of the integral sliding mode controller; in fact, the definition of the integral sliding variable allows to ensure that a sliding mode has been established early from the initial time, thanks to the finite time convergence property of σnom. Then, it is necessary to force the system to evolve on the integral sliding surface S=0 in spite of the uncertainties and perturbations: it will be the role of the discontinuous part of the controller. In fact, the term σnom appearing in S can be viewed as a desired trajectory generator. By supposing that, ∀t≥t0,S=0, one has
S˙=z˙r−σnom=0→z˙r=σnomE18
From the previous inequality, it is clear that, if the control σ guarantees that S=0,∀t≥t0 and given the features of σnom, system (15) is stabilized at the origin in a finite time.
Then, in order to stabilize system (15), the following control law is defined
σ=σnom−Ksign(S)E19
This controller has two parts:
The first one σnom, called “ideal control”, is continuous and stabilizes the system (15) at the origin in absence of uncertainties. This controller is also used in order to generate the system\'s ideal trajectories;
The second one −Ksign(S) provides the complete compensation of uncertainties and perturbations and ensures that control objectives are reached, where the gain is satisfying
K≻(1−γ)(|σnom|+|ψ|+ξ+η)γE20
Theorem 2: [29, 33] Consider the nonlinear system (6) and assume that assumptions 1–3 are fulfilled. Then, if the gain
K fulfills the condition (20), the control law
U=b−1(x,t)(−a¯(x,t)+σnom−Ksign(S))E21
ensures the establishment of a rth‐order sliding mode versus the sliding variable S, i.e., the trajectories of system (6) converge to zero in finite time.
7. Application of the adaptive integral‐ high‐order‐sliding ‐mode controller for piloting
The relative degrees are rφ=rθ=rψ=0.
The input control U is defined by σφ,θ,ψ=[δeδaδr]T.
We propose the integral sliding variable as follows:
Sφ,θ,ψ(z(t))=z1,ϕ,θ,ψ(t)−yd(t0)−∫t0tσnom(τ)dτE22
where yd=[φdθdψd]T is the desired vector and z1,φ,θ,ψ=[φθψ]T is the output vector of integrators’ chain.
In Theorem 1, we choose ε=0.7, so we can take α=0.5.
The reduction of the noise is assumed by the presence of the linear term (Kiz2i, where i=φ,θ,ψ) in the equation of each output i in the algorithm. This linear term can be expressed as the law of the control, which allows the reduction of the chattering effect. The addition of this continuous term smoothes the output noise due to a low gain values. If the chosen values of these gains become very low, the convergence of the algorithm becomes slow. Therefore, the choice of the convergence gains remains difficult and is based on a compromise between reducing the noise and having a short algorithm\'s convergence time. It should also be noted that in the presence of noise, it is necessary to impose small initial values for the dynamic gains in order to reduce the effect of the discontinuous control. Moreover, the presence of integral term (∫0tsign(z2φ,θ,ψ)dt) in the expressions of the dynamic gains provides the smoothing of the estimated derivatives.
The dynamic adaptation of the gains λ^˙i,i∈{0,1,2} is given by
The application of this piloting technique in FS2004 is shown in Figure 2. λ,μ and h are latitude, longitude and altitude of aircraft, respectively.
The input signals at the upper and lower saturation values of the control laws are used to respect the actuators bounds. Scaled functions are added to take into account the actuators resolutions.
The adaptive integral high‐order sliding mode technique is used to recover the desired signal. Several flight tests were realized to demonstrate the effectiveness of the combined controller/integrators’ chain.
7.1. Simulation results
We run the flight simulator FS2004 and the interface with the module real‐time windows target of Simulink/Matlab.
In a first step, we used aircraft predator, the aircraft taking off was done using the keyboard. Then, we run our software to transmit the control inputs based on the adaptive integral higher‐order sliding mode to the autopilot controller in order to maintain the desired trajectory.
The desired signal injected and the output integrators’ chain are shown in Figure 4. We notice the outputs of the integrators’ chain z1,j where j=φ,θ,ψ follows the references φd, θd and ψd perfectly. The surface sliding mode Sϕ,θ,ψ is small (see Figure 5).
Figure 4.
Application of the adaptive integral high order sliding mode controller in FS2004.
Figure 5.
Reference and output integrators.
Figure 6 shows the error between the output integrators’ chain z1φ and φd0. The signal z1φ follows φd.
Figure 6.
Surface sliding mode Sφ.
The input signals at the upper and the lower saturation values of the aileron, rudder, and elevator deflections are used to respect the virtual Joystick (PPjoy) bounds. Upper limit: 62767, lower limit: 1.
Airwrench gives the following data:
Aileron parameters: Aileron area 1.70 m2, aileron up angle limit 20.0°, aileron down angle limit 15.0°.
Elevator parameters: Elevator area 1.54 m2, elevator up angle limit 25.00°, elevator down angle limit 20.00°.
Rudder parameters: Rudder area 0.62 m2, Rudder angle limit 24.00°.
The aileron, elevator, and rudder deflections are shown in Figures 7–9. We notice the absence of the chattering phenomenon.
Figure 7.
Ailler control.
Figure 8.
Rudder control.
Figure 9.
Elevator control.
The evolution parameters λ^1, λ^2, and λ^3 are shown in Figure 10.
Figure 10.
Dynamic parameters evolution λ^1, λ^2, and λ^3.
The flight tests demonstrate the robustness of the adaptive integral high‐order sliding mode. It makes it possible to ensure a better derivation of the desired input signal in real time, and this is to ensure a good accuracy of tracking the desired trajectory.
8. Conclusion
In this chapter, a procedure of the communication with an aircraft model in a simulated environment and the implementation of the real‐time interface between the Microsoft flight simulator and the module “real‐time windows target” of Simulink/Matlab has been presented. After that, an adaptive integral sliding mode for an aircraft autopilot has been presented. Our approach uses the environment simulator (FS2004) to reduce the design process complexity.
For the piloting part, we have interested the gain adaptation for the reduction of chattering phenomena and possibility to control the aircraft presented by the uncertain nonlinear systems in which the uncertainties have unknown bounds. This technique is more robust and simpler to implement than the quaternion one and only needs the information about the sliding mode surface.
The flight tests demonstrate the robustness of an adaptive integral sliding mode. The former ensures a better derivation of the desired input signal in real time, and this ensures a good accuracy in terms of tracking for a desired reference.
\n',keywords:"adaptive integral high-order sliding mode controller, Microsoft flight simulatorr, UAV predator, real-time virtual simulation",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/54380.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/54380.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54380",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54380",totalDownloads:1071,totalViews:299,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"September 30th 2016",dateReviewed:"January 24th 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"June 28th 2017",dateFinished:"March 11th 2017",readingETA:"0",abstract:"In order to develop and implement the laws piloting for an aircraft, flights validation will be necessary. This could in fact be done, in a first step, by using flight simulators. In this work, we choose the predator virtual model flying in MicrosoftTM flight simulator (MSFS) and we propose the procedure of controlling its attitude. We send the adaptive integral high‐order sliding mode (AIHOSM) inputs piloting control. This work is a real‐time virtual simulation. For the AIHOSM controller, we propose the gain adaptation for reduction of chattering phenomena and possibility to control the aircraft presented by the uncertain nonlinear systems in which the uncertainties have unknown bounds. This technique is more robust and simpler to implement than the quaternion one and only needs the information about the sliding mode surface.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/54380",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/54380",book:{slug:"recent-developments-in-sliding-mode-control-theory-and-applications"},signatures:"Zaouche Mohammed, Foughali Khaled and Amini Mohamed",authors:[{id:"196948",title:"Dr.",name:"Zaouche",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammed",fullName:"Zaouche Mohammed",slug:"zaouche-mohammed",email:"zaouchemohamed@yahoo.fr",position:null,institution:null},{id:"197491",title:"Dr.",name:"Zaouche",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammed",fullName:"Zaouche Mohammed",slug:"zaouche-mohammed",email:"zaou_moh@hotmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"197492",title:"Mr.",name:"Amini",middleName:null,surname:"Mohamed",fullName:"Amini Mohamed",slug:"amini-mohamed",email:"mohamed2amini@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Problem statement",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Characteristics of the predator",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Implementation of a real‐time interface between Microsoft flight simulator and the module “real‐time windows target” of Simulink/Matlab",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. System modeling",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Integral sliding mode controller problem formulation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"6.1. Control design",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"6.1.1. Finite time stabilization of an integrators’ chain system",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"6.1.2. Robust finite time controller design based on integral sliding mode [31, 32]",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10",title:"7. Application of the adaptive integral‐ high‐order‐sliding ‐mode controller for piloting",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"7.1. Simulation results",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"8. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'O. Harkegard and S. Torkel Glad Flight Control Design Using Backstepping, Linkopings universitet, Linkoping, Sweden, 2001.'},{id:"B2",body:'J.J.E. Slotine and Li, Applied nonlinear control, Practice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632, United States, 1991'},{id:"B3",body:'J.J.E. Slotine and J.A. Coetsee, Adaptive sliding controller synthesis for non-linear systems, International Journal of Control, Vol.43, Issue 6, pp. 1631–1651, 1986.'},{id:"B4",body:'J.L. Junkins, K. Subbarao and A. Verma, Structured adaptive control for poorly modeled nonlinear dynamical systems. Computer Modeling in Engineering & Sciences, Vol. 1, No. 4, pp. 99–118, 2000.'},{id:"B5",body:'V. Chiroi, L. Munteanu and I. Ursu, On chaos control in uncertain nonlinear system. Computer Modeling in Engineering & Sciences, Vol. 72, No. 3, pp. 229–246, 2011.'},{id:"B6",body:'A. Levant, Higher‐order sliding modes, differentiation and output feedback control. 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Brandon, Analysis of Wind Tunnel Longitudinal Static and Oscillatory Data of the F‐16XL Aircraft, NASA/TM‐97‐206276, December 1997.'},{id:"B22",body:'Jay M. Brandon and John V. Foster, Recent dynamic measurements and considerations for aerodynamic modeling of fighter airplane configurations, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, AIAA – 98–4447, 1998.'},{id:"B23",body:'Yuri B. Shtessel. Ilya A. Shkolnikov, Mark, D J. Brown An asymptotic second‐order smooth sliding mode control, Asian Journal of Control. Vol. 5, No. 4, pp. 498–504, December 2003.'},{id:"B24",body:'W. Perruquetti and J. P. Barbot, Sliding mode control in engineering, Marcel Dekker, New York. 2002.'},{id:"B25",body:'M. Zaouche, Identification and robust control of an aerodynamic system with three axes, Phd Thesis, School Military Polytechnic, Algiers, 2015.'},{id:"B26",body:'M. Zaouche, A. Beloula, R. louali, S. Bouaziz and M. Hamerlain Adaptive differentiators via second order sliding mode for a fixed wing aircraft, Computer Modeling in Engineering and Sciences, Vol. 104, No. 3, pp. 159–184, 2015.'},{id:"B27",body:'S. Laghrouche, F. Plestan, A. Glumineau, Higher order sliding mode control based on integral sliding mode Automatica,Vol. 43, No. 3, pp.531–537, 2007.'},{id:"B28",body:'M. Defoort, T. Floquet and A. Kokosy, Finite time control of a class of MIMO nonlinear systems using high order integral sliding mode control Proc. 9th Int. Conf. on Variable Structure Systems, Alghero, Italy, pp. 133–138, 2006.'},{id:"B29",body:'Q. Zong, , Z. S Zhao and J. Zhang Higher order sliding mode control with self‐tuning law based on integral sliding mode, IET Control Theory and Application, Vol. 4, No. 7, pp. 1282–1289, 2010.'},{id:"B30",body:'A.F. Filippov, Differential equations with discontinuous right hand side, Kluwer Academic Publisher, Dordrecht, 1988.'},{id:"B31",body:'M. Taleb, , F. Plestan and B. Bououlid. An adaptive solution for robust control based on integral high‐order sliding mode concept: adaptive integral sliding mode control, International Journal of Robust and Nonlinear Control, 2014.'},{id:"B32",body:'J. Zhang, Q. Zong, and Z.-S. Zhao. Higher order sliding mode control with self-tuning law based on integral sliding mode, IET Control Theory and Applications, Vol. 4, No. 7, pp. 1282–1289, 2010.'},{id:"B33",body:'Qun Zong, Zhanshan Zhao and Liqian Dou, Higher order adaptive sliding mode control for a class of SISO systems, Proceedings of the 48h IEEE Conference on Decision and Control (CDC) held jointly with 2009 28th Chinese Control Conference, 28th Chinese Control Conference. Shanghai, 12/2009'},{id:"B34",body:'F. Plestan. A new algorithm for high-order sliding mode control, International Journal of Robust and Nonlinear Control, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Volume 18, Issue 4–5, pp. 441–453, 2008.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Zaouche Mohammed",address:"zaouchemohamed@yahoo.fr",affiliation:'
Control and Automation Laboratory, Ecole Supérieure Ali Chabati, Réghaia, Alger, Algeria
Control and Automation Laboratory, Ecole Supérieure Ali Chabati, Réghaia, Alger, Algeria
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Patre",slug:"balasaheb-m.-patre"},{id:"19847",title:"Prof.",name:"Vidyadhar",middleName:null,surname:"Panchade",fullName:"Vidyadhar Panchade",slug:"vidyadhar-panchade"},{id:"137161",title:"Mr.",name:"Ravindrakumar",middleName:null,surname:"Nagarale",fullName:"Ravindrakumar Nagarale",slug:"ravindrakumar-nagarale"}]},{id:"15213",title:"Sliding Mode Position Controller for a Linear Switched Reluctance Actuator",slug:"sliding-mode-position-controller-for-a-linear-switched-reluctance-actuator",signatures:"António Espírito Santo, Maria do Rosário Calado and Carlos Manuel Cabrita",authors:[{id:"12810",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Do Rosário",middleName:"Alves",surname:"Calado",fullName:"Maria Do Rosário Calado",slug:"maria-do-rosario-calado"},{id:"20427",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:null,surname:"Espírito Santo",fullName:"António Espírito Santo",slug:"antonio-espirito-santo"},{id:"21545",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Cabrita",fullName:"Carlos Manuel Cabrita",slug:"carlos-manuel-cabrita"}]},{id:"15214",title:"Application of Sliding Mode Control to Friction Compensation of a Mini Voice Coil Motor",slug:"application-of-sliding-mode-control-to-friction-compensation-of-a-mini-voice-coil-motor",signatures:"Shir-Kuan Lin, Ti-Chung Lee and Ching-Lung Tsai",authors:[{id:"21936",title:"Prof.",name:"Shir-Kuan",middleName:null,surname:"Lin",fullName:"Shir-Kuan Lin",slug:"shir-kuan-lin"},{id:"21950",title:"Prof.",name:"Ti-Chung",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",fullName:"Ti-Chung Lee",slug:"ti-chung-lee"},{id:"21951",title:"Mr.",name:"Ching-Lung",middleName:null,surname:"Tsai",fullName:"Ching-Lung Tsai",slug:"ching-lung-tsai"}]},{id:"15215",title:"Sliding Mode Control for Visual Servoing of Mobile Robots using a Generic Camera",slug:"sliding-mode-control-for-visual-servoing-of-mobile-robots-using-a-generic-camera",signatures:"Héctor M. Becerra and Carlos Sagüés",authors:[{id:"19424",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Sagues",fullName:"Carlos Sagues",slug:"carlos-sagues"},{id:"19435",title:"Mr.",name:"Hector Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Becerra",fullName:"Hector Manuel Becerra",slug:"hector-manuel-becerra"}]},{id:"15216",title:"Super-Twisting Sliding Mode in Motion Control Systems",slug:"super-twisting-sliding-mode-in-motion-control-systems",signatures:"Jorge Rivera, Luis Garcia, Christian Mora, 0Juan J. Raygoza and Susana Ortega",authors:[{id:"18069",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Rivera",fullName:"Jorge Rivera",slug:"jorge-rivera"},{id:"22689",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",fullName:"Luis Garcia",slug:"luis-garcia"},{id:"22690",title:"Prof.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Mora",fullName:"Christian Mora",slug:"christian-mora"},{id:"23671",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan José",middleName:null,surname:"Raygoza",fullName:"Juan José Raygoza",slug:"juan-jose-raygoza"},{id:"23672",title:"Dr.",name:"Susana",middleName:null,surname:"Ortega",fullName:"Susana Ortega",slug:"susana-ortega"}]},{id:"15217",title:"Non-Adaptive Sliding Mode Controllers in Terms of Inertial Quasi-Velocities",slug:"non-adaptive-sliding-mode-controllers-in-terms-of-inertial-quasi-velocities",signatures:"Przemyslaw Herman and Krzysztof Kozlowski",authors:[{id:"18631",title:"Dr.",name:"Przemyslaw",middleName:null,surname:"Herman",fullName:"Przemyslaw Herman",slug:"przemyslaw-herman"},{id:"18632",title:"Prof.",name:"Krzysztof",middleName:null,surname:"Kozlowski",fullName:"Krzysztof Kozlowski",slug:"krzysztof-kozlowski"}]},{id:"15218",title:"Force/Motion Sliding Mode Control of Three Typical Mechanisms",slug:"force-motion-sliding-mode-control-of-three-typical-mechanisms",signatures:"Rong-Fong Fung and Chin-Fu Chang",authors:[{id:"6571",title:"Prof.",name:"Rong-Fong",middleName:null,surname:"Fung",fullName:"Rong-Fong Fung",slug:"rong-fong-fung"},{id:"20216",title:"PhD.",name:"Chin-Fu",middleName:null,surname:"Chang",fullName:"Chin-Fu Chang",slug:"chin-fu-chang"}]},{id:"15219",title:"Automatic Space Rendezvous and Docking using Second Order Sliding Mode Control",slug:"automatic-space-rendezvous-and-docking-using-second-order-sliding-mode-control",signatures:"Christian Tournes, Yuri Shtessel and David Foreman",authors:[{id:"22078",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Tournes",fullName:"Christian Tournes",slug:"christian-tournes"},{id:"22079",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuri",middleName:null,surname:"Shtessel",fullName:"Yuri Shtessel",slug:"yuri-shtessel"},{id:"22080",title:"Mr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Foreman",fullName:"David Foreman",slug:"david-foreman"}]},{id:"15220",title:"High Order Sliding Mode Control for Suppression of Nonlinear Dynamics in Mechanical Systems with Friction",slug:"high-order-sliding-mode-control-for-suppression-of-nonlinear-dynamics-in-mechanical-systems-with-fri",signatures:"Rogelio Hernandez Suarez, America Morales Diaz, Norberto Flores Guzman, Eliseo Hernandez Martinez and Hector Puebla",authors:[{id:"22687",title:"Dr.",name:"Hector",middleName:null,surname:"Puebla",fullName:"Hector Puebla",slug:"hector-puebla"},{id:"22704",title:"Prof.",name:"Rogelio",middleName:null,surname:"Hernandez-Suarez",fullName:"Rogelio Hernandez-Suarez",slug:"rogelio-hernandez-suarez"},{id:"22705",title:"Prof.",name:"Eliseo",middleName:null,surname:"Hernandez-Martinez",fullName:"Eliseo Hernandez-Martinez",slug:"eliseo-hernandez-martinez"},{id:"22938",title:"Dr.",name:"America",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Diaz",fullName:"America Morales-Diaz",slug:"america-morales-diaz"},{id:"34393",title:"Dr.",name:"Norberto",middleName:null,surname:"Flores-Guzman",fullName:"Norberto Flores-Guzman",slug:"norberto-flores-guzman"}]},{id:"15221",title:"Control of ROVs using a Model-free 2nd-Order Sliding Mode Approach",slug:"control-of-rovs-using-a-model-free-2nd-order-sliding-mode-approach",signatures:"Tomás. Salgado-Jiménez, Luis G. García-Valdovinos and Guillermo Delgado-Ramírez",authors:[{id:"22633",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia-Valdovinos",fullName:"Luis Garcia-Valdovinos",slug:"luis-garcia-valdovinos"},{id:"22640",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomás",middleName:null,surname:"Salgado-Jiménez",fullName:"Tomás Salgado-Jiménez",slug:"tomas-salgado-jimenez"},{id:"26741",title:"MSc.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Delgado-Ramirez",fullName:"Guillermo Delgado-Ramirez",slug:"guillermo-delgado-ramirez"}]},{id:"15222",title:"Sliding Mode Control Applied to a Novel Linear Axis Actuated by Pneumatic Muscles",slug:"sliding-mode-control-applied-to-a-novel-linear-axis-actuated-by-pneumatic-muscles",signatures:"Dominik Schindele and Harald Aschemann",authors:[{id:"11584",title:"Prof.",name:"Harald",middleName:null,surname:"Aschemann",fullName:"Harald Aschemann",slug:"harald-aschemann"},{id:"11585",title:"Dr.",name:"Dominik",middleName:null,surname:"Schindele",fullName:"Dominik Schindele",slug:"dominik-schindele"}]},{id:"15223",title:"Adaptive Sliding Mode Control of Adhesion Force in Railway Rolling Stocks",slug:"adaptive-sliding-mode-control-of-adhesion-force-in-railway-rolling-stocks",signatures:"Jong Shik Kim, Sung Hwan Park, Jeong Ju Choi and Hiro-o Yamazaki",authors:[{id:"18862",title:"Prof.",name:"Jong Shik",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",fullName:"Jong Shik Kim",slug:"jong-shik-kim"},{id:"19308",title:"Prof.",name:"Sung Hwan",middleName:null,surname:"Park",fullName:"Sung Hwan Park",slug:"sung-hwan-park"},{id:"19309",title:"Prof.",name:"Jeongju",middleName:null,surname:"Choi",fullName:"Jeongju Choi",slug:"jeongju-choi"},{id:"19310",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiro-o",middleName:null,surname:"Yamazaki",fullName:"Hiro-o Yamazaki",slug:"hiro-o-yamazaki"}]},{id:"15224",title:"A Biomedical Application by Using Optimal Fuzzy Sliding-Mode Control",slug:"a-biomedical-application-by-using-optimal-fuzzy-sliding-mode-control",signatures:"Bor-Jiunn Wen",authors:[{id:"22312",title:"Mr.",name:"Bor-Jiunn",middleName:null,surname:"Wen",fullName:"Bor-Jiunn Wen",slug:"bor-jiunn-wen"}]},{id:"15225",title:"Sliding Mode Control of Second Order Dynamic System with State Constraints",slug:"sliding-mode-control-of-second-order-dynamic-system-with-state-constraints",signatures:"Aleksandra Nowacka-Leverton and Andrzej Bartoszewicz",authors:[{id:"18337",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrzej",middleName:null,surname:"Bartoszewicz",fullName:"Andrzej Bartoszewicz",slug:"andrzej-bartoszewicz"},{id:"22681",title:"Dr.",name:"Aleksandra",middleName:null,surname:"Nowacka-Leverton",fullName:"Aleksandra Nowacka-Leverton",slug:"aleksandra-nowacka-leverton"}]},{id:"15226",title:"Sliding Mode Control System for Improvement in Transient and Steady-state Response",slug:"sliding-mode-control-system-for-improvement-in-transient-and-steady-state-response",signatures:"Takao Sato, Nozomu Araki, Yasuo Konishi and Hiroyuki Ishigaki",authors:[{id:"10959",title:"Dr.",name:"Nozomu",middleName:null,surname:"Araki",fullName:"Nozomu Araki",slug:"nozomu-araki"},{id:"18155",title:"Dr.",name:"Takao",middleName:null,surname:"Sato",fullName:"Takao Sato",slug:"takao-sato"},{id:"24185",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasuo",middleName:null,surname:"Konishi",fullName:"Yasuo Konishi",slug:"yasuo-konishi"},{id:"24186",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Ishigaki",fullName:"Hiroyuki Ishigaki",slug:"hiroyuki-ishigaki"}]},{id:"15227",title:"A New Design for Noise-Induced Chattering Reduction in Sliding Mode Control",slug:"a-new-design-for-noise-induced-chattering-reduction-in-sliding-mode-control",signatures:"Min-Shin Chen and Ming-Lei Tseng",authors:[{id:"21070",title:"Dr.",name:"Min-Shin",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Min-Shin Chen",slug:"min-shin-chen"},{id:"21674",title:"Prof.",name:"Ming-Lei",middleName:null,surname:"Tseng",fullName:"Ming-Lei Tseng",slug:"ming-lei-tseng"}]},{id:"15228",title:"Multimodel Discrete Second Order Sliding Mode Control: Stability Analysis and Real Time Application on a Chemical Reactor",slug:"multimodel-discrete-second-order-sliding-mode-control-stability-analysis-and-real-time-application-o",signatures:"Mohamed Mihoub, Ahmed Said Nouri and Ridha Ben Abdennour",authors:[{id:"22147",title:"Prof.",name:"Ridha Ben",middleName:null,surname:"Abdennour",fullName:"Ridha Ben Abdennour",slug:"ridha-ben-abdennour"},{id:"22148",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Mihoub",fullName:"Mohamed Mihoub",slug:"mohamed-mihoub"},{id:"22321",title:"PhD.",name:"Ahmed Said",middleName:null,surname:"Nouri",fullName:"Ahmed Said Nouri",slug:"ahmed-said-nouri"}]},{id:"15229",title:"Two Dimensional Sliding Mode Control",slug:"two-dimensional-sliding-mode-control",signatures:"Hassan Adloo, S.Vahid Naghavi, Ahad Soltani Sarvestani and Erfan Shahriari",authors:[{id:"21329",title:"Mr.",name:"Hassan",middleName:null,surname:"Adloo",fullName:"Hassan Adloo",slug:"hassan-adloo"},{id:"21337",title:"MSc.",name:"Seyed Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Naghavi",fullName:"Seyed Vahid Naghavi",slug:"seyed-vahid-naghavi"},{id:"48503",title:"BSc.",name:"Erfan",middleName:null,surname:"Shahriari",fullName:"Erfan Shahriari",slug:"erfan-shahriari"},{id:"61011",title:"MSc.",name:"Ahad",middleName:null,surname:"Soltani Sarvestani",fullName:"Ahad Soltani Sarvestani",slug:"ahad-soltani-sarvestani"}]},{id:"15230",title:"Sliding Mode Control Using Neural Networks",slug:"sliding-mode-control-using-neural-networks",signatures:"Muhammad Yasser, Marina Arifin and Takashi Yahagi",authors:[{id:"18569",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Yasser",fullName:"Muhammad Yasser",slug:"muhammad-yasser"},{id:"33242",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Arifin",fullName:"Marina Arifin",slug:"marina-arifin"},{id:"33243",title:"Prof.",name:"Takashi",middleName:null,surname:"Yahagi",fullName:"Takashi Yahagi",slug:"takashi-yahagi"}]},{id:"15231",title:"Sliding Mode Control Approach for Training On-line Neural Networks with Adaptive Learning Rate",slug:"sliding-mode-control-approach-for-training-on-line-neural-networks-with-adaptive-learning-rate",signatures:"Ademir Nied and José de Oliveira",authors:[{id:"20234",title:"Prof.",name:"José",middleName:null,surname:"de Oliveira",fullName:"José de Oliveira",slug:"jose-de-oliveira"},{id:"22458",title:"Prof.",name:"Ademir",middleName:null,surname:"Nied",fullName:"Ademir Nied",slug:"ademir-nied"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"68099",title:"Particulate Matter Exposure: Genomic Instability, Disease, and Cancer Risk",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86536",slug:"particulate-matter-exposure-genomic-instability-disease-and-cancer-risk",body:'\n
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1. Introduction
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Air pollution represents a worldwide problem with a significant impact on ecosystems and human health. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), air pollution poses the main environmental risk to health [1]. According to the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), exposure to particulate matter (PM) in air pollution is considered as a human carcinogen [2]. PM is constituted by a heterogeneous mixture of a large variety of small particles of solids and liquids of both organic and inorganic nature, derived from natural and anthropogenic sources. PM size is an important factor that influences how it is deposited in the respiratory tract and affects human health. Large particles are generally filtered in the nose and throat and do not necessarily cause problems. An important fraction of PM is referred to as PM10, composed of particles ≤10 μm. PM10 is generally subdivided into a fraction of finer particles ≤2.5 μm (PM2.5) and a coarser fraction of particles >2.5 and <10 μm (PM2.5–10). PM2.5 is dominated by products of combustion and secondary particles, while PM2.5–10 consists mainly of crustal, biological, and fine particle fraction components [3]. Thus, smaller PM particles can penetrate deeply in the lungs, activating molecular mechanisms of epithelial and defense cells [4].
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Exposure to PM, especially around industrial zones and mining systems, has been associated with an increase in the morbidity of respiratory diseases, certain types of allergies, cardiopulmonary diseases, neurological disorders, and some types of cancer [5]. The biological mechanisms behind these associations are not entirely known, but the results of toxicological studies in vitro and in vivo have shown that PM induces several adverse cellular effects due to the synergistic generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which includes genotoxicity, mutagenicity, oxidative stress, inflammation, and increased DNA damage potentially associated with genomic instability [6].
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Genomic instability is defined as a cell’s increased likelihood to develop and accumulate genome alterations (mutations, chromosomal alterations, epigenetic/posttranscriptional modifications, and changes in gene expression). The frequency of these alterations is related to the loss of fidelity in mechanisms such as DNA replication, chromosomal segregation, DNA repair, and cell cycle progression [7]. These alterations are capable of acting as a driving force of the carcinogenic process, a reason why PM exposures are associated with an increase in cancer risk [6]. This cancer risk can be evaluated through measurable changes (biochemical, physiological, or morphological) that associate with toxic exposure or any early biochemical alteration. The identification of these genome damage biomarkers is useful by defining a pathogenesis state, such as cancer. It is also of vital importance for disease prevention [8]. Consequently, the toxicological investigation of complex mixtures such as PM is one of the main objectives of recent research in toxicology and cancer [9]. In order to elucidate how genomic background and PM exposure can interact, this book chapter focuses on reviewing relevant information based on the three main aspects: (I) the characteristics of PM as an environmental pollutant and its effects on health, (II) the molecular mechanisms of the cellular effects associated with genomic instability by PM exposure, and (III) the use of different risk biomarkers based on the determination of chromosomal instability for estimation of cancer risk in populations exposed to PM.
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2. Environmental air pollution, PM, and health effects
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Environmental air pollution is defined as the presence in the atmosphere of contaminating elements that alter its composition and that affect any component of the ecosystem [10]. Air pollution is constituted by an extremely complex mixture that includes inorganic components (sulfates, nitrates, ammonium, chloride, and trace metals), elemental and organic carbon, biological components (bacteria, spores, and pollens), and adsorbed volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds. Besides, environmental particles, when mixed with atmospheric gases (ozone, sulfur nitric oxides, and carbon monoxide) can generate environmental aerosols or PM [11].
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PM is a complex mixture of solid and liquid particles of different origin, size, shape, and chemical composition [12]. Atmospheric PM comes from a variety of emission sources, including natural and anthropogenic sources. In addition, the particulate material can be emitted directly into the atmosphere (primary particles) or formed in the atmosphere from gaseous precursors (secondary particles) [13]. Among the emission sources, industries are considered one of the most significant anthropogenic sources of trace metals [14, 15] although traffic emissions could also be regarded as an important source of PM and metals in urban atmospheres [16, 17].
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The size of the PM is of great interest to understand their mobility and their impact on health. The respiratory system is the primary intake route of PM in the body, and the deposition of particles in different parts of the human body depends on the size, shape, and density of the particles, as well as on the individual’s breathing (nasal or oral) [10]. Such health effects induced in the organism depend on the granulometry, morphology, time of exposure, individual susceptibility, and finally the chemical composition of the particles [18]. In terms of size, PM is categorized according to aerodynamic size and is divided into three main groups: the first group is large particles, which are generally filtered in the nose and throat and do not necessarily cause problems. The second group is PM10, an essential fraction of PM mostly produced by mechanical processes and with sizes between 2.5 and 10 micrometers (μm). PM10 is also called “coarse fraction” or “breathable fraction” because of its ability to enter the respiratory tract [19]. Finally, the third group is PM2.5 or “fine fraction” whose aerodynamic diameter is ≤2.5 μm. PM2.5 is mainly derived from combustion sources, such as automobiles, trucks, and other vehicle exhausts, as well as from stationary combustion sources [19]. PM2.5 can easily reach the terminal bronchioles and alveoli, from where can be phagocytosed by alveolar macrophages and cross the capillary-alveolar barrier to be transported to other organs by blood circulation [20].
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Recently, “ultrafine” particles have been described with aerodynamic size <0.1 μm; these particles are generated by photochemical processes and combustion, also from various natural and anthropogenic sources, and can go directly from the alveoli to the bloodstream [21]. Besides, their smaller size and higher surface/mass ratio may allow them to have more bioavailability for bioreactive chemicals in their large surface, allowing greater access to the contact points of the cells, increasing its toxicity.
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Chemically, PM mainly comprises ions, reactive gases, salts (sulfates, nitrates), organic compounds such as polycyclic and/or inorganic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), heavy metals (i.e., Fe, Cu, Mo, V, and those with high toxicity such as Pb, Cd, and Ni), and carbon core particle [22] compounds with known genotoxic, mutagenic, and/or carcinogenic activity. However, the chemical composition of PM varies greatly and depends on numerous geographical, meteorological, and source-specific variables [11]. PM can absorb and transfer a myriad of pollutants which results in its variable composition, so depending on the source and composition of the PM, different subsets of components may be found on different fractions. PM10 and PM2.5 are dominated by mechanically abraded or grinded particles including finely divided minerals such as oxides of aluminum silicate, iron, calcium, and potassium [23]. PM2.5 comprises the soot-rich fraction and other particles within the atmospheric gas phase resulting in subsequent agglomeration of PM and producing inorganic ions such as sulfate, nitrate, and ammonia, as well as carbon combustion residues, organic aerosols, metals, and other combustion products. Unlike inorganic elements that can be present in both PM2.5 and PM10 fractions, PAHs show a strong association with the PM2.5 fraction. Several studies have reported that 87–95% of PAHs can be found in the PM2.5 fraction [24]. The latter correlation seems to be stronger for the heavier and more carcinogenic PAHs with five and six aromatic rings.
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Also, coarse and fine fractions differ with ultrafine particles in composition regarding various heavy metals and possibly a higher content of compounds with redox activity, such as prooxidant PAHs (dibenzo (a,l) pyrene) [25] (Table 1).
Particulate matter characterization from several cohort studies worldwide.
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Health effects caused by PM exposure are supported by increasingly a growing number of scientific evidences. The latter comes from a variety of epidemiological studies using both population and occupational approach for assessing PM exposure, alongside with toxicological studies and human-controlled exposure experiments. Results support the causal relationship between PM and premature death, increased morbidity from respiratory diseases [26], lung cancer [27], and cardiopulmonary diseases [28]. In fact, several health-related studies indicate a strong association of airborne PM generated around coal mines with adverse impacts such as increased cardiovascular disease and other pathologies such as pneumoconiosis, neurogenerative and neurodevelopment disorders, and different types of cancer [21].
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Particularly, it has been described that PM10 exposure can cause deterioration of the respiratory function in a short term, whereas in the long term, it is associated with the development of chronic diseases, cancer, or premature death. On the other hand, PM2.5 exhibits a strong association with increased risk of respiratory disease, cardiovascular disorders, type II diabetes mellitus, and even autism spectrum disorders [29, 30, 31]. Finally, ultrafine particles may be the most active in terms of the induction of systemic effects; in fact, studies describe the role of ultrafine particles in the increased risk of cardiac hospitalization due to early myocardial infarction and increased frequency of readmissions for patients who have survived myocardial infarction and heart failure, which allows to consider PM2.5 as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease [32].
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3. Genomic instability by PM exposure and its relation with carcinogenesis
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Several studies have examined in different experimental models in vivo and in vitro the effects of exposure to coarse, fine, and ultrafine PM. These studies provide biological support to epidemiological studies that show an association between acute exposure to PM and health effects. The relationship between disease and air pollution is well established, but the molecular mechanism regarding their relationship is yet to be fully explored.
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The interaction of PM with the cellular plasma membrane and its receptors and ion channels may directly trigger a biological response. The most important pathophysiological mechanism that has been proposed to explain the association of PM exposure and occurrence of respiratory infections, cancer, and chronic cardiopulmonary diseases is oxidative stress through the generation of ROS. ROS are oxygen-related compounds able to induce changes in cellular redox cycle and therefore triggering a series of events in cascade such as inflammation, apoptosis, and oxidative damage to macromolecules such as proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids [33]. Under the name of ROS, several species derived from the reduction of molecular oxygen (O2) are included, mainly superoxide anion (O2−), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and hydroxyl radical (OH−), all of which are highly reactive and capable of causing damage in the cell. These reactive species can be generated naturally by exhibiting a relevant function in cell biology or by inducing oxidizing agents in the medium [34].
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Oxidative stress in the cell is caused by an imbalance between the production of ROS and the ability of the system to detoxify them or repair the resulting damage [35]. In the lungs, a particular target of PM, oxidative stress initiates the synthesis of mediators of pulmonary inflammation in lung epithelial cells triggering the activation of carcinogenic mechanisms (Figure 1). Inflammatory cells are particularly effective in generating most of the ROS. The activation of the redox metabolism of inflammatory cells generates a highly oxidative environment within an organ for aerobic organisms. ROS-mediated inflammation teams with another type of chemical species such as reactive nitrogen species (RNS) which also causes oxidative damage to cellular components. Many proinflammatory mediators, especially cytokines, chemokines, and prostaglandins, turn on the angiogenesis switches mainly controlled by vascular endothelial growth factors [36, 37]. The possible mechanisms by which inflammation can contribute to carcinogenesis include genomic instability, alterations in epigenetic events and subsequent inappropriate gene expression, enhanced proliferation of initiated cells, resistance to apoptosis, aggressive tumor neovascularization, invasion through the tumor-associated basement membrane, angiogenesis, and metastasis [36].
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Figure 1.
Main processes and biomarkers associated with genomic instability, inflammation and cancer risk induced by particulate matter exposure.
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Oxidative damage generated by both ROS and RNS species in DNA is considered one of the most harmful effects for the cell since they can produce irreversible changes in the genome. Chemical modifications in DNA structure include strand breaks, sugar moiety modification, nitrogenous base oxidation, and generation of apurinic/apyrimidinic sites (AP sites) [38]. This type of DNA damage can be generated with frequencies between 104 and 105 DNA mutations per cell/day. This DNA damage can also produce several chromosomal alterations such as deletions, insertions, or translocations increasing the toxic spectrum for the cell. Accumulation of these genomic alterations may cause dysregulation of cell division, the imbalance between cell growth and death, and cancer [18].
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The use of biological monitoring procedures, or biomonitoring, through specific biomarkers can assess the effects of PM exposure and its possible impact on the organism. Early biomonitoring allows detection of the first alterations during the nonmalignant phase, including the measurable changes (biochemical, physiological, or morphological) that associate a toxic exposure with any early biochemical alteration.
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3.1 Molecular mechanisms associate with genomic instability and cancer byPM exposure
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The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has classified exposure to PM in air pollution as a human carcinogen [2]. The molecular reactions induced by the PM exposure are often initiated by reactive PM constituents including metals and various PAHs and PAH’s derivatives like nitro-PAHs and various oxo-PAHs (quinones). These substances are potent oxidants, either through direct effects on proteins, lipids, mitochondrial or nuclear DNA or indirectly through the generation of free radicals and activation of intracellular oxidant pathways [11, 39]. Correspondingly, several studies have shown that other transition metals (Fe, Cu, Cr, and V) with catalytic activity during Fenton’s reaction (Fe2+ + H2O2 + H+ → Fe3+ + OH˙ + H2O) generate the highly reactive hydroxyl radical able to induce oxidative DNA damage, oxidative stress, and inflammatory responses [11].
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Depending on its structure, PAHs show carcinogenic potential. IARC classifies these compounds as a human carcinogen (group 1), probably carcinogenic (group 2A), possibly carcinogenic (group 2B), and not classified as carcinogenic (group 3). Particularly, The HAPs that have angulated structures typically react with adenine residues and are related to a higher carcinogenic activity compared to those with a linear and more condensed structure, which usually react with guanine residues [40].
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Many of the biological effects of PAHs, including oxidative stress and DNA damage, are believed to be mediated by activation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) and subsequent induction metabolism by cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes [41, 42, 43]. The binding of PAH metabolites to DNA and the associated effects that occur as a consequence are considered the main mechanisms of mutagenicity and carcinogenicity attributed to PAHs. Additionally, it is believed that the formation of redox-active quinones is catalyzed by dihydrodiol dehydrogenases, also contributing to PAH carcinogenesis and tumor promotion [44].
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At least three distinct molecular mechanisms have been proposed to explain the process of tumor initiation by exposure to PAHs. These models include the formation of (1) diol-epoxide, (2) radical cations, and (3) o-quinones. The metabolism of PAHs into diol-epoxide may lead to the formation of DNA adducts, mainly in guanines and adenines, generating mutations in proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes. The radical cation leads to the formation of adducts of DNA, generating AP sites. Finally, o-quinones can generate ROS and potentially cause mutations in TP53 and other tumor suppressor genes and/or proto-oncogenes [45].
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On the other hand, oxy- and nitro-PAHs, which consist of oxygen and nitrogen derivatives of PAHs, respectively, play an important role in the mutagenicity attributed to PM. Studies with Salmonella strains (YG1041) sensitive to this group of organic compounds indicated a mutagenic activity for a fraction of nitro-PAHs, whereas oxy-PAHs can generate DNA adducts [46].
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Besides, transition metal ions with redox potential, which are presented in PM (adsorbed at high concentrations inside particle cavities), can contribute to ROS overproduction and play an important role in oxidative DNA and protein damage [47]. Soluble metals on inhaled particles, such as Fe, Ni, V, Co, Cu, and Cr, were associated with increased ROS production, followed by cellular oxidative stress in airway epithelial cells [48]. Studies have identified certain metals as responsible for oxidant effects and inflammation in experimental animals, by using diverse metal chelators (such as EDTA, which increase the redox reactivity of some metals) and antioxidants (which scavenge oxygen-free radicals) for metal assessment [44].
\n
The different types of particles in PM, their extracts, as well as single obtained components, all have demonstrated genotoxic effects in human and animal studies both in vivo and in vitro [23]. Several studies have shown that cells may be arrested in various parts of the cell cycle [49, 50]. Most often, such effects have been linked to DNA damage, and following PM exposure, this DNA damage includes mainly DNA single-strand breaks, alkali-labile single-strand DNA breaks, and various forms of oxidative DNA damage including oxidized guanines measured as 8-oxo-7,8-dihydroguanine (8-oxoGua) adducts and lesions detected as formamidopyrimidine DNA glycosylase (FPG) sites by the comet assay [51]. Often this type of damage is associated with chromosomal damage induction. These biomarkers are used to assess genotoxic effects on human populations exposed to complex mixtures of chemicals.
\n
\n
\n
3.2 Risk biomarkers based on the determination of genomic instability for estimation of cancer risk
\n
Exposure biomarkers reflect human exposure on different routes. Biological monitoring of PAHs is restricted because of the few PAHs for which metabolites are available as standards. However, this limitation is partially overcome by the use of metabolite markers of total exposure to PAHs, such as 1-hydroxypyrene (1-OHP) [48, 52]. Several studies have shown that urinary 1-OHP is a useful biomarker of both environmental and occupational exposures to PAHs and shows a correlation with genotoxic effect biomarkers measured in peripheral blood lymphocytes [53, 54].
\n
In addition to these biochemical markers, other cytogenetic biomarkers have been suggested for the identification of cancer risk; the most generalized and best-characterized biomarker for evaluating the mutagenic effects and possible cancer risk in populations exposed to PM is the assessment of micronuclei (MN) frequency in vivo. MN is an effect biomarker consisting of small nuclear masses of genetic material separate from the main nucleus and arising in the dividing cells. They are measured 1/3 to 1/16 of the size of the nucleus and are delimited by a nuclear membrane. MNs are derived from chromosomal breaks (clastogenic origin) and/or whole chromosomes (aneugenic origin). MN composed of fragments of chromosomes (clastogenic) can result from the direct breaking of the double strand of DNA, conversion from single-stranded to double-stranded strand after cell replication or inhibition of DNA synthesis. The MN formed by whole chromosomes (aneugenic) is mainly caused by defects in the mechanism of chromosomal segregation, such as deficiencies in the control of cell cycle genes, mitotic spindle faults, kinetochore, or other parts of the mitotic apparatus, mechanical rupture, or hypomethylation of centromeric DNA [55, 56, 57, 58]. For MN assessment the used protocol is the cytokinesis-block cytome micronucleus assay (CBMNCyt), whereas for rapid chromosomal break evaluation, the micronucleus assay with CREST immunostaining (MNCREST) is often used.
\n
CBMNCyt used in primary cultured cells such as lymphocytes allows measuring not only genotoxicity parameters (solely MN frequency) but also cytokinesis defects (binucleate cells) and includes MNBN (MN in binucleated or cytokinesis blocked cells), a biomarker of chromosome breakage and/or whole chromosome loss; MNMONO (MN in mononucleated cells), a biomarker of chromosomal damage induced and expressed in vivo before the start of the CBMN assay culture; NPBs (nucleoplasmic bridges), a biomarker of DNA misrepair and/or telomere end-fusions; and NBUDs (or “nuclear buds”), a biomarker of elimination of amplified DNA and/or DNA repair complexes [55]. In addition, the assay allows measuring the proliferative potential (basal cells) and various forms of cell death (pyknotic, karyolytic, karyorrhexis, and chromatin condensation). So, the application of this approach provides information on genotoxic, cytotoxic, and cytostatic effects increasing the predictive capacity of the bioassay [59]. However, it is worth emphasizing that only the frequency of MN has been associated with an increased risk of cancer development, neurodegenerative diseases, and acceleration of aging [56, 60]. MNMONO frequencies may give an estimation of the genome instability accumulated over many years in stem cells and circulating T lymphocytes long before the blood was sampled, whereas MNBN cells provide an additional measure of lesions that have accumulated in DNA or key proteins [61].
\n
In a study developed by our laboratory, we assessed PM exposure in populations with residential proximity to open-pit coal mine in Northern Colombia and investigated the correlation between chromosomal damage and genetic instability evaluated by CBMNcyt in isolated lymphocytes of individuals with residential proximity to the coal mining corridor and its relation with measured PM10 and PM2,5 levels. Our results revealed a significant increase in MNBN and MNMONO cells in individuals with residential proximity to open-pit coal mines. Additionally, correlation analysis demonstrated a highly significant association between PM2.5 levels, MNBN frequencies, and CREST+ micronucleus induction in exposed residents. These results suggest that PM2.5 fraction generated in coal mining activities may induce whole chromosome loss (aneuploidy) preferentially, although there are also chromosome breaks. This aneugenic effect may be associated with an oxidative stress status inside the cell, potentially capable of causing mitotic arrest (elevated MNMONO frequency), centromere damage, kinetochore malfunction, or disruption of the mitotic spindle [18].
\n
Other types of MN assessment use exfoliated buccal cells isolated from exposed individuals. The micronucleus test in oral mucosal cells or buccal MN cytome assay (BMCyt) has been widely used in studies of populations exposed environmentally or occupationally to genotoxic agents. Previous work from our laboratory demonstrated MN formation in exfoliated buccal cells of workers occupationally exposed to open coal mining residues, which correlated with PM increased levels detected by BMCyt assay [62]. This technique is particularly attractive because oral mucosal cells can be collected in a minimally invasive manner [63, 64].
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Conclusions
\n
Sufficient evidence has been accumulated from epidemiological studies that support the fact that a broad spectrum of health outcome variables may come from short-term exposure to coarse, fine, and ultrafine PM. This association is consistent with experimental evidence that identifies different mechanisms of damage at a cellular level: inflammation, oxidative stress, cytotoxicity, alterations of autonomic nervous system, and coagulation. In relation to chronic effects on health, studies are less numerous, and the evidence is still inconsistent. Previous work suggests that PM exerts its genotoxic and carcinogenic effects through the generation of DNA damage and chromosomal instability. The biological mechanisms behind these associations are not fully understood, but toxicological results in vitro have shown that PM induces several types of adverse cellular effects.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"PM1.0, PM2.5, PM10, cancer, genomic instability",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/68099.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/68099.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68099",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68099",totalDownloads:463,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"January 14th 2019",dateReviewed:"April 25th 2019",datePrePublished:"July 13th 2019",datePublished:"January 8th 2020",dateFinished:"July 13th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP/WHO) defines particulate matter (PM) as a mixture of solid or liquid particles suspended and dispersed in the air. Constituted by a complex mixture of organic and inorganic components like metals, acids, soil, and dust is considered a major human carcinogen present in air pollution. When inhaled, PM particles penetrate the respiratory tract, where they affect different organs and systems depending on their aerodynamic size and chemical properties. In the organism, this cocktail-like mixture can interact with cellular mechanisms related to the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and can cause damage to important macromolecules such as DNA, lipids, and proteins. Additionally, PM induces a variety of effects at a cellular level, such as inflammation, DNA damage, and genomic instability, acting as a driving force of carcinogenic processes and increasing the incidence of respiratory, cardiopulmonary, neurogenerative, and neurodevelopment disorders. This book chapter reviews the main characteristics of PM, its effects on health, and its role in genomic instability and associated molecular mechanisms. Additionally, we explore different biomarkers associated with PM exposure, DNA damage, and the influence of PM-related oxidative stress in disease development.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/68099",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/68099",signatures:"Lyda Espitia-Pérez, Luisa Jiménez-Vidal and Pedro Espitia-Pérez",book:{id:"6877",title:"Environmental Health",subtitle:"Management and Prevention Practices",fullTitle:"Environmental Health - Management and Prevention Practices",slug:"environmental-health-management-and-prevention-practices",publishedDate:"January 8th 2020",bookSignature:"Abdelhadi Makan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6877.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78984-895-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-894-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-777-4",editors:[{id:"247727",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelhadi",middleName:null,surname:"Makan",slug:"abdelhadi-makan",fullName:"Abdelhadi Makan"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"291626",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Lyda",middleName:null,surname:"Espitia - Pérez",fullName:"Lyda Espitia - Pérez",slug:"lyda-espitia-perez",email:"lydaespitia@unisinu.edu.co",position:null,institution:null},{id:"296374",title:"BSc.",name:"Luisa",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez - Vidal",fullName:"Luisa Jimenez - Vidal",slug:"luisa-jimenez-vidal",email:"lufejiv@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"296376",title:"MSc.",name:"Pedro Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Espitia - Pérez",fullName:"Pedro Juan Espitia - Pérez",slug:"pedro-juan-espitia-perez",email:"pjespitia@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Environmental air pollution, PM, and health effects",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Genomic instability by PM exposure and its relation with carcinogenesis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Molecular mechanisms associate with genomic instability and cancer byPM exposure",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Risk biomarkers based on the determination of genomic instability for estimation of cancer risk",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Prüss-Üstün A, Corvalán C. Preventing disease through healthy environments: A global assessment of the burden of disease from environmental risks. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2016'},{id:"B2",body:'Loomis D, Grosse Y, Lauby-Secretan B, Ghissassi FE, Bouvard V, Benbrahim-Tallaa L, et al. The carcinogenicity of outdoor air pollution. The Lancet Oncology. 2013;14(13):1262-1263'},{id:"B3",body:'EPA USEPA. Executive summary. 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Cytokinesis-block micronucleus assay evolves into a “cytome” assay of chromosomal instability, mitotic dysfunction and cell death. Mutation Research. 2006;600(1-2):58-66'},{id:"B56",body:'Bolognesi C, Knasmueller S, Nersesyan A, Thomas P, Fenech M. The HUMNxl scoring criteria for different cell types and nuclear anomalies in the buccal micronucleus cytome assay—An update and expanded photogallery. Mutation Research. 2013;753(2):100-113'},{id:"B57",body:'Terradas M, Martin M, Genesca A. Impaired nuclear functions in micronuclei results in genome instability and chromothripsis. Archives of Toxicology. 2016;90(11):2657-2667'},{id:"B58",body:'Iarmarcovai G, Botta A, Orsiere T. Number of centromeric signals in micronuclei and mechanisms of aneuploidy. Toxicology Letters. 2006;166(1):1-10'},{id:"B59",body:'Bolognesi C, Bonassi S, Knasmueller S, Fenech M, Bruzzone M, Lando C, et al. Clinical application of micronucleus test in exfoliated buccal cells: A systematic review and metanalysis. Mutation Research, Reviews in Mutation Research. 2015;766:20-31'},{id:"B60",body:'Bonassi S, Znaor A, Ceppi M, Lando C, Chang WP, Holland N, et al. An increased micronucleus frequency in peripheral blood lymphocytes predicts the risk of cancer in humans. Carcinogenesis. 2007;28(3):625-631'},{id:"B61",body:'Kirsch-Voldersa M, Bonassi S, Knasmueller S, Holland N, Bolognesi C, Fenech FM. Commentary critical questions, misconceptions and a road map for improving the use of the lymphocyte cytokinesis-block micronucleus assay for in vivo biomonitoring of human exposure to genotoxic chemicals—A HUMN project perspective. Mutation Research. 2014;759:49-58'},{id:"B62",body:'Leon-Mejia G, Quintana M, Debastiani R, Dias J, Espitia-Perez L, Hartmann A, et al. Genetic damage in coal miners evaluated by buccal micronucleus cytome assay. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 2014;107:133-139'},{id:"B63",body:'Thomas P, Holland N, Bolognesi C, Kirsch-Volders M, Bonassi S, Zeiger E, et al. Buccal micronucleus cytome assay. Nature Protocols. 2009;4(6):825-837'},{id:"B64",body:'Doherty A, Steven MB, Jeffrey C. Bemis. The in vitro micronucleus assay. Genetic Toxicology Testing. Academic Press; 2016. pp. 161-205'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Lyda Espitia-Pérez",address:"lydaespitia@unisinu.edu.co",affiliation:'
Grupo de Investigaciones Biomedicas y Biología Molecular, Universidad del Sinú, Montería, Córdoba, Colombia
Grupo de Investigaciones Biomedicas y Biología Molecular, Universidad del Sinú, Montería, Córdoba, Colombia
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"6877",title:"Environmental Health",subtitle:"Management and Prevention Practices",fullTitle:"Environmental Health - Management and Prevention Practices",slug:"environmental-health-management-and-prevention-practices",publishedDate:"January 8th 2020",bookSignature:"Abdelhadi Makan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6877.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78984-895-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-894-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-777-4",editors:[{id:"247727",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelhadi",middleName:null,surname:"Makan",slug:"abdelhadi-makan",fullName:"Abdelhadi Makan"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"194464",title:"Prof.",name:"Laurents",middleName:null,surname:"Stassen",email:"L.Stassen@etz.nl",fullName:"Laurents Stassen",slug:"laurents-stassen",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"The Evolution of Minimally Invasive Techniques in Restoration of Colonic Continuity",slug:"the-evolution-of-minimally-invasive-techniques-in-restoration-of-colonic-continuity",abstract:"Restoration of bowel continuity after Hartmann’s procedure is considered technically challenging and is associated with high morbidity and mortality. This is the main reason why restoration of intestinal continuity is often not attempted. Over the past decade, considerable international experience has gained on this topic with new minimally invasive techniques being developed. This review details the evolution of minimally invasive techniques in restoration of colonic continuity after Hartmann’s procedure. A comprehensive search of PubMed and Embase was done. Different restoration modalities were included. Eight studies, from six different countries, in which multiport laparoscopic restoration of continuity was compared to conventional open restoration of bowel continuity, were included. In the total of 254 patients, continuity was restored laparoscopically compared with 255 patients in which continuity was performed in open fashion. Restoration of bowel continuity via trephine access was also reported; three studies including 37 patients were included in this review. Single-port restoration of bowel continuity after Hartmann’s procedure is a natural evolution of multiport laparoscopy and trephine access. Six studies reporting on single-port reversal of Hartmann’s procedure were included with a total of 75 patients. Single-port access in combination with a transanal approach has also been reported; however, data are extremely limited as there is only one study in the published literature. Success of restoration of bowel continuity with less morbidity and mortality has been demonstrated throughout the evolution of the different surgical techniques. In this review advantages of different approaches for restoration of bowel continuity after Hartmann’s procedure are discussed. Furthermore, surgical techniques are described, pictorial guides are added for some techniques, and flowcharts are given for easy use during clinical decision-making.",signatures:"Stefan H.E.M. Clermonts, Laurents P.S. Stassen and David D.E.\nZimmerman",authors:[{id:"187504",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Zimmerman",fullName:"David Zimmerman",slug:"david-zimmerman",email:"dzimmerman@tsz.nl"},{id:"194463",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefan",surname:"Clermonts",fullName:"Stefan Clermonts",slug:"stefan-clermonts",email:"shem.clermonts@gmail.com"},{id:"194464",title:"Prof.",name:"Laurents",surname:"Stassen",fullName:"Laurents Stassen",slug:"laurents-stassen",email:"L.Stassen@etz.nl"}],book:{title:"Laparoscopic Surgery",slug:"laparoscopic-surgery",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"14715",title:"Prof.",name:"Francisco Miguel",surname:"Sánchez-Margallo",slug:"francisco-miguel-sanchez-margallo",fullName:"Francisco Miguel Sánchez-Margallo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14715/images/system/14715.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Francisco M. Sánchez Margallo is the scientific director of the Jesus Usón Minimally Invasive Surgery Center (JUMISC) in Cáceres (Spain), an institution dedicated to applied research, surgical training and technology transfer in the field of minimally invasive surgery and general healthcare. He has led and participated in numerous European, national and regional research projects. He joined, as the lead investigator of the JUMISC Group, the Spanish Cardiovascular Research Network and the Center of Biomedical Research in Cardiovascular Diseases. He is the Associate Scientific Director of the Spanish Technical Infrastructure for the Production and Characterization of Nanomaterials, Biomaterials and Systems in Biomedicine. Moreover, he is Professor of several official Master Degrees and director of many courses and training residencies for specialists in Health Sciences.",institutionString:"Jesús Usón Minimally Invasive Surgery Center",institution:{name:"Centro de Cirugía de Mínima Invasión Jesús Usón",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"78347",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",surname:"Lango",slug:"thomas-lango",fullName:"Thomas Lango",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SINTEF",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Norway"}}},{id:"123096",title:"Dr.",name:"Ronald",surname:"Mårvik",slug:"ronald-marvik",fullName:"Ronald Mårvik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"188738",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan A.",surname:"Sánchez Margallo",slug:"juan-a.-sanchez-margallo",fullName:"Juan A. Sánchez Margallo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SINTEF",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Norway"}}},{id:"188740",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",surname:"Hermoso De Mendoza",slug:"javier-hermoso-de-mendoza",fullName:"Javier Hermoso De Mendoza",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"190845",title:"Prof.",name:"Alessandro M.",surname:"Paganini",slug:"alessandro-m.-paganini",fullName:"Alessandro M. Paganini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sapienza University of Rome",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"194205",title:"MSc.",name:"Erlend",surname:"Hofstad",slug:"erlend-hofstad",fullName:"Erlend Hofstad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"195192",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",surname:"Balla",slug:"andrea-balla",fullName:"Andrea Balla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"195193",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvia",surname:"Quaresima",slug:"silvia-quaresima",fullName:"Silvia Quaresima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"195194",title:"Dr.",name:"Ardit",surname:"Seitaj",slug:"ardit-seitaj",fullName:"Ardit Seitaj",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"OA-publishing-fees",title:"Open Access Publishing Fees",intro:"
The Open Access model is applied to all of our publications and is designed to eliminate subscriptions and pay-per-view fees. This approach ensures free, immediate access to full text versions of your research.
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 128,000 international scientists and researchers.
\\n\\n
The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your full chapter, monograph or Compacts monograph is accepted for publication.
\\n\\n
OAPF Publishing Options
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
\\n\\t
10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
\\n\\t
4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\\n
\\n\\n
*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\\n\\n
Services included are:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
\\n\\t
Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
\\n\\t
Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
\\n\\t
English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
\\n\\t
XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
\\n\\t
Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
\\n\\t
Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
\\n\\n
If your manuscript:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
\\n\\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\\n
\\n\\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\\n\\n
Open Access Funding
\\n\\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at oapf@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\\n\\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\\n\\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\\n\\n
Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\\n\\t
Long-term archiving
\\n\\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\\n\\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\\n\\t
Dissemination and Promotion
\\n
\\n\\n
Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
\\n\\t
+5,200 OA books published
\\n\\t
Most competitive prices in the market
\\n\\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
\\n\\t
Optimized processes, enabling publication between 8 and 12 months
\\n\\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
\\n\\t
+146,150 citations in Web of Science databases
\\n\\t
Currently strongest OA platform with over 150 million downloads
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 128,000 international scientists and researchers.
\n\n
The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your full chapter, monograph or Compacts monograph is accepted for publication.
\n\n
OAPF Publishing Options
\n\n
\n\t
1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
\n\t
10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
\n\t
4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\n
\n\n
*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\n
Services included are:
\n\n
\n\t
An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
\n\t
Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
\n\t
Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
\n\t
English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
\n\t
XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
\n\t
Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
\n\t
Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
\n\n
If your manuscript:
\n\n
\n\t
Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
\n\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\n
\n\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\n\n
Open Access Funding
\n\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at oapf@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\n\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\n\n
\n\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\n\t
Long-term archiving
\n\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\n\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\n\t
Dissemination and Promotion
\n
\n\n
Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
\n\t
Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
\n\t
+5,200 OA books published
\n\t
Most competitive prices in the market
\n\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
\n\t
Optimized processes, enabling publication between 8 and 12 months
\n\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
\n\t
+146,150 citations in Web of Science databases
\n\t
Currently strongest OA platform with over 150 million downloads
\n
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). 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I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5822},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5289},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1761},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10546},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:909},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15938}],offset:12,limit:12,total:119319},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasnoeditors:"0"},books:[{type:"book",id:"8969",title:"Deserts and Desertification",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4df95c7f295de7f6003e635d9a309fe9",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Yajuan Zhu, Dr. Qinghong Luo and 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