Soil-beneficial fungi on different physiological and catabolic processes in various host plant species.
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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Genetics has become an indispensable component of almost all research in modern biology and medicine. Human genetic variation is associated with many, if not all, human diseases and disabilities. Nowadays, studies investigating any biological process, from the molecular level to the population level, use the "genetic approach" to gain understanding of that process. This book contains many diverse chapters, dealing with human genetic diseases, methods to diagnose them, novel approaches to treat them and molecular approaches and concepts to understand them. Although this book does not give a comprehensive overview of human genetic diseases, I believe that the sixteen book chapters will be a valuable resource for researchers and students in different life and medical sciences.',isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-936-3",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6767-9",doi:"10.5772/904",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"human-genetic-diseases",numberOfPages:300,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"ee05b56a8355255883a05d9e647f83f3",bookSignature:"Dijana Plaseska-Karanfilska",publishedDate:"October 3rd 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/385.jpg",numberOfDownloads:51255,numberOfWosCitations:34,numberOfCrossrefCitations:10,numberOfDimensionsCitations:38,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:82,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 22nd 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 20th 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 26th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 26th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 25th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"64941",title:"Dr.",name:"Dijana",middleName:null,surname:"Plaseska-Karanfilska",slug:"dijana-plaseska-karanfilska",fullName:"Dijana Plaseska-Karanfilska",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64941/images/1847_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dijana Plaseska-Karanfilska graduated from the Faculty of Medicine, University “St. Cyril and Methodius” in Skopje, Republic of Macedonia in 1987. 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During her professional career Dr. Plaseska-Karanfilska made a contribution to the molecular characterization of different monogenic diseases in Macedonia, such as hemoglobinopathies, cystic fibrosis, cystinuria, Fragile X syndrome, etc. She has been also involved in the research of different infectious diseases, such as HPV, HBV, HCV infections and molecular basis of several malignant diseases as well as forensic DNA identification. 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\r\n\tOrganic synthesis has always been one of the central topics of research for the scientific community in the academic laboratories and industrial world. Many striking journal articles and remarkable reviews and books have been published in the past year describing the practicability and applications of the subject demonstrating the importance of organic synthesis. In the present book, we will be putting together the topics in organic synthesis which may include but not limited to, (1) the basic terms and concepts, (2) various organic reactions including reduction, oxidation, addition, elimination, rearrangements, and cycloadditions, (3) Total Synthesis of Natural products, (4) transition metal catalysts, organocatalysts, enzymes and biotransformations, (5) applications in medicinal chemistry and drug design and development, (6) purification methods and characterization techniques, etc. To set a limit and to increase the scope of the book, author(s) are encouraged to send the chapters that include selected examples with practical applications and good yielding reactions reported within the past decade. Older topics with significant findings or their essence to prepare the foundation may be included in the chapter are welcomed as well.
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Deore was born in India. He received a Master’s degree in organic chemistry from Pune University in 2007. In the same year, he qualified with the SET and CSIR-NET (JRF) and joined in the group of Prof. Narshinha P. Argade for the doctoral studies in National Chemical Laboratory, India. In 2014, he awarded with a Ph. D. in Chemistry and was a recipient of the 2nd prize in “2014 Eli Lilly and Company Asia Outstanding Thesis Awards”. In July 2014 he moved to Canada and joined as a postdoctoral researcher in the group of Prof. Richard Manderville at the University of Guelph, Canada. Presently, Dr. Deore is working on the collaborative project between the University of Guelph and Aterica health Inc., and providing consulting to the company. 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Endocrine and immune response play important roles for keeping the hormonal levels and the fetal-maternal interface. Hormones such as estrogen and progesterone are released from the ovaries; estrogen release is triggered by the hypothalamic-pituitary axis, and progesterone is secreted from the corpus luteum (CL) after ovulation. Estrogen is essential for uterine growth and cell proliferation and progesterone for endometrial receptivity and successful establishment of pregnancy [1, 2]. Estrogen and progesterone are also considered as regulators of innate immunity and inflammation in the endometrium [3]. Endometrial immune homeostasis plays an important role in the success of implantation and pregnancy, with complex interactions between the innate and adaptive immune system, through cells such as natural killer, antigen-presenting cells (macrophages and dendritic cells), and subtypes of T cells [4].
Prostaglandins (PGs), also known as prostanoids, are bioactive lipids with an important function as regulators of reproductive processes, including ovulation, fertilization, and implantation. PGs are synthesized from arachidonic acid by different cells, and five types of PGs have been described, with specific roles and mechanism in the female reproductive system [5, 6]. Prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α) has a luteolytic effect, whereas prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) is central in ovulation, fertilization, embryo development, and implantation [7, 8]. In addition, PGE2 plays important roles in inflammatory processes, being increased at first phases of inflammation [9].
Inflammation is a complex process with two differentiated steps or conditions: acute and chronic inflammation. A number of lipid mediators act as pro-inflammatory (i.e., leukotriene and prostaglandins) or anti-inflammatory and pro-resolving (lipoxins, resolvins, maresins, and protectins) mediators. Lipid mediators derived from polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) have potent anti-inflammatory effect and promote the resolution of inflammation, through specialized pro-resolving lipid mediators (SPM) [10]. Omega-3 fatty acids are a type of PUFA with known beneficial effect, which, in addition to its pro-resolving mechanism, have shown two additional anti-inflammatory mechanisms: activation of the free fatty acid (FFA)-4 receptor and inflammasome inhibition. Recent evidences have suggested an anti-inflammatory effect of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) in the endometrium. Furthermore, FFA4 receptor was detected in the human, mouse, and bovine uterus [11, 12]. The following sections describe the effect and potential mechanisms of omega-3 fatty acids in the immune cells and endometrium and perspectives of these fatty acids in health and disease.
Eicosanoids, which include prostaglandins and leukotrienes, are members of a large family of compounds that are synthesized from arachidonic acid through the cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase pathways [13]. PGF2α and PGE2 exert opposite actions on the corpus luteum (CL); therefore, control over their synthesis and secretion is critical either for the initiation of luteolysis or maintenance of pregnancy [7, 8].
PGF2α is considered a pro-inflammatory molecule, and it may stimulate the synthesis of pro-inflammatory cytokines that enhance phagocytosis and lymphocyte functions [14]. PGF2α can increase IL1β, IL6, CCL2, and CXCL8 via ERK1/ERK2, PI3K, NFAT, and NF-κB pathways in the myometrial cells from term pregnant women, suggesting that PGF2α induces an inflammatory environment during the late stage of human pregnancy [15]. PGF2α in vitro enhanced neutrophil chemotaxis and the ability of neutrophils to ingest bacteria, and anti-PGF2α antibody blocked the chemotactic effects of PGF2α [16, 17]. Exogenous PGF2α increases uterine secretion of PGF2α through the activation of phospholipase A2 (PLA2) and cyclooxygenase 2 [18, 19, 20]. Also, it has been proposed that exogenous PGF2α increases luteal leukotriene B4 (LTB4) production [21]. LTB4 can stimulate chemotaxis, random migration, and antibody-independent cell-mediated cytotoxicity and may reduce the risk of uterine infections in cows [22].
Most studies about PGF2α and fertility have been performed in production animals. PGF2α and its analogs have been used to resolve uterine infections in livestock; however, its mechanism of action is not known. Moreover, it is unclear if modulation of sexual steroids levels induced by PGF2α directly alters the immune response in postpartum. Cattle are resistant to uterine infections when progesterone concentrations are basal, and they are susceptible to uterine infections when progesterone concentrations are increased [23, 24]. It has been proposed that exogenous PGF2α is an effective luteolytic factor to reduce progesterone levels and subsequent estrus, with increased estrogen level and myometrial contractions, and would be favorable for clearance of uterine infection [25, 26]. However, other authors report that PGF2α upregulate immune functions reducing vaginal discharge, uterine inflammation, endometrium fibrosis, and infection, which could be independent of progesterone levels [27]. Also, it has been proposed that PGF2α is more effective when progesterone levels are high or a corpus luteum is palpable [28, 29]. Thus, a direct effect of PGF2α on immune system has been proposed. The in vivo effect of exogenous PGF2α suggests that immune functions do not seem entirely independent of progesterone [30]. Fenprostalene, a long-acting PGF2α analog, injected between days 7 and 10 postpartum, when progesterone concentrations are basal, reduced the incidence of endometritis in dairy cows with dystocia and/or retained fetal membranes and reduced the interval from parturition to conception [31]. The studies with cloprostenol and fenprostalene indicate that increased PGF2α during the postpartum period in dairy cattle improves uterine health [27, 31]. Indeed, jugular concentrations of 13,14-dihydro-15-keto-PGF2α, which is a metabolite that seems to reflect uterine production of PGF2α postpartum, were less in postpartum dairy cows that subsequently developed uterine infections, than in cows that did not develop uterine infections [31, 32]. Despite the above antecedents, the evidence is contradictory if exogenous PGF2α can be useful as endometritis therapy in cows [33, 34, 35, 36].
PGE2 is the most abundant eicosanoid lipid in the inflammatory environment. Thus, PGE2 plays a pivotal role in endometriosis-associated inflammation and pain, and its production is augmented in lesions and in the peritoneal cavity [37, 38]. Exogenous PGE2 pretreatment also modulates the innate immune response, increasing the Pam3CSK4-induced inflammatory responses through Toll-like receptor (TLR)-2 signaling in bovine endometrial epithelial cells [39]. PGE2 can increase the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced response on PKA, ERK1/ERK2, and IκBα phosphorylation, as well as COX-2 and IL-6 expression, and downregulate the PGE2 receptor 4 (EP4) and TLR4 in bovine endometrial cells [40]. PGE2 via EP2 and EP4 receptors can reduce the expression of CXCL8, CCL2, and granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) induced by IL-1β in primary human myometrial cells [41]. In human uterine epithelial cells, misoprostol, an analog of PGE2, increases cAMP levels via EP4 and reduces the expression of antimicrobial peptides such as β-defensins [42].
Several studies have suggested that supplementation of omega-3 fatty acids during pregnancy is beneficial for establishment and maintenance of pregnancy, maintains gestation length and fetal growth, prevents preterm birth, and decreases the rate of gestational diabetes [43]. These effects of omega-3 fatty acids have been mainly studied in animals such as bovine and ovine; however, some recent studies have begun to be performed to demonstrate the beneficial effect of these fatty acids in humans and mice. Consumption of omega-3 fatty acids has been associated with a reduction of the symptoms and lower risk of developing endometriosis in women, a hormone-dependent chronic inflammatory condition [44, 45]. In wild-type mice, the administration of EPA reduced the number of endometriotic lesions, similarly as was observed in a transgenic mouse model with high levels of omega-3 fatty acids [46]. In a rat model of endometriosis, the EPA supplementation reduced the endometriotic lesions and expression of pro-inflammatory gene, suggesting that the EPA supplementation might be a strategy for the treatment of endometriosis [47].
Some studies in vitro have evidenced that the supplementation of mice with omega-3 fatty acids increased implantation markers such as laminin and leukemia inhibitory factor in endometrial epithelium and stroma, which would encourage the endometrium for a favorable environment of implantation [48]. Through an abortion mouse model and human stromal cells, it was suggested that omega-3 fatty acids activate the signaling pathways ERK1/ERK2 and AMPK, which increase FOXO1 and GLUT 1 expression, and the increased glucose uptake would be important for the maintenance of pregnancy [11].
Several studies in bovines have proposed that omega-3-rich diet improve the reproductive performance. It has been described that incorporation of fatty acids of omega-3, and also omega-6, in the bovine diet influences some of the reproductive process involved in the follicular development [49] and progesterone and PGF2α production [50, 51] regulating embryo survival and implantation.
It has been shown that high intake of omega-6 fatty acid induces a change in membrane phospholipids, increasing the proportion of arachidonic acid, which would favor the synthesis of PG of the series 2, and eicosanoid, so it would turn into a pro-inflammatory environment [52]. By contrast, the dietary increase of the omega-3 fatty acid especially EPA and DHA would increase the proportion of these phospholipids in the cell membranes, which would ultimately result in the decrease of the synthesis of the PG series 2, whereby they would act as an anti-inflammatory mechanism [52]. Based on the effect of fatty acids on PG secretion, several studies conducted in dairy cattle have been addressed to attenuate the endometrium secretion of PG at the time of the embryo-maternal recognition of pregnancy in order to improve embryo survival and pregnancy rate [53, 54, 55]. Dairy cows supplemented with conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) have higher pregnancy rates than their non-supplemented control group, and the probability of pregnancy increases by up to 26% and that the interval of first postpartum ovulation was reduced by 8 days [56].
Also, the supplementation of dairy cows with polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids as EPA can inhibit the synthesis of PGF2α through competition with arachidonic acid by COX-1 and COX-2 enzymes or in the case of DHA competing with arachidonic acid with the phospholipase A2 enzymes [57]. For this reason, fish meal included in the bovine diet could reduce PGF2α and delay regression of the CL, improving embryonic survival and female fertility [51]. The supplementation of cows with omega-3 fatty acid from the fish meal not only reduces the endometrial concentration of arachidonic acid but also increases the concentration of both EPA and omega-3 fatty acids in the endometrium [58]. When fish meal was included in the diet in a study conducted with beef cows (Angus), an increase in EPA and DHA in luteal tissue and a reduction of arachidonic acid in the endometrium resulting in an increase in the fertility of cows were observed [59]. However, in addition to its effect on PG secretion, some studies have concluded that diets rich in EPA and DHA can have a direct effect on the growth of the conceptus per se [60]. Others speculate that the delay on CL regression would allow not well-developed embryos to reach their competent size to initiate a maternal dialog before the luteolytic secretion of PG [50, 61].
The roles of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids on prostaglandin secretion have been well documented in in vitro and in vivo studies. The production of PGF2 α was suppressed in an endometrial cell culture when the culture medium was supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids [62]. However, when the medium was supplemented with omega-6 fatty acids, the increase in the ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 produced an increase of PGF2α [63]. Similarly, in studies conducted with dairy cows, the supplementation with different ratio of fatty acids from omega-6 to omega-3 altered the secretion on PGF2 α induced by either oxytocin [64] or spontaneous [49]. The production of PGE2 induced by LPS also was inhibited in the cellular line of bovine endometrium BEND treated with DHA [12]. Additionally, recent evidences show an inhibition of the translocation of the transcription factor NF-κB induced by LPS in BEND cells treated with DHA (Figure 1; unpublished data).
Localization of NF-κB in BEND cells treated with DHA and stimulated with LPS. BEND cells were treated with 50 μM DHA for 15 min, and then 1 μg/ml LPS was added and incubated for 30 min. NF-κB was detected by immunocytochemistry and epifluorescence microscopy. Magnification 40X [65].
The first known anti-inflammatory mechanism of omega-3 fatty acids was the formation of specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPMs) derived from DHA. The enzymatic oxygenation of DHA via 12−/15-lipoxygenase (LOX) and 5-LOX leads to the formation of the D-series resolvins (RvD1, RvD2, RvD3, RvD4, RvD5, and RvD6), neuroprotectins/protectins, and maresins in different cells [10, 66], and resolvins have a potent effect on leukocyte migration and also reduce production of pro-inflammatory cytokines [67]. All those evidences have been obtained in different cellular types, but in the uterus or endometrial cells, there are not yet studies about formation of SPM.
Two more recent mechanisms have been described in macrophages and endothelial cells: (1) binding of DHA to FFA4 receptor/β-arrestin and inhibition of TAK1/NF-κB, thus reducing synthesis of pro-inflammatory factors, and (2) inhibition of NLRP3 inflammasome. FFA4 receptor is a G-protein-coupled receptor with high affinity by DHA described first in the intestine and macrophages. Recent studies evidenced the presence of FFA4 receptor in the human, mouse, and bovine endometrium [11, 12]. After ligand binding, FFA4 receptor couples to β-arrestin2, which is followed by receptor endocytosis and inhibition of TAB1-mediated activation of TAK1, a protein activated after inflammatory stimuli such as LPS, which induce signaling through the NF-κB pathway, thus reducing TNF-α, IL-6, and MCP-1 [68, 69]. Other studies have proposed omega-3 fatty acids to reduce the NLRP3 inflammasome activation [70, 71, 72, 73]. The first evidence proposed two mechanisms dependent on FFA4 receptor to the reduction of inflammasome activation: first, DHA stimulation caused FFA4 receptor internalization through β-arrestin2, which reduced the initial inflammasome priming step by suppressing the nuclear translocation of NF-κB, and second, DHA enhanced autophagy, thereby reducing inflammasome complex formation or presenting inflammasome components for destruction [73]. Then, it was demonstrated that DHA reduced NLRP3 inflammasome expression in hepatocytes [70].
In the endometrium, only two lines of evidences about potential mechanisms of action of omega-3 have been studied. In human stromal cells, FFA4 receptor promoted decidualization through the upregulation of the GLUT1-mediated glucose uptake and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase-mediated pentose-phosphate pathway [11]. In mice, FFA4 receptor protects LPS or RU486-induced abortion [11]. In summary, omega-3 fatty acids via FFA4 receptor increase ERK1/ERK2 and AMPK signaling and upregulate FOXO1 and GLUT1 expression, which increases glucose uptake and activates the pentose-phosphate pathway, promoting decidualization and maintenance of pregnancy. In addition, it was also shown that FFA4 receptor upregulates the expression of chemokines and cytokines such as CXCL12, TGFβ, and IL-15 [11]. In bovine endometrial cells, it was evidenced the presence of mRNA and protein of FFA4 receptor as well as an increase of intracellular calcium mobilization induced by DHA or a synthetic agonist (TUG891) of FFA4 receptor, which was inhibited by AH7614, a FFA4 receptor antagonist [12]. Also, DHA reduced NF-κB activation and PGE2 production induced by LPS; however, AH7614 did not modify these effects, suggesting that other mechanisms would be involved in the anti-inflammatory effect of DHA, which should be studied [12].
Until now, omega-3 fatty acids have been only used as dietary supplements, or DHA-rich diet has been recommended by their beneficial effects for health. However, although the mechanism of action of DHA has begun to be elucidated, it has not been recommended yet as an anti-inflammatory drug. The recent studies have described several possible anti-inflammatory mechanisms and propose omega-3 fatty acids as potential treatment for spontaneous abortion for its effect on decidualization and the maintenance of pregnancy [11]. Also, omega-3 fatty acids would be useful for the prevention and treatment of endometriosis because this disorder is characterized by a chronic inflammation [44, 46, 47]. In veterinary medicine, omega-3 fatty acids have potential use in fertility of dairy cows. Omega-3- rich supplements have been associated with improved reproductive performance, and the recent evidence of the presence of FFA4 receptor in the endometrium [12] could contribute to understand the mechanism as omega-3 fatty acids exert its effects, and open new possibilities for the prevention and treatment of the endometrial inflammation associated with infectious diseases, such as metritis or endometritis.
Omega-3 fatty acids have anti-inflammatory effects through different mechanisms, described in macrophages and endothelial cells: formation of SPMs, activation of the FFA4 receptor, inhibition of TAK1/NF-κB activation, and inflammasome inhibition. These mechanisms have not yet been demonstrated in the endometrium, but the presence of the FFA4 receptor and the inhibition of NF-κB, PGE2, and PGF2α suggest that similar anti-inflammatory mechanism could occur in the endometrium. Furthermore, omega-3 fatty acids could be useful for the treatment of disorders such as endometriosis or metritis/endometritis, as well as the prevention of spontaneous abortion and improvement of fertility.
Funded by Fondo Nacional de Desarrollo Científico y Tecnológico (Fondecyt No. 1151047).
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
The microorganism was used from the very beginning of the civilization in the agriculture and industrial processes even before their existence was well known. Production of fermented beverages, bread and vinegar are traditional processers practiced from the time of early civilization. Recent advancement in our understanding about the genetics, physiology, and biochemistry of fungi, has led the exploitation of fungi for preparation of different agriculture and industrial products of economic importance. All the environmental factors influence the distribution of the fungal flora of soil [1, 2].
The primary functions of filamentous fungi in the soil are to degrade organic matter and help in soil aggregation. Besides this property, bound species of Alternaria, genus Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Dematium, Gliocladium, Humicola and Metarhizium manufacture substance like organic compounds in soil and therefore could also be necessary for the maintenance of soil organic matter. Plant growth regulators and chemical fertilizers have been used to increase crop production [3, 4]. Application of chemical fertilizers to crop plants negatively affects human health and environments. Recent studies have focused on identification of alternative methods to enhance plant productivity and protect the soil. Soil borne microbes can enter roots and establish their population in plants as endophytes, and many plant-associated fungi are well known for their capacity to promote plant growth; however, the relationship between these microbes and plants is still uncertain [5]. Microorganisms have the ability to produce phytohormones, solubilize insoluble phosphate and convert complex organic substances to simple forms. Endophytic fungi have also been shown to impart plants with tolerance to salt, drought, heat and diseases [6].
The four endophytic fungi (GM-1, GM-2, GM-3, and GM-4) were tested for their ability to improve soybean plant growth under salinity stress conditions. The seed germination and plant growth were higher in seeds pretreated with endophytic fungal cultures than their controls. The positive influence of fungi on plant growth was supported by gibberellins analysis of culture filtrate (CF), which showed wide diversity and various concentrations of Gibberellic acids [7].
Application of rhizospheric fungi is an effective and environmentally friendly method of improving plant growth and controlling many plant diseases. Three predominant fungi (PNF1, PNF2, and PNF3) isolated from the rhizospheric soil of peanut plants were screened for their growth-promoting efficiency on sesame seedlings. Among these isolates, PNF2 significantly increased the shoot length and fresh weight of seedlings compared with controls. Analysis of the fungal culture filtrate showed a higher concentration of indole acetic acid in PNF2 than in the other isolates [8].
The fungal associations with plants influence the primary and secondary metabolism of plants at all developmental stages. Photosynthesis is an important primary mechanism, and the main source of energy for plants. Its efficiency is related to photosynthetic pigments such as chlorophylls and carotenoids. Leaf chlorophyll a was increased in fungi-treated plants more so than in the controls [9].
The fungi dominate in low pH or slightly acidic soils where soils tend to be undisturbed [10]. Fungi break down the organic residues so many alternative sorts of microbes will begin to decompose and method the residues into usable merchandise. Approximately 90% of all plants form symbiotic mycorrhizae fungi relationships by forming hyphae networks. Through mycorrhizae the plant obtains mainly phosphate and other minerals, such as zinc and copper, from the soil. The fungus obtains nutrients, such as sugars, from the plant root. This mutually beneficial relationship is called a mycorrhizae network [11].
Soil fungi can grow in a wide range of soil pH but their population is more under acidic conditions because of severe competition with bacteria at neutral pH. A majority of fungi are aerobic and prefer to grow at optimum soil moisture. The contribution of these organisms in biochemical transformation under excessive moisture is negligible [12].
The rhizosphere is a locality next to the basis dominated by soil microbes wherever several chemicals and organic chemistry methods occur. Soil fungi form up to 10–30% of the soil rhizosphere. The fungi ability to produce a wide variety of extracellular enzymes, they are able to break down all kinds of organic matter, decomposing soil components and thereby regulating the balance of carbon and nutrients for maintain soil health. This allows fungi to bridge gaps in the soil to transport nutrients relatively far distances back to the plants [13] (Tables 1 and 2).
Fungal species/strain | Plant type | Fungi-mediated response | Beneficial effects on plant species | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
AM fungi | Dead vegetation in soil | Degrade of dead organic | Nutrient mobilization | [43] Hodge et al. (2001) |
Phanerochaete velutina | Wood | Decomposing wood | Phosphorus translocation | [44] Wells et al. (1998) |
Pleurotus sp. | Wood | Wood decay | Nutrient mobilization | [45] Cohen et al. (2002) |
Perisporiopsis lateritia | Leaves of Hevea sp. | Leaves decay | Nutrient mobilization | [46] Chaverri and Gazis (2010) |
Navisporus floccosus | Wood | Wood decay | Nutrient mobilization | [47] Phillips et al. (2012) |
M fungi | Pinus taeda | Decomposing organic matter | Carbon and nitrogen cycling | [48] Hoorman (2011) |
AM fungi | Vigna unguiculata | Mineral uptake | Improved nutritional status | [49] Yaseen et al. (2011) |
M fungi | Allium cepa | Plant growth | Improved nutritional status | [50] Albrechtova et al. (2012) |
Trichoderma sp. | Arabidopsis sp. | Auxins dependent mechanism | Higher biomass production and increased lateral roots formation | [51] Contreras- Cornejo et al. (2009) |
Trichoderma sp. | Agriculturally important crops | Biocontrol | Crop management | [52] Chalot and Brun (1998), [53] Harman and Mastouri (2010) |
Ectomycorrhizal fungi | Higher plant species | Phenolic compounds degradation | Plant protection | [54] Ha (2010) |
Ectomycorrhizal fungi and AM fungi | Agricultural crops | Stomatal physiology and water relation | Improved water potential status and increased photosynthesis rate | [55] Arnold and Engelbrecht (2007) |
Soil-beneficial fungi on different physiological and catabolic processes in various host plant species.
Agricultural application of fungi.
Soil is a primary source of fungal growth, and is associated with the roots of all plant species. Fungi produce a wide range of bioactive metabolites, which can improve plant growth [14]. In addition, fungi supply inorganic nutrients to plants, such as ammonium, nitrate, and phosphate [15] and they are used as biofertilizers. Rhizosphere microorganisms can overcome competition with other soil factors and survive under variable environmental conditions [16].
The microbes and plants along regulate several soil processes as well as the carbon cycle and nutrient utilization. Plant diversity and abundance might modification the complete soil scheme through the discharge of root exudates that attract or inhibit the expansion of specific organisms [17].
The saprophytic fungi of decay maintain the never-ending cycle of greenhouse emission that could be the most significant staple for plant chemical processes in nature. They additionally cause rot, decay, and decomposition of animal and plant remains emotional plant nutrients in an exceedingly type offered to inexperienced.
There are types of fungi they serve to suppress fungi inflicting the sickness disease of the seedlings and thereby influence favorably the expansion of crops.
Some fungi like Empusa sepulchrasis, Metarhizium anisopliae, and Cordyceps melothac can be used to control some insect pests. Others parasitic to some insects particularly, some spore-forming ones. The fungi spores sprayed on the crop cuss to regulate them. Colorado potato beetles, citrus rust mites, and spittle-bugs of insect cuss that may be controlled exploitation fungi. These types of fungi form loops on their mycelium which traps and strangle nematodes as the attempt to pass through. They later absorb nutrition from the nematodes.
Vesicular arbuscular mycorrhiza (VAM) fungi belong to theGlomeromycota. They are primitive fungi at the base of the tree for higher fungi (basidiomycetes). They turn out microscopic structures, or comparatively tiny sporocarps (truffle-like). Just over 200 species of these fungi are described, yet they are capable of forming mycorrhizal associations with the majority of plants. The word mycorrhiza is derived from the classical Greek word for “mushroom” and “root.” In a mycorrhizal association, the underground mycellium is in contact with plant roots, but without causing any harm to the plant.
Mycorrhizal fungi accountable in the rising growth of host plant species because of raised nutrient uptake, production of growth-promoting substances and tolerance to drought, salinity and synergistic interactions with other beneficial microorganisms [18]. The soil conditions prevalent in sustainable agriculture are likely to be more favorable to AM fungi than are those under conventional agriculture [19]. The AM fungi are widely distributed in natural and agricultural environments and have been found associated with more than 80% of land plants, ferns, woody gymnosperms and angiosperms and grasses [20].
Arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi (AMF) are beneficial fungal organisms that share symbiotic association with many land plants. The arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi have the potential to improve soil characteristics, thereby promoting plant growth in normal and stressful environments [21]. The arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi colonization enhances plant growth [22] and changes the morphological, nutritional and physiological levels of plants to improve resistance against different abiotic stresses [23]. The arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi inoculation protects Ocimum basilicum against salinity stress by improving mineral uptake, chlorophyll synthesis and water use efficiency [24]. Tomato plants inoculated with arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi show an increase in the leaf area, nitrogen, potassium, calcium and phosphorous contents to enhance the plant growth rate compared to controls [25].
Fungi can be used to produce material of nutritive value such as vitamins, amino acids, and lipids to make it more nutritious and palatable. Mushrooms are cultivated to yield fruit bodies directly consumed as food and yeast cells, mold mycelium is grown in fermenters to produce single-cell protein which may be used as food.
Soil phosphorus is a critical factor in plant response and responses are generally better under low phosphorus levels. Host genotypes and fungal strains seem to influence the response of plants to inoculation. The worldwide field experiment has provided evidence to show that under marginal P-deficiency soils lacking in effective AM fungal endophytes increase in yield of wheat, maize, barley, potatoes, and cowpea. Increased uptake of zinc has also been shown in AM fungus inoculated peach, maize, wheat and potato in zinc deficiency soils. The AM associations related to increased uptake of sulfur and calcium, improved water absorption and tolerance of plants to water stress in citrus and avocado seedlings have also been noticed. There are also reports of increased levels of cytokinins and chlorophyll by AM fungus- infected plants [26]. Therefore, many researchers were trying to use alternative approaches based on either manipulating or adding microorganisms to enhance plant protection against pathogens. The useful microorganisms (antagonistic bacteria) (e.g., bacteria genus visible radiation, Bacilli subtilis) and fungi (e.g., AMF, Trichoderma) contend with plant pathogens for nutrients and house, by manufacturing antibiotics, by parasitizing pathogens [27].
The fungi form a symbiotic association with roots of higher plants, facilitating uptake of plant nutrients, particularly of those which are less mobile this association is known as mycorrhizal association [28].
There are two types of mycorrhizal association (i) Ectotrophic mycorrhizae and (ii) Endomycorrhizae.
Ectotrophic mycorrhizae
Ectotrophic mycorrhizae, where the fungus forms a mantle or sheath around the root surface and where the mycelium develops intracellularly. The fungi which forms this types of association are species of Boletus, Amenita, etc.
Endomycorrhizae
Endomycorrhizae, where the fungus develops intracellularly in the root without forming Hartig net. In this association the penetration of roots cells is characterized by the formation of terminal spherical structure called vesicular, which contain oil droplets and phosphorus. This type of mycorrhiza is called vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae.
The management of AM fungi is very vital for organic and low-input agriculture systems wherever soil phosphorus is, in general, low, although all agroecosystems can benefit by promoting arbuscular mycorrhizae establishment. Some crops that poor at seeking out nutrients within the soil passionate about AM fungi for phosphorus uptake. For example, flax, which has poor chemotaxis ability, is highly dependent on AM-mediated phosphorus uptake at low and intermediate soil phosphorus concentrations. Proper management of AMF in the agroecosystems can improve the quality of the soil and the productivity of the land. Agricultural practices like reduced tillage, low phosphorus fertilizer usage and perennialized cropping systems promote functional mycorrhizal symbiosis [29].
The use of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in ecological restoration comes (phytoremediation) has been shown to modify host plant institution on degraded soil and improve soil quality and health. There is evidence to suggest that this enhancement of soil aggregated stability is due to the production of a soil protein known as glomalin [30]. The arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and is of agricultural significance particularly in the Phosphorus deficient soils where the where the phosphorus in the vesicle diffuses out into the cytoplasm and is taken up by the plant. Fungi belonging to the genera Glomus, Endogene form this association [31].
The mycorrhizas can be used to help plants overcome extreme environmental conditions, such as saline environments [32] and several AM species have been found living in saline habitats [33]. According to some estimates, around 50% of plants living near shorelines possess mycorrhizal associations in their root systems [34]. Similarly, several species of AM were discovered in salt marsh plants [35]. Even in very saline sites reaching more than 150 dS/m of electrical conductivity, there are species of AM that can survive such hostile conditions [36].
There are different mechanisms by which AM fungi can help plants cope with salt stress. For example, they can enhance soil nutrient absorption by plants [37, 38] showed that the addition of AM fungi to lettuce and onion plants resulted in increased accumulation of phosphorus under conditions of salinity stress. Furthermore, AM can affect the ionic balance of plants, especially about Na+ and Cl− [39].
Furthermore, the addition of AM to tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) under conditions of salinity improved anti-oxidant enzyme production, thus protecting cell membranes from damage. AM fungi can also improve the secretion of different types of hormones, one of them being abscisic acid. Mycorrhizal effects on hormones are important, as these hormones can enable plants to overcome many environmental stressed [40]. For example, inoculation of lettuce (Lactuca sativa) with Glomus intraradices induced enhanced levels of hormones in these plants under conditions of salinity stress and this, in turn, affected the regulation of stomatal closure. Salinity may also induce drought conditions for plants, so AM fungi may also help plants increase water uptake. The addition of mycorrhizas to leek (Allium porrum) increased the surface area of the roots, thereby increasing water absorption by the plants. The efficiency of water use in lettuce plants improved significantly with the addition of mycorrhizas under salt stress [41].
Rice is mostly cultivated under rain-fed conditions. The yield can be severely reduced when the water supply is insufficient, therefore drought is one of the major constraints for rice production. Rice has its mechanisms to drought stress, and they are also assisted by living soil organisms. Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi are among one of the soil microorganisms that may enhance drought resistance of rice. It assists plants in uptake water and nutrients. It also plays roles in regulating plant hormones, as well as stomatal behavior under drought stress. Apart from that, intercropping is likely contributing to the improvement of drought resistance and AM fungi activity. Intercropping can enhance AM fungi colonization and improve the root morphology of rice which beneficial for drought resistance. Thus, this analysis aims to achieve a lot of insight regarding the mutuality between AM fungi and rice beneath drought stress. The study will focus on the effects of AM fungi on the growth of rice, rice hormones, water potential and the contribution of AM fungi and intercropping on drought resistance of rice. The mycorrhizal development still strongly stimulated the improvement of plant growth and increased plant survival under drought stress. AMF had shown to reinforce drought tolerance in numerous plants [42].
The fungi have been utilized for controlling insect pests. The microbial control of insect pests emerged 100 years ago. Insect is infected by fungi through the body surface and this property is different from the infection caused by bacteria, viruses, and protozoa. Fungi attacking insect are called entomogenous. The conidia of the insect attacking fungi are attached to the insect integument where they germinate and the germ tubes penetrate in insect body under optimum temperature and humidity. The fungus proliferates in the insect body and the insect body gets covered with mycelia and conidia. The newly formed conidia are dispersed and cause subsequent infections and the cycle is continued (Table 3).
Mycoinsecticide.
Based on the nature of fungal biocontrol agents the nematopathogenic fungi are of three types, nematode, trapping fungi (Arthrobotrys, Dactylella), endoparasites (Hirsutella, Meria) and highly specific egg parasites (Datylella). The common and commercialized myconematicide are Royal 300 R (Arthrobotrys robata), Royal 350 R (Arthrobotrys suporba).
The increased absorption of available nutrients from soil as the fungus changes root morphology, which result in the larger root surface available for nutrient absorption. Fungal filaments also act as the absorption surface and increasing the nutrient availability by solubilizing insoluble nutrients like phosphorus, which thus become available to plant and increasing the nutrient mobility due to faster intracellular nutrient mobility and mobilizing nutrients from the soil mass not visited by the roots system but traversed by the mycorrhizal hyphae. The arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi protected plants by up-regulating the activity of antioxidant enzymes and osmolytes and by regulating the synthesis of phytohormones, which might possibly interconnect the various tolerance mechanisms for cumulative stress response. The prominent effect of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi against salinity was proven to be due to a restriction in sodium uptake by roots and to the homeostasis of nutrient uptake.
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\\n\\n3.2. CORRIGENDUM
\\n\\nA Corrigendum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter is a result of an Author’s miscalculation or oversight. A published Corrigendum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\\n\\n4. FINAL REMARKS
\\n\\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\\n\\nIn the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
\\n\\nThe general principles set out above apply to Retractions and Corrections issued in all IntechOpen publications.
\\n\\nAny suggestions or comments on this Policy are welcome and may be sent to permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2017-09-11
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen’s Retraction and Correction Policy has been developed in accordance with the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) publication guidelines relating to scientific misconduct and research ethics:
\n\n1. RETRACTIONS
\n\nA Retraction of a Chapter will be issued by the Academic Editor, either following an Author’s request to do so or when there is a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct. Upon receipt of a report by a 3rd party, the Academic Editor will investigate any allegations of scientific misconduct, working in cooperation with the Author(s) and their institution(s).
\n\nA formal Retraction will be issued when there is clear and conclusive evidence of any of the following:
\n\nPublishing of a Retraction Notice will adhere to the following guidelines:
\n\n1.2. REMOVALS AND CANCELLATIONS
\n\n2. STATEMENTS OF CONCERN
\n\nA Statement of Concern detailing alleged misconduct will be issued by the Academic Editor or publisher following a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct when:
\n\nIntechOpen believes that the number of occasions on which a Statement of Concern is issued will be very few in number. In all cases when such a decision has been taken by the Academic Editor the decision will be reviewed by another editor to whom the author can make representations.
\n\n3. CORRECTIONS
\n\nA Correction will be issued by the Academic Editor when:
\n\n3.1. ERRATUM
\n\nAn Erratum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter originates from the production process handled by the publisher.
\n\nA published Erratum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n3.2. CORRIGENDUM
\n\nA Corrigendum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter is a result of an Author’s miscalculation or oversight. A published Corrigendum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n4. FINAL REMARKS
\n\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\n\nIn the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
\n\nThe general principles set out above apply to Retractions and Corrections issued in all IntechOpen publications.
\n\nAny suggestions or comments on this Policy are welcome and may be sent to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2017-09-11
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