Summary of splash thresholds under different surface conditions [42].
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83969-467-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-466-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-468-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a6f32d3f2227df637fffd969a0cb5ed7",bookSignature:"Dr. Peter A. Clark",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10878.jpg",keywords:"Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis, Medical Futility, Definition of Death, Extraordinary/Ordinary Means, Need for New Antibiotics, Role of Big Pharma, Uterine Transplants, Face Transplants, Confidentiality, Ethical Decision Making, Harm Reduction Theory, Safe Injection Sites",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 8th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 8th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 7th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 26th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 24th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"7 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A faculty member for medical residents, medical students, and undergraduate students and a researcher in issues that challenge the national and global arenas. He is also the Bioethicist for over 20 health care facilities in the United States and Palestine.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"58889",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter A.",middleName:null,surname:"Clark",slug:"peter-a.-clark",fullName:"Peter A. Clark",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58889/images/system/58889.jpg",biography:"Peter A. Clark, S.J., Ph.D. is the John McShain Chair in Ethics and Director of the Institute of Clinical Bioethics at Saint Joseph’s University in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He is also the Bioethicist for over 20 health care facilities in the United States and Palestine. He is the author of To Treat or Not To Treat and Death With Dignity and has published numerous peer-reviewed articles in national and international medical and ethical journals.",institutionString:"Saint Joseph's University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Saint Joseph's University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"346794",firstName:"Mia",lastName:"Miskulin",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/346794/images/15795_n.png",email:"mia@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"52324",title:"Molecular and Morphophysiological Analysis of Drought Stress in Plants",doi:"10.5772/65246",slug:"molecular-and-morphophysiological-analysis-of-drought-stress-in-plants",body:'\nPlant growth and productivity is adversely affected by nature\'s wrath in the form of various biotic and abiotic stress factors. Water deficit is one of the major abiotic stresses, which adversely affects crop growth and yield. Stress is an altered physiological condition caused by factors that tend to disrupt the equilibrium. Strain is any physical and chemical change produced by a stress [1]. Stress is used with various meanings, the physiological definition and appropriate term as responses in different environmental situations. If a factor deviates from its optimum does not necessarily results in stress. Stress is a constraint or unpredictable change imposed on regular metabolic patterns of growth results in injury, disease or aberrant physiology. Plants are mainly exposed to stresses such as drought, precipitation, salt, flooding, heat, oxidative stress and heavy metal toxicity. Drought stress occurs when the available water in the soil is reduced and atmospheric conditions cause continuous loss of water by transpiration or evaporation due to increase in temperature in nature. Drought stress tolerance is seen in almost all plants but its extent varies from species to species and even within species [2]. Conventional plant breeding attempts have changed over to use physiological selection criteria since they are time consuming and rely on present genetic variability [3]. Abiotic stresses tolerance is a complex trait, due to the interactions between stress factors and various molecular, biochemical and physiological phenomena affecting plant growth at different developmental stages [4]. High yield potential under drought stress is the target of crop breeders. In many cases, high yield potential can contribute to yield in moderate stress environment [5]. Drought stress leads to stomatal closure and limitation of gas exchange. Desiccation is much more extensive loss of water, which can potentially lead to maximum disruption of metabolism and cell structure and finally stops enzyme catalyzed reactions [6, 7]. Drought stress is characterized by reduction in water content, diminished leaf water potential and turgor loss, closure of stomata and decrease in cell enlargement and growth. Severe water stress may result in hampering photosynthesis, disturbing the overall metabolism and finally the necrosis of plant [8]. Water stress inhibits cell enlargement more as compared to cell division. Plant growth is reduced by affecting various physiological and biochemical processes, such as photosynthesis, respiration, translocation, ion uptake, carbohydrates, nutrient metabolism and growth promoters [9]. A better understanding of the morphophysiological traits can be used to create new varieties of crops to obtain a better productivity under drought conditions [10]. The reactions of plants to water stress differ significantly at various organizational levels depending upon intensity and duration of stress as well as plant species and its stage of growth [11]. A fundamental part for making the crops stress tolerant is to understand plant responses to different drought stress environments [12].
\nIn response to drought brought about by soil water deficit, plants can exhibit either drought escape or drought resistance mechanisms, with resistance further classified into drought avoidance (maintenance of tissue water potential) and drought tolerance [13]. Drought stress is the ability of plants to complete the life cycle before severe stress conditions arise. Drought avoidance is the maintenance of high tissue water potential under a soil water deficit. Improved water uptake under stress and the capacity of plant cells to hold acquired water reduces water loss leading to drought avoidance. Drought tolerance is the ability to withstand water deficit with low tissue water potential. Plants respond to water deficit using mechanisms of avoidance by improved root traits and by reducing water loss through reduced epidermal (stomatal and cuticular) conductance, reduced radiation absorption, and reduced evaporative surface (leaf area). Drought tolerance is the ability to withstand water deficit with low tissue water potential [14]. Plants under drought stress may survive by, among other mechanisms, maintaining cell turgor and reducing evaporative water loss by accumulating compatible solutes [15]. In recent years, much molecular information has been generated on the response of plants to environmental stresses. Plants respond to environmental stresses such as drought by the induction of both regulatory and functional sets of genes [16, 17]. Very little is known about the early events in the perception of stress signals [18, 19]. The common stress signaling pathways have been distinguished into abscisic acid (ABA) dependent and ABA independent [20, 21]. Most of the key genes in these pathways have been identified, such as transcription factors belonging to the class of dehydration responsive element‐binding protein (DREB)/C‐repeat‐binding factor (CBF), ABA‐binding factor (ABF), Myelocytomatosis oncogene (MYC) and Myeloblastosis oncogene (MYB), including the identification of the stress‐responsive cis‐elements ABA‐responsive element (ABRE) and dehydration responsive element (DRE). Downstream of the early signal perception events, signaling genes and molecules acting as secondary messengers have been identified, revealing the role of Ca+ and reactive oxygen species (ROS) as secondary messengers. These regulatory mechanisms induce downstream functional genes, which are needed to establish new cellular homeostasis that leads to drought tolerance and/or resistance.
\nMost of the physiological traits associated with drought tolerance are quantitative in nature. Genomics‐assisted breeding (GAB) approaches, such as marker‐assisted selection (MAS), can greatly improve precision and efficiency of selection in crop breeding [23]. Integration of genomics and breeding has a great potential for crop improvement. Molecular markers facilitate indirect selection for traits that are inconvenient to score directly (e.g., root traits, resistance to root knot nematodes), pyramiding genes from different sources (e.g., bringing together ascochyta blight resistance genes from different donors) and combining resistance to multiple stresses (e.g., resistance to fusarium wilt and ascochyta blight). Recent years have seen tremendous progress in the development of large scale genomic resources such as DNA‐based molecular markers, comprehensive genetic maps, whole‐genome transcription profiling techniques to identify genomic regions and genes underlying plant stress responses [24]. These genomic tools will be useful to understand and access the diversity conserved in ex situ germplasm collections for crop improvement [25]. Thus, an understanding of drought stress and water use in relation to plant growth is of importance for sustainable agriculture. Conventional breeding for developing drought‐tolerant crop varieties is time‐consuming and labor intensive due to the quantitative nature of drought tolerance and difficulties in selection for drought tolerance [26]. Mapping of different genomes has been of interest to identify genomic locations of disease resistance genes and other yield‐related traits. Isolation and validation of genes underlying the QTL/genes for the traits of interest is an essential step to determine gene function. QTLs for drought tolerance have been identified for major important crop species such as rice, maize, wheat, barley, sorghum, pearl millet, soybean and chickpea. These QTLs were identified for many important traits which include yield and yield‐related traits under drought stress conditions, physiological responses including water‐soluble carbohydrates, carbon isotope ratio, osmotic potential, chlorophyll content, flag leaf rolling index, grain carbon isotope discrimination, relative water content, leaf osmotic potential, osmotic adjustment, chlorophyll and chlorophyll fluorescence parameters to drought stress, flowering time, root traits. Major QTLs contribute to the traits with higher phenotypic variation. These QTLs, after validation in desired germplasm, can be used for introgressing drought tolerance from the donor genotypes into less drought‐tolerant cultivars or breeding lines (recipient parents) avoiding transfer of undesirable or deleterious genes from the donors (linkage drag).
\nDrought can be defined as below normal precipitation that limits plant productivity. Drought can be classified as either terminal or intermittent. The availability of soil water decreases progressively during terminal drought, and it may lead to severe drought stress at the later period of crop growth and development. Finite periods of inadequate rain or irrigation occurring at one or more intervals during the growing seasons is the condition of intermittent drought [27]. According to Crosser [28] drought delays formation of sugars, lowers energy exchange and destroys the entire biochemical processes. Heat stress at sowing directly affects crop germination and crop establishment. Chickpea seed germination decreases at supra‐optimum temperatures [29]. Ellis et al. [30] indicated that the optimal temperature for germination is 10–15°C and noted that high germination temperatures are considered to be 22–35°C. The adaptive strategies to high temperature stress are classified into the following three groups [31].
\nDrought escape can be defined as the ability of a plant to complete its life cycle before a serious plant water deficit develops. Plants can escape heat stress with early phenological development (early flowering and early maturity), developmental plasticity (variation in duration of growth period depending on the extent of water‐deficit) and remobilization of pre‐anthesis assimilates to grain [32]. Though flower initiation is sensitive to rising temperature in chickpea [33], early flowering and maturity is a heat escape mechanism [34] particularly in the Mediterranean spring‐sown environments and south Indian germplasm. Flowering time is an important trait related to drought adaptation, where a short life cycle can lead to drought escape [35]. Crop duration is interactively determined by genotype and the environment and determines the ability of the crop to escape from climatic stresses including drought. Matching growth duration of plants to soil moisture availability is critical to realize high seed yield [36]. Drought escape occurs when phenological development is successfully matched with periods of soil moisture availability, where the growing season is shorter and terminal drought stress predominates. In field‐grown clones of Robusta coffee, leaf shedding in response to drought stress revealed that drought‐sensitive clone has greater extent of leaf shedding [37]. Time of flowering is a major trait of a crop adaptation to the terminal drought and high temperature environments. Short‐duration varieties to be developed to minimize yield loss from terminal drought, as early maturity helps the crop to avoid the period of stress [38]. However, yield is generally correlated with the length of crop duration under favorable growing conditions, and any decline in crop duration below the optimum would tax yield [39].
\nThe ability of plants to maintain relatively high tissue water potential despite a shortage of soil‐moisture; mechanisms for improving water uptake, storing in plant cell and reducing water loss confer drought avoidance is referred to as drought avoidance. different mechanisms for drought avoidance are being reported in different plant species which include maintenance of turgor through increased rooting depth, efficient root system and increased hydraulic conductance and reduction in water loss through reduced epidermal (stomatal and lenticular) conductance, reduced absorption of radiation by leaf rolling or folding and reduced evaporation surface (leaf area). In crops, high root biomass has been of interest because the more the roots, the more their efficiency in absorption of water. This gives a plant more advantage in times when less moisture is available in the soil. A positive correlation between root system sizes and resistance to water stress has been found in several crops and many breeding attempts have focused on obtaining cultivars with larger root systems [40]. Saxena [41] has developed a chickpea cultivar with a greater degree of drought tolerance from combining large root traits of ICC4958. Similarly, Krishnamurthy et al. [42] has reported that large root biomass in a minicore collection of ICRISAT chickpea germplasm had high correlation with drought tolerance. Root system size is a complex trait since it is determined by intrinsic genetic factors and modulated by numerous environmental cues such as nutrient and moisture availability in the soil [43]. He also noted that smaller leaf surface was also a desirable trait related to drought tolerance. Plants with small leaf surface (pinnules) have shown to experience reduced water loss [41]. Glaucousness or waxy bloom on leaves helps with maintenance of high tissue water potential and is therefore considered as a desirable trait for drought tolerance [44, 45]. Varying percentage of glaucousness in wheat led to increased water‐use efficiency, but it has minimal affect on total water use or harvest index. Determination of leaf temperature indicated glaucous leaves were 0.7°C cooler than non‐glaucous leaves and had a lower rate of leaf senescence [43]. It was also suggested that a 0.5°C reduction in leaf temperature for 6 h per day was sufficient to extend the grain‐filling period by more than three days. However, yield advantages are likely to be small as many varieties already show some degree of glaucousness.
\nThe ability of plant to withstand water‐deficit with low tissue water potential is referred as drought tolerance. A balance between maintenance of turgor and reduction in water loss helps plants to survive drought stress conditions [46]. Plants can combat drought stress by maintenance of turgor through osmotic adjustment (a process which induces solute accumulation in cell), increase in elasticity in cell and decrease in cell size and desiccation tolerance by protoplasmic resistance [47]. Drought resistance is increased by maintaining plant turgor pressure. Drought tolerance characters studied are primarily involved with protection of cellular structure from the effect of cellular dehydration. Dehydrins and late‐embryogenesis abundant (LEA) proteins are being accumulated in response to decrease in plant tissue water content [48]. These proteins are said to act as chaperones that protect protein and membrane structure [49]. Compatible solutes can also protect protein and membrane structure under dehydration [50]. The role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in stress signaling have been extensively studied in recent years and reviewed [51, 52]. Consequently, crop adaptation must reflect a balance among escape, avoidance and tolerance while maintaining adequate productivity. Use of these traits as indirect selection for grain yield has been reported to be easier in breeding programs than selection based on direct grain yields [53].
\nThe antioxidant defense system in the plant cell constitutes both enzymatic and non‐enzymatic components. Enzymatic components include superoxide dismutase, catalase, peroxidase, ascorbate peroxidase and glutathione reductase. Non‐enzymatic components contain cysteine, reduced glutathione and ascorbic acid [54]. High activities of antioxidant enzymes and high contents of non‐enzymatic constituents are important under drought stress conditions.
\nThe reactive oxygen species in plants are removed by a variety of antioxidant enzymes and/or lipid‐soluble and water soluble scavenging molecules [55] the antioxidant enzymes being the most efficient mechanisms against oxidative stress [56]. Along with catalase, various peroxidases and peroxiredoxins enzymes are involved in the ascorbate‐glutathione cycle, this pathway allows the scavenging of superoxide radicals and H2O2. Different enzymes that metabolize glutathione cycle are ascorbate peroxidase, dehydroascorbate reductase, monodehydroascorbate reductase and glutathione reductase [57]. Most of the glutathione cycle enzymes are found in the cytosol, stroma of chloroplasts, mitochondria and peroxisomes. Ascorbate peroxidase is a key antioxidant enzyme in plants whilst glutathione reductase has a central role in maintaining the reduced glutathione pool during stress [58]. Two glutathione reductase complementary deoxyribonucleic acids have been isolated; one type encoding the cytosolic isoforms and the other encoding glutathione reductase proteins dual‐targeted to both chloroplasts and mitochondria in different plants [59].
\nSuperoxide dismutase plays an important role, it catalyzes the dissociation of two molecules of superoxide into O2 and H2O2. Lima et al. [60] proposed that drought tolerance of a particular plant species can be associated with enhanced activity of antioxidant enzymes. In contrast, Pinheiro et al. [61] in his studies on four clones of Coffea canephora did not find a link between protection against oxidative stress and drought tolerance. Oxidative damage in the plant tissue is alleviated by both enzymatic and non‐enzymatic antioxidant systems. These include β‐carotenes, ascorbic acid, α‐tocopherol, reduced glutathione and enzymes including superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, ascorbate peroxidase, catalase, polyphenol oxidase and glutathione reductase [62, 63]. Carotenes are crucial part of the plant antioxidant defense system [64]; in spite of this, they are very susceptible to oxidative destruction. The β‐carotene present in the chloroplasts of all green plants is exclusively bound to the core complexes of photosystem I and photosystem II. Protection against damaging effects of reactive oxygen species at this site is essential for chloroplast functioning. β‐carotene functions as an accessory pigment, it also acts as an effective antioxidant and plays a unique role in protecting photochemical processes and sustaining them. β‐carotene also has a protective role in photosynthetic tissue by direct quenching of triplet chlorophyll, which prevents the generation of singlet oxygen and protects from oxidative damage.
\nPlant growth regulators phytohormones are substances that influence physiological processes of plants at very low concentrations, either they are applied externally or produced in the plant [65]. Both these terms have been used interchangeably, particularly when referring to auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene and abscisic acid [66]. Under drought, endogenous contents of auxins, gibberellins and cytokinin usually decrease, while those of abscisic acid and ethylene increase [67]. Nevertheless, phytohormones play vital roles in drought tolerance of plants. Auxins break root apical dominance helping in new root formation induced by cytokinins. Drought stress limits the production of endogenous auxins, usually when contents of abscisic acid and ethylene increase. Application of indole‐3‐yl‐acetic acid exogenously enhanced net photosynthesis and stomatal conductance in cotton (Kumar et al., 2001). Indole‐3‐butyric acid is a naturally occurring auxin. Enhanced indole‐3‐butyric acid synthesis was observed in maize in response to drought stress and abscisic acid application. Enzyme indole‐3‐butyric acid synthetase was revealed from Arabidopsis under drought stress [68]. Experiments with indole‐3‐yl‐acetic acid and ethylene glycol tetra‐acetic acid suggested that calcium and auxin participate in signaling mechanisms of drought‐induced proline accumulation [69]. An adaptive strategy that occurs during progressive drought stress is drought rhizogenesis. Families such as Brassicaceae form short and tuberized, hairless roots in response to drought stress. These roots are capable of withstanding a prolonged drought period and give rise to a new functional root system upon rehydration. The drought rhizogenesis was highly increased in the gibberrelic acid biosynthetic mutant ga5, suggested that gibberrelic acids also participate in this process [70]. Abscisic acid is a growth inhibitor and produced under a wide variety of environmental stresses. All plants respond to drought and many other stresses by accumulating abscisic acid. Abscisic acid is ubiquitous in all flowering plants and is generally recognized as a stress hormone that regulates gene expression and acts as a signal for the initiation of processes involved in adaptation to drought and other environmental stresses. It has been proposed that abscisic acid and cytokinin have opposite roles in drought stress. Increase in abscisic acid and decline in cytokinins levels favor stomatal closure and limit water loss through transpiration under water stress [71]. Increased abscisic acid concentration leads to many changes in development, physiology and growth. Abscisic acid alters the relative growth rates of various plant parts such as increase in the root‐to‐shoot dry weight ratio, inhibition of leaf area development and production of prolific and deeper roots. It triggers the occurrence of a complex series of events leading to stomatal closure, which is an important water conservation response [72]. In a study on genetic variation for abscisic acid accumulation in rice, a consistent negative relationship between the ability of detached and partially dehydrated leaves to accumulate abscisic acid and leaf weight was established [73]. By its effect in closing stomata, abscisic acid can control the rate of transpiration and, to some extent, may be involved in the mechanism conferring drought tolerance in plants.
\nEthylene is considered as growth inhibitory hormone, it is involved in environmentally driven growth inhibition and stimulation [66]. The response of cereals to drought includes loss of leaf function and premature onset of senescence in older leaves. Ethylene regulates leaf performance throughout its lifespan as well as to determine the onset of natural senescence and mediate drought‐induced senescence [74]. Recent studies suggest that growth promotion is a common feature in ethylene responses. To escape this adversity, plants can optimize growth and tolerate abiotic stresses such as drought, and this response also involves ethylene synthesis [75].
\nPolyamines are known to have profound influence on plant growth and development. Being cationic, polyamines can associate with anionic components of the membrane, such as phospholipids, thereby protecting the lipid bilayer from deteriorating effects of stress. There has been a growing interest in the study of polyamine participation in the defense reaction of plants against environmental stresses and extensive research efforts have been made in the last two decades [76, 77]. Different genes for enzymes involved in polyamine metabolism has been analyzed for their expression under drought stress in several species. For example, the apple spermidine synthase gene when overexpressed encodes high levels of spermidine synthase, which substantially improves abiotic stress tolerance including drought [78].
\nWater limitation is one of the important factors limiting crop productivity worldwide. Nearly all terrestrial plants are exposed to drought stress at different times and to different intensities during their life cycle [79, 80]. As water is fundamental to almost all aspects of plant growth, plants are thought to have evolved numerous strategies for coping with limited water availability including changes in phenological developmental and physiological traits [81, 82].
\nEarly maturity is an important trait to avoid drought stress. Early flowering and early podding are two main components of drought escape in crops to avoid higher yield losses from drought. The differential genotypic response to drought stress, as a result of variation in physiological parameters has also been reported by Gunes et al. [83]. Early maturing chickpea varieties that escape terminal drought have been developed, but early maturity decreases yield and limits the crop’s ability for extended growing periods. Chickpea genotypes with high growth vigor showed early maturity. Selection for high growth vigor enhances chances for escaping terminal drought stress [84]. Initial growth vigor is suitable character for large‐scale evaluation of germplasm and breeding materials [85].
\nExtensive and deep root systems have been recognized as one of the most important traits for improving crop productivity under progressively receding soil moisture condition. Roots have a major role in dehydration avoidance as deep root system is able to obtain moisture from the deeper soil layers even when the upper soil layer becomes dry. The root traits such as biomass, length density and depths have been proposed as the main drought avoidance traits to contribute to seed yield under terminal drought environment [83]. Upadhyaya et al. [86] observed chickpea variety ICC13124 was equally good in respect of root traits (root length, root weight and root volume) as compared to ICC4958. Shoot fresh weights were significantly greater in well watered genotypes, but there was no significant effect of moisture stress on shoot dry matter content, revealing that weight of fresh shoot was higher due to high uptake of water under well watered conditions which evaporated after drying.
\nMoisture deficit affects plant establishment in the field, photosynthetic ability and osmotic behavior of cells. However, species and genotypes vary in their capacity to tolerate water stress [87]. Plants adopt various defense mechanisms in response to terminal drought which are accomplished by regulating internal plant water status. Plant water status that includes leaf water potential, osmotic potential and relative water content represents an easy measure of water deficit and provides best sensor for stress. Water stress reduces the osmotic potential of tissues in the plant which helps in maintenance of turgor potential for normal metabolic activities which has been recognized as basic mechanism of drought tolerance [88]. Gupta et al. [89] studied the physiological mechanism of drought tolerance in chickpea. It was observed that tolerant genotype had lower membrane injury, retain imbibitions seedling growth, osmotic adjustment and water use efficiency. A partial closer of stomata led to decreased conductance under water stress resulting into reduced transpiration and photosynthesis has been reported by (Sharma and Singh) [90]. Kushwaha et al. [91] indicated that genotypes which possessed high initial water content (IWC) along with high relative water content resulted in relatively less damage to the assimilatory system resulted in to the production of relatively higher biomass. The osmo‐regulatory activities helped the plant to cope up with moisture stress. Variation in RWC is achieved through differences in plant ability to absorb water from soil by developing a high water potential gradient from soil to plant, extending rooting depth or ability to control water loss through stomata [92]. A decrease in the relative water content (RWC) in response to drought stress has been recorded in wide variety of plants as reported by Nayyar and Gupta [93].
\nThe role of cell membrane remains to be more critical for adaptation under temperature and moisture stress conditions. Blum and Ebercon [94] described that under water stress conditions measurement of electrolyte leakage can be used to estimate water stress tolerance. Heat tolerant genotypes were able to posses higher membrane stability [95]. Higher membrane stability in drought tolerant genotypes under stress was due to increased activities of antioxidative enzymes which prevent damage of membrane by active oxygen species produced under stress. It had been reported that tolerant and intermediate genotypes were superior to susceptible ones in maintaining membrane stability and lower membrane injury under drought stress condition [96]. Stomatal closure occurs when plants are subjected to water stress in order to decrease energy dissipation. Transpiration plays a major role in leaf cooling and reduces canopy temperature relative to ambient temperature. Relatively lower canopy temperature in drought stressed crop plants indicates a relatively better capacity for taking up soil moisture and for maintaining a relatively better plant water status. The photosynthetic efficiency, transpiration and the values of relative stress injury declined in chickpea under drought conditions [97]. Photosynthetic pigments play an important role in light harvesting and dissipation of excess energy. It is known that the content of both chlorophyll a and b changes under drought stress [98]. Carotenoids participate in energy dissipation and can aid plant resistance against drought stress.
\nDrought offers great challenges to plant breeders around the globe. Drought is usually uncertain and unpredictable in the field and response of canopy toward drought is perceived using conventional techniques mainly. Conventional breeding procedures such as introduction, selection, hybridization and mutation are widely used by breeders. In spite of conventional methods novel methods such as in situ and in vitro techniques can also be used for selection, survival rate or to monitor gene expression changes of wild‐type plants genotypes overexpressing candidate genes for drought tolerance. Plant responses to drought at both the physiological and molecular levels are studied extensively. Major drawback of studies for drought treatments is uncontrolled soil water moisture and comparison of performance of different genotypes with different growth characteristics. In environment, drought often develops during a growing season and occurs for a short period, which tolerant plants can manage to survive and complete their growth cycle. Drought resistance mechanisms can be understood by methods which simulate field‐like conditions and quantify drought responses. Soil water deficit causing drought stress in crop plants has been tested in Arabidopsis using controlled soil moisture treatment. Controlled drought treatment, exposing plants to constant levels of soil moisture deficit, enables the evaluation between genotypes/ecotypes for plant responses to sublethal drought. Phenopsis is an alternative method for an automated controlled drought screen, which is used to compare the performance of different Arabidopsis ecotypes (accessions) and resulted in the identification of a resistant accession, An1 [99]. Controlled drought was also used to study the response of the Arabidopsis erecta mutant and ERECTA gene complementation [100], the overexpression of the Arabidopsis ESKIMO1 gene [101] and overexpression of the Pro biosynthesis gene in chickpea [102]. Comprehensive physiological and molecular studies have not yet been done on the response of plants to moderate drought (mDr). A transcriptome study in loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), treated for cycles of mild drought and recovery [103], revealed a photosynthetic acclimation pattern in response to mild drought in contrast to photosynthesis inhibition under severe drought. A comprehensive understanding of the response of plants to mDr with physiological and molecular tools provided a better understanding of the acclimation process. A semi‐automated, controlled mDr testing system was employed to compare with pDr treatment for physiological and molecular responses. This revealed differential gene reprogramming under the two drought treatments. The dissection of mDr treatment is presented using a time‐course study to provide a picture of physiological and molecular responses toward acclimation in plant growth.
\nIn recent years, much molecular information has been generated on the response of plants to environmental stresses. Plants respond to environmental stresses such as drought by the induction of both regulatory and functional sets of genes. Very little is known about the early events in the perception of stress signals. The common stress signaling pathways have been distinguished into abscisic acid (ABA) dependent and ABA independent. Most of the key genes in these pathways have been identified, such as transcription factors belonging to the class of DRE‐binding protein (DREB)/C‐repeat‐binding factor (CBF), ABA‐binding factor (ABF), MYC and MYB, including the identification of the stress‐responsive cis‐elements ABA‐responsive element (ABRE) and dehydration responsive element. Downstream of the early signal perception events, signaling genes and molecules acting as secondary messengers have been identified, revealing the role of Ca+ and reactive oxygen species (ROS) as secondary messengers. These regulatory mechanisms induce downstream functional genes, which are needed to establish new cellular homeostasis that leads to drought tolerance and/or resistance. Most of our knowledge of drought responses at the molecular level is based on plant responses to molecular laboratory experimental conditions of dehydration and/or osmotic treatments. Laboratory conditions are far from the soil water deficit met by plants under field conditions, but these studies has provided valuable knowledge. Signaling pathways of ABA dependent and ABA independent have become a paradigm in plant biotic/abiotic stress responses [104]. These pathways were discovered in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) as a model system, which paved the way for the discovery of parallel pathways in other crop plants such as in rice (Oryza sativa) as a model for monocot plants. A number of drought treatments have been used to test the response of plants for improved tolerance/resistance. One method is progressive drought (pDr), in which water is with held for a certain period of time until symptoms of wilting are observed. Usually, this method of drought treatment has been used to determine survival rate or to monitor gene expression changes of wild‐type plants or of plant genotypes overexpressing candidate genes for drought tolerance. These studies have helped to study plant responses to drought at both the physiological and molecular levels. However, one of the drawbacks of pDr treatment is that it cannot be used to compare the performance of different genotypes with different growth characteristics. In nature, drought often develops during a growing season and occurs for a short period, which tolerant plants can manage to survive and complete their growth cycle. Soil water deficit causing drought stress in crop plants has been tested in Arabidopsis using controlled soil moisture treatment. Controlled drought treatment, exposing plants to constant levels of soil moisture deficit, enables the evaluation between genotypes/ecotypes for plant responses to drought.
\nA large variety of stress responses in plants are influenced by ethylene metabolism and signaling. Ethylene signaling pathway is a major cross‐link between ethylene and other plant hormones metabolism (ABA and GA). Interactions between ethylene and other plant hormones also benefit immediate stress responses such as stomatal closure as well as long term adaptations under severe drought conditions. Candidate genes that are related to maintenance of growth under low water conditions are agronomically important since they provide an efficient resource for crop improvement. A transgenic potato (Solanum tuberosum) cultivar, containing a betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase (BADH) gene from spinach (Spinacia oleracea) under the control of a stress induced Arabidopsis promoter, has been reported to exhibit improved growth after induction of BADH by NaCl and drought stress.
\nProline an osmolyte in plants accumulates under different stress conditions. The amino acid proline in plant cells contribute to osmotic adjustments under adverse conditions. The enzyme Δ1‐pyrroline‐5‐carboxylate synthetase (P5CS1) is a major component in proline biosynthesis. A study with P5CS1‐deficient Arabidopsis mutants indicated that proline synthesis is required in order to maintain growth at low water availability [105]. Proline dehydrogenase 1 (PDH1)‐deficient Arabidopsis mutants with blocked proline catabolism exhibited decreased root growth, fresh weight and dry weight. Additional components of the proline biosynthetic pathway are associated with stress responses. In transgenic soybean (Glycine max) with a Δ1‐pyrroline‐5‐carboxylate reductase (P5CR) gene and the antisense construct from Arabidopsis, it was found that proline might enhance survival during drought stress [106]. The P5CR gene and antisense construct were manipulated using an inducible heat shock promoter (IHSP). Two transgenic potato lines, which expressed a trehalose‐6‐phosphate synthase (TPS1) gene from yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) were found to be more effective in keeping water and acceptable levels of photosynthesis during drought compared to WT‐plants [107]. The expression of aldehyde dehydrogenases (ALDHs) is upregulated under stress situations such as dehydration, salinity and oxidative stress. ALDHs are able to convert highly reactive aldehydes and hence extenuate oxidative stress [108]. Two drought tolerant Andean native potato clones (Solanum tuberosum subsp. andigena) under transcriptome analysis showed that aldehyde dehydrogenase family 7 (ALDH7) was induced under drought stress conditions [109]. Functional analyses of an ALDH7 gene member (GmPP55) from soybean (Glycine max) confirmed these studies. Transgenic Arabidopsis and tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) plants exhibited improved tolerance to H2O2 as well as salt and drought conditions during different developmental stages [110].
\nConventional breeding for developing drought‐tolerant crop varieties is time‐consuming and labor intensive due to the quantitative nature of drought tolerance and difficulties in selection for drought tolerance. The identification of genomic regions associated with drought tolerance would enable breeders to develop improved cultivars with increased drought tolerance using marker‐assisted selection (MAS). Plant breeding has benefited from DNA marker technologies that were used to establish saturated genetic maps in major crop species including cereals and legumes. Markers in a high density genetic map will allow the precise tagging of mono‐ and oligogenic traits, with the dual goal of marker‐assisted selection for traits and positional cloning of the underlying genes. Use of genomic tools like molecular markers and other tools in integrated approach for crop improvement has also been referred as “genomics‐ assisted breeding”. Mapping of genomes has been of interest to identify genomic locations of disease resistance genes and other yield‐related traits. However, due to very low polymorphisms in few cultivated crops gene pool, progress in genomic research has been relatively slow compared with other highly polymorphic species. Important considerations for undertaking molecular breeding are molecular markers, genetic maps and markers associated with traits. During the early days of genomic studies, isozyme markers were used for map development in chickpea. Expression of these markers was influenced by the environment and their number was small. Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers were also used for genetic mapping studies. After development of simple sequence repeat (SSR) or microsatellite markers, the use of molecular markers increased extensively. SSR markers were considered as the marker of choice in plant breeding due to their multi‐allelic and co‐dominant nature. Several hundred SSR markers have been developed from genomic DNA libraries. In several cases, the mapping populations used for developing the maps were also phenotyped for the segregating traits. Analysis of phenotyping data together with genotyping data in some cases identified molecular markers associated with the genes/quantitative trait loci (QTLs), controlling resistance to key diseases (ascochyta blight, fusarium wilt, botrytis grey mold, rust), morphological traits (single pod vs. double pod, flowering time and flower color), seed yield and yield components, etc. Marker‐assisted breeding reduces the effect of environmental conditions during the selection process, which is a major hindrance in conventional breeding under drought.
\nCompared to the conventional breeding approaches for improved productivity under water limited environments, genomics offers great opportunities for dissecting quantitative traits into their single genetic determinants. The release of varieties through conventional breeding approaches is coupled with identification of several large‐effect QTLs for grain yield under drought in different crops. Independent and epistatic QTLs for grain yield and other traits of agronomic importance were studied in different crops. Only a few studies reported major QTLs affecting yield advantage under both drought stress and non‐stress environments. Drought is normally associated with increased incidence of diseases such as blast, brown spot, and bacterial blight. Few studies have been undertaken to understand the genetics of these abiotic and biotic stresses simultaneously in a mapping population. Identification of QTLs is paving the way to MAS and assisted pyramiding of the beneficial QTL alleles. Markers can be used in marker‐assisted selection (MAS) for improving the desired trait. Isolation and validation of genes underlying the QTL/genes for the traits of interest is an essential step to determine gene function. QTLs for drought tolerance have been identified for several major and important crop species such as rice, maize, wheat, barley, sorghum, pearl millet, soybean and chickpea. These QTLs were identified for a variety of important traits including: (1) yield and yield‐contributing traits under water‐deficit conditions (in the case of wheat, maize, rice, soybean and pearl millet), (2) physiological responses including water‐soluble carbohydrates, carbon isotope ratio, osmotic potential, chlorophyll content, flag leaf rolling index, grain carbon isotope discrimination, relative water content, leaf osmotic potential, osmotic adjustment, chlorophyll and chlorophyll fluorescence parameters to drought stress (in the case of wheat, maize and rice), (3) flowering time including anthesis to silking interval (in maize), (4) root traits (rice, maize, wheat, soybean and chickpea), (5) stay green (sorghum) and (6) nitrogen fixation (soybean). When the QTLs identified for drought tolerance traits contribute higher phenotypic variation, they are considered major QTLs. These QTLs, after validation in desired germplasm, can be used for introgressing drought tolerance from the donor genotypes (generally used for identification of the QTL for the trait) into elite, less drought‐tolerant cultivars or breeding lines (recipient parents) without transfer of undesirable or deleterious genes from the donors (linkage drag). After identifying important QTLs, the next step involves the identification of candidate sequences, validate their role and proceed with the direct manipulation using the gene itself as marker for MAS. In chickpea the RILs of ICC 4958 × Annigeri have been extensively studied for root traits. An SSR marker (TAA 170) was identified for a major QTL that accounted for 33% of the variation for root weight and 33% of the variation for root length [111]. Recent preliminary screening of the chickpea mini‐core germplasm collection for root proliferation and depth in cylinder culture indicated that contrasting parents are available with wider variation for these traits than that present between ICC 4958 and Annigeri [112]. Nayak et al. [113] undertook identification of QTLs and genes for drought tolerance using linkage mapping and association mapping approaches in Chickpea (Cicer arietinum).SSR markers were tested for polymorphism on parental genotypes of the inter‐specific (ICC 4958 × PI 489777) and intra‐specific mapping population (ICC 4958 × ICC 1882). As a result, a comprehensive inter‐specific genetic map of 621 marker loci, spanning a genetic distance of 984.11cM was prepared. Varshney et al. [114] identified genomics and physiological approaches for root trait breeding to improve drought tolerance in Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.). Molecular markers and candidate genes associated with root traits are being targeted to introgress the QTLs for root traits from drought‐tolerant genotypes to drought‐sensitive genotypes following marker‐assisted breeding strategies. Varshney et al. (2014) reported a “QTL‐hotspot” (ICCM0249, NCPGR127, TAA170, NCPGR21, TR11, GA24 and STMS11) on CaLG04 in the chickpea genome, identified in analysis on both RIL populations, (ICCRIL03 (ICC 4958 × ICC1882) and ICCRIL04 (ICC 283 × ICC 8261) that contain 45 M‐QTLs and 973 E‐QTLs for several drought tolerance traits contributing up to 58.20% phenotypic variation for targeted traits [22, 115].
\nIn the last 20 years, considerable progress has been made towards mapping QTLs for drought resistance traits in rice however, there have been few successful cases of their application in MAB. The success rate of using QTLs in molecular breeding reflects the lack of repeatability of QTL effects across genetic backgrounds and environments. In recent years, several researchers developed mapping populations between high‐yielding lines (IR64, Swarna and MTU1010) and drought‐tolerant local landraces and wild cultivars to map grain yield QTLs for reproductive stage‐specific drought stress.
\nTo the best our knowledge, none of the studies were conducted under natural drought conditions predominant in tough environments (TEs) and these QTLs were identified in moderate stress environment (MSE) and QTLs mapped under severe drought stress conditions. Successful marker‐assisted selection to improve yield mainly relied on the use of high yielding lines to identify large‐effect QTLs and evaluation of their consistent effects. Studies in MSE may limit the chances of detecting QTLs for drought resistance that are widely applicable to target populations of environments, as the timing and intensity of stress vary over years in rain fed rice ecosystems, which ultimately changes the plants’ responses and traits involved in drought‐resistance mechanisms. Most of the indica × indica derived rice lines used in QTL mapping of drought resistance were not adapted to TEs. The importance of field experiments in TPEs to identify QTLs for rice yield under natural drought stress was emphasized. Recombinant inbred lines (RILs) derived from locally adapted indica rice lines to detect QTLs for plant production traits under drought stress in TPEs, but no yield QTL was identified.
\nQuantitative genetics, with wide range of molecular markers available, provide identification of the genetic factors (quantitative trait loci‐QTLs) responsible for expression of traits. Recent development in molecular marker technology is expected to enable greater power in detection of QTL for agronomically important traits and utilization of QTL information for crop improvement. Thus marker‐assisted selection could significantly enhance in improving crop drought tolerance, if QTL with significant effects can be identified.
\nEnvironment change is a universal phenomenon that has started to have adverse impact on agriculture. The global temperature is predicted to rise by 2.5–4.3°C by the end of the century. The situation is further likely to get worse due to the occurrence of increase in the irregularity of rainfall, drought, flood and land degradation. With predicted climate change scenarios and continuous population explosion, there is a great need to develop high‐yielding varieties with improved drought tolerance. Breeding for drought tolerance is not simple. Under a particular environment, some physiological or metabolic processes can be modified through breeding, either as single traits or as a combination of traits. Optimal drought‐adaptation requires the combination of several morphological, physiological and phenological processes which depends on multiple genes and varies within each target environment. Conventional and marker‐based approaches coupled with each other have been used for drought tolerance. The conventional breeding approach is based on selection for yield and its components in a given drought environment. But this approach requires large investments in land, labor and capital to screen a large number of progenies plus the difficulty of sampling even a part of the expected range of variability in stress occurrence in the target environment hence this approach is not successful. Traits including modification of the root system, stomatal control, and leaf area, as well as matching plant phenology with the environment, could help in improving productivity under drought stress conditions. Recent research breakthroughs in biotechnology have revived interest in targeted drought tolerance breeding and use of new genomics tools to increase crop productivity.
\nMarker‐assisted breeding is an important technique for improvement of crop productivity against drought stress. As a complement to the recent rapid progress in genomics, a better understanding of physiological mechanisms of drought response contributes to the progress of crop productivity against drought tolerance. Mostly physiological traits associated with drought tolerance are quantitative in nature. An important research strategy that has been widely used over the past two decades to deal with such complexity is the use of molecular markers to identify quantitative trait loci (QTLs) in appropriate mapping populations. Once molecular markers (i.e. for trait QTLs) linked to specific drought tolerance component traits found, it is possible to move them into adapted cultivars or other agronomic backgrounds through marker‐assisted breeding. Moreover, in adapted genotypes identification of QTLs for the key traits responsible for improved productivity under drought could be helpful in accelerating the process of pyramiding of favorable alleles for better yield and production. Integration of knowledge from plant physiology and biotechnology into plant breeding can help developing best cultivars for drought tolerance. The availability of a large number of molecular markers, dense genetic maps, and markers associated with traits and transcriptomics resources have made it possible to integrate genomics technologies into chickpea improvement. Understanding plant response to water stress for key drought stress traits and screening of mapping populations for these traits for QTL identification are of prime importance for future drought stress breeding. Food security requires investments in this domain, in particular with new genotypes that can at least maintain an acceptable productivity under drought stress condition.
\nThermal management becomes increasingly important and challenging as the increase of power/heat density is taking place in many engineering applications, products, and industrial sectors. One example is the electronics industry. Advances in semiconductor manufacturing technology create more compact integrated circuits for electric devices. The latest Fin Field Effect Transistor (FinFET) technology contributes to the reduction of fabrication node from 22 nm in the year of 2012 to the current 10 nm, and even to 5 nm in 2021. Using a 10 nm FinFET manufacturing process, Apple A11 chip could contain 4.3 billion transistors on a die of ~87 mm2, which is 30% smaller than the last version A10. In addition, thermal design power of electric chips, the maximum amount of heat removal from the electric chips, shows an increasing trend. As heat power density continues to grow, heat removal, also referred to as thermal management, is important for maintaining the temperature to meet material and safety constraints. In turn, the development and maintenance of electric devices rely on how effectively the heat is dissipated from the devices. The choice of cooling technology is a complicated systems work in high-power electronic, not only for fitting in the heat removal requirement from low power density to high power density, but also for considering the cooling efficiency, power load, overall power consumption of the cooling subsystem, and the cost of cooling infrastructure. This chapter focuses on fundamental heat removal capacities of cooling technology.
\nDifferent cooling technologies vary in their heat removal capacities, which are summarized in Figure 1. For low heat flux removal requirement, air-cooling, which removes the heat from the hot surface by airflow, is widely applied. The cooling performance can be enhanced by expanding the surface area or increasing the flow of air over the surface. The first approach is known as air free convection, while the second approach is air-forced convection. In comparison with free convection, the fluid motion in forced convection is generated by external source, for enhancing the local convection. In computers, cooling fins are added to heat sink for expanding the surface area, while a fan is attached to the cooling fins to enhance air convection. Heat flux by forced air convection can reach ~35 W/cm2 while only ~15 W/cm2 by free air convection (see Figure 1). Due to the increase of power density, many micro-electronic and power electronic devices now are in the range of heat flux beyond the air cooling capacity. Effective liquid cooling solutions are needed for thermal management of the high-heat-flux devices.
\nHeat removal capacity by applying different cooling technologies that is characterized by two parameters: Highest heat flux and heat transfer coefficient [1, 2, 3, 4].
Spray cooling is one effective solution, which has the huge potential in handling the high heat fluxes in high-power electronics such as supercomputer, lasers, and radars. Spray cooling has several advantages over other cooling techniques. In comparison with air-cooling and jet impingement cooling, spray cooling owns a high heat flux removal capacity. Spray cooling can transfer heat in excess of 100 W/cm2 using fluorinerts and more than 1000 W/cm2 using water (see Figure 1). Due to high heat flux removal capacity, spray cooling allows precise temperature control with low fluid inventory [5]. Besides, spray cooling has uniform cooling temperature distribution over the entire spray-covered surface. This is because the entire spray-cooled area is receiving fresh liquid coolant droplets. For jet impingement cooling, the coolant flows radially outwards from the impingement spot. The radial flow has non-uniform temperature, and the largest subcooling and the optimal local cooling occur at the stagnation point. The non-uniform cooling results in non-uniform surface temperature in the cooling area, which could be significant for high heat fluxes.
\nHowever, there are still some barriers for applying spray cooling for engineering applications. Significant pumping power is needed to achieve large pressure drop through spray nozzle to produce fine spray, but the low cost is first priority in commercial application of cooling technologies. Another fact that the design and fabrication of spray nozzle do not follow the identical industry standard makes the unpredictable spray characterization. Hence, it is hard to get a universal correlation of spray characterization to cooling performance, which also limits the implementation of spray cooling. Additionally, in comparison with the jet nozzle, nozzle orifice through the spray coolant is even smaller, increasing the possibility of orifice clogging and the occurrence of the dry-out area on the heated surface [6]. In spite of these barriers, spray cooling is still a popular cooling technology and many successful applications were reported for supercomputer (CRAY X-1) [7], laser diode laser arrays [8], microwave source components [9] and NASA’s reduced gravity aircraft [10].
\nIn spray cooling, liquid coolant is emitted from a pressurized nozzle and breaks up into numerous droplets. The small droplets land on the cooled surface, where the flow of droplets becomes a thin liquid film radially flowing on the surface (see Figure 2a). The cooling is achieved through the convection heat transfer from the cooled surface to the film flow being impacted by continuous flow of droplets, nucleate boiling on the cooled surface, liquid conduction inside the film flow, and interfacial evaporation from the liquid film to the surrounding air. Spray cooling provides uniform cooling that can handle high heat fluxes in both single phase and two phases. The cooling performance as a function of spray characterization, flow conditions, surface conditions, and nozzle positioning was widely discussed in past decades. These studies focused on the relationship between the spray cooling performance and the entire spray flow. However, in these spray-level studies, the understanding of cooling mechanism of spray droplets is missing. At the droplet level, the impact conditions are classified into a few categories (see Figure 2b): (a) impact of single droplet on dry surface appearing in nucleate boiling, transition boiling and film boiling, (b) impact of single droplet on stationary film where the radial velocity of the film is close to zero, such as stagnation zone, (c) impact of single droplet on radially flowing film and (d) impact of droplet burst on flowing film (droplet groups that frequently impact the surface). Although spray impingement cannot be simply considered as the superposition of single droplets due to the interaction of the neighboring droplets [11], the study of local cooling performance at droplet level is still significant to the understanding of spray cooling mechanism, especially for the condition of the local film dominated by the droplet flow. Therefore, the research outcomes of spray cooling are reviewed from two aspects: the spray level and the droplet level.
\nSpray cooling mechanism at the entire spray level (a) and droplet level (b).
Spray cooling can handle high heat flux in the constrictive space of electronic package when comparing to air-cooling, pool cooling, and jet cooling. This is because numerous fresh droplets generated by spray nozzle randomly affect the entire surface, and directly transfer the heat from surface to the coolant. The difference of fluid dynamics between spray impact and other cooling methods is a key factor affecting the mechanism of local heat transfer and resulting in different cooling performance. The first step of studying spray-cooling mechanism is to observe what happened on the heated surface. Numerous fundamental studies have been conducted theoretically and experimentally, which focus on the key parameters affecting impact dynamics and the relevant heat transfer mechanism. There are four aspects that have been demonstrated to significantly affect cooling performance, including spray characterization, nozzle positioning, phase change and enhanced surface [5, 6, 9].
\nSince the earliest study on spray cooling by Toda [12, 13], many researchers put effort on spray characterization, the relevant cooling performance and the critical heat flux (CHF) in spray cooling. Spray characterization mainly involves droplet size, impact velocity, droplet flux, and volumetric flux. However, in experimental studies it is difficult to change only one parameter and isolate the remaining parameters. For example, on the cooled surface the increase of flow rate of coolant spray is accompanied with the increase of impact velocity and volumetric flux with a constant impact area. That is reason that the conclusions made on the dominant impact parameter are not consistent in previous studies of spray cooling.
\nChen et al. [14] studied effects of three spray parameters of droplet size, droplet velocity and droplet flux on CHF. By adjusting spray nozzles, operating pressures, and spray distance between the nozzle exit and the heater surface, the effect of one spray parameter was studied while the others were kept constant. It was found that the mean droplet velocity is the most dominant parameter affecting CHF followed by the mean droplet flux, while the Sauter mean droplet diameter (\n
In single-phase spray cooling, spray droplets land on a radially flowing film. Some researchers studied the property of the flowing film and its relation to spray cooling performance. Pautsch and Shedd [17] used a non-intrusive optical technique to measure the local film thickness generated by sprays. The film thickness was found to remain constant when the heat transfer mechanism was dominated by single-phase convection. Beyond the spray impact area, the dry-out phenomena appear even when the CHF is not reached. In the nucleate boiling regime, Horacek et al. [18, 19] measured the dry-out area, which was characterized by the three-phase contact line length, and measured using a Total Internal Reflectance technique. The wall heat flux was found to correlate very well with the contact line length. This contact line heat transfer mechanism was summarized by Kim [20] as one of main heat transfer mechanisms in the two-phase regime.
\nCooling performance can be influenced by changing the spray positioning. There are two significant positioning parameters in the study of spray cooling (see Figure 3): nozzle-surface distance \n
(a) The 2D geometry is on the central plane (z-x plane) of the cone perpendicular to the impacted surface (x-y plane). The positioning of the nozzle is determined by inclination angle \n\nθ\n\n and spray height \n\nH\n\n. \n\n\nH\nn\n\n\n is the required spray height by normal impact to cover a given impact length \n\nL\n\n. (b) Impact area with constant impact length \n\nL\n\n formed by the spray inclined at different angles \n\nθ\n\n [21].
Some researchers focus on the effects of spray inclination on heat transfer performance. The impact area is circular for normal impact \n
There are three reasons addressed for contradictory conclusion of spray inclination. One is regarding the different nozzle positioning. As illustrated in Figure 3, two key parameters, spray distance and inclination angle, determine the nozzle positioning. However, at a certain inclination angle some studies [23] applied the constant spray distance, while others [4, 24, 25] adjusted the distance for the constant impact length. Another reason is related to the assumption of one dimensional steady-state conduction through the neck of cartridge heater for the surface heat flux calculation. Inclined spray impact causes considerable temperature difference on the cooled surface (see Figure 4). Hence, the radial conduction should be taken into account for inclined spray cooling. The last reason is from the surface temperature measurement location. Different radial locations provide different temperature measurement due to significant temperature difference in inclined spray cooling.
\nLocal surface temperature distribution for normal impact (a1) and inclination affect with \n\nθ\n=\n\n30° (b1). Local droplet velocity and the relevant local heat transfer coefficient are plotted along the centerline in (a2) and (b2) [27].
To obtain surface temperature distribution in inclined spray, some researchers investigated local heat transfer by replacing cartridge heater with sputter-coated thin film heater, which enables infrared thermography for temperature measurement [21, 27, 28]. All of these studies found significant temperature difference on cooled surface for inclined spray cooling (one example in Figure 4b1). Gao and Li [27] compared the droplet impact velocity and heat transfer coefficient distribution along centerline for normal impact and inclined spray impact (see Figure 4a2 and b2). The impact velocity was captured by a Stereo-Particle Imaging Velocimetry system. The trend line of heat transfer coefficient and droplet velocity shows clear correlation. For both cases, the locations of maximum droplet velocity coincide with the locations of the highest heat transfer coefficient. The further study by Gao and Li [21] indicated the global cooling shows slight diminishment for small inclination angle and enhancement for large inclination angles. On the central plane of the spray cone, the enhancement and diminishment of the local cooling performance are in general agreement with the increase and decrease of the spray flux. Thin film heater is not reliable for the surface temperature greater than boiling point, and experiments are tested in single-phase region. This is the limitation of thin film heater, and the robust heater for boiling test is needed for future study.
\nSimilar to pool boiling curve, the heat transfer curve of spray cooling can be separated to four regimes: single phase regime, nucleate boiling regime, transition boiling regime and film boiling regime [12, 13]. In the single phase regime, the heat flux linearly increases with increasing surface temperature difference between heater surface and coolant. Forced convection by radially moving film and evaporation on unsteady interface of thin film layer, play dominant roles in single-phase regime [29]. In the nucleate boiling regime, bubbles begin to repeatedly occur at nucleation sites on the heated surface, and the heat flux sharply increases as compared to single-phase cooling. Once the nucleation sites cover the heated surface completely, average heat flux will reach a peak value, which is defined as Critical Heat Flux (CHF).
\nOnce reaching the CHF and coming to the transition boiling (decreasing region in the boiling curve), the efficiency of heat transfer on the heating surface significantly decreases. Liquid coolant absorbs heat from the surface and forms the vapor blanket, so the surrounding liquids are hard to get to the heater surface. That is the reason for the sharp decrease of heat flux in this regime. In the film, boiling regime an interesting phenomenon is an increasing trend of heat flux. Massive heat is generated from the heated surface and radiation heat transfer becomes a key heat transfer mechanism between the heated surface and the liquid, so the heat flux tends to increase from the Leidenfrost point. Considering the safety limit and fast implementation of electronic cooling, researchers’ attention is paid to the theoretical correlation in single phase regime and nucleation boiling regime.
\nIn the single phase regime, Rybicki and Mudawar [4] proposed the correlation for dielectric PF-5050 spray, which is
\nHere \n
The correlation has an accuracy of ±7.3% for varied pressure drops. Heieh and Tien [29] studied R-134a spray cooling, and correlated the Nusselt number to the Weber number, size distribution and sensible heat effects in the single phase regime, which is
\nIn the nucleate boiling regime of spray cooling, the heat flux increases with the surface temperature faster than that in single-phase regime. Yang et al. [31] proposed two reasons. In nucleation, boiling bubble appears and grows on nucleation sites as the liquid coolant changes to the vapor. During the phase change, a larger amount of heat is removed from the heated surface, resulting in a temperature drop on nucleation sites. The other reason is attributed to the influence of secondary nucleation and evaporation on the heat flux enhancement [32]. When the numerous droplets impinge on heated surface, air is entrained into the liquid film, forming an air layer underneath the droplets. The air layer reaches the liquid-covered surface and finally breaks up into many tiny gas nuclei, which serve as secondary nucleation sites. Hence, the number of secondary nucleation sites is proportional to the droplet flux across the surface, which was proved in Yang’s experiments [33]. Using water as coolant liquid, Mudawar and Valentine [16] proposed the CHF correlation with respect to the local volumetric flux \n
In another study by Estes and Mudawar [34], a universal CHF correlation was constructed for spray cooling by using Fluorinerts FC-72 and FC-87 as well as the water.
\nEnhancing spray cooling by changing the surface structure is one effective and low-cost approach, which benefits from optimal liquid management and enhancement of local cooling efficiency. According to the structure size, enhanced surface is classified into four categories: mini-structured surface, micro-structured surface, nano-structured surface, and hybrid-structured surface. Most of early studies of spray cooling have been conducted on flat surfaces. A few of them focus on the effects of surface roughness on cooling enhancement. Pais et al. [35] fabricated three rough surfaces using polishing grit with the size range of 0.3–22 μm and examined the roughness influence on heat removal capabilities. Tests showed that as the surface roughness decreases the CHF increases. CHF is up to 1200 W/cm2 on the surface by polishing grit of 0.3 μm while only 1000 W/cm2 on the surface by 22 μm grit. This is because the large surface roughness implies a thicker film thickness, leading to the later bubble breakup and departure, the impeding of vapor escape, the increased resistance to heat flux through evaporation on film surface, and the dampening of droplet impingement.
\nMini-textured surfaces feature structure size above 1 mm, and the structure types of cubic pin fins, pyramids, and straight fins and so on (see Figure 5a). Silk et al. [23] observed that addition of finned structure to cooled surface decreases the convective thermal resistance, and increases the convection heat transfer relative to the flat surface, since the total wetted surface area is larger on the enhanced surface. Although the cubic pin fins and straight fins have the same wetted surface area, cooling performance of straight fins surface exceeds that of the cubic pin fins surface. This is attributed to liquid management on the heated surface and cooling efficiency on the wetted surface area. Xie et al. [39] indicated that the fin arrangement is a dominant factor in enhancing heat transfer rather than the wetted surface area. The improper fin arrangement causes the thick and slow moving liquid film and thus worsens the local cooling performance. This point of view needs further validation by measuring the change of local surface temperature.
\n(a) Millimetric structured surface [23], (b) micro-structured surface [36], (c) Nano-structured surface [37], (d) hybrid micro/nano structured surface [38].
Micro/nano or hybrid structured surfaces have been attracted huge attention to spray cooling as micro fabrication technology advances new micro-/nano-engineered surface in the last decade (see Figure 5b, c, d). The experimental studies [36, 39, 40, 41] applied micro-textured surfaces with surface feature size from 25 to 480 μm, which is close to liquid film thickness but larger than average droplet size. Micro-textured surfaces showed slight effect on heat transfer enhancement in the flooded region, but greatly enhancing cooling performance in the thin film and partial dry-out regions as compared to the flat surface. The study by Zhang et al. [37] showed that nanostructured surface has better cooling performance since the contact angle is smallest on the nanostructured surface as compared to micro-structured surfaces and flat surfaces. Recently, Chen et al. [38] developed a hybrid micro/nano structured surface by growing the ZnO nanowire arrays on the top of etched micro-structured silicon wafer. Test results showed that cooling performance of hybrid surface is better than the micro-structured surface in boiling regime because of its great wetting capacity and reduction in dry-out surface area. If comparing performance of nanostructured surface [37] and hybrid surface [38], there is no significant difference in heat flux enhancement relative to the smooth surface.
\nThe impact dynamics during spray cooling is complicated as it involves many liquid phenomena, such as spreading, receding, splashing, droplet collision, generation of stationary film and radially flowing film, and liquid flooding. All of these impact phenomena result from the interaction of droplet flow and film flow on the impact surface. Droplet flow includes three types: single droplet, droplet train (continuous droplets formed from jet breakup), and droplet burst (portion of droplet train selected at a certain frequency). Similarly, film flow conditions involve dry surface (no film), stationary film, radially flowing film, or their combination on the cooling surface (see Figure 6).
\nSingle water droplets with same velocity and diameter (\n\n\nU\n0\n\n\n= 1.85 m/s, \n\n\nD\n0\n\n\n=3.2 mm) impact three different surface conditions: (a) dry surface, (b) stationary water film, (c) flowing water film [42].
The droplet and film flow conditions are two flow parameters directly determining the heat transfer mechanism of spray cooling. Coolant droplets bring significant temperature difference between the expanding droplet flow and flowing film, which contributes to the reduction of thermal resistance inside the film layer and enhancement of heat transfer from the heated surface to the flowing flow. Fluid dynamics on the impact surface is responsible for the local convection heat transfer. The fast flowing film transfers more heat to downstream. Thin film thickness reduces the thermal boundary layer and encourages evaporation from the liquid interface. Therefore, the fluid dynamics study of droplet affecting film enables us to get insight into thermal results of droplet impact on the film-cooled hot surface, and further understand spray cooling performance. The relevant literature is reviewed based on the droplet flow condition: single droplet impact, droplet train impact, and droplet burst impact.
\nThe dry surface usually appears in two-phase spray cooling, which is shown by the change of contact line length. The researchers reported that the critical heat flux in spray cooling is achieved at the greatest contact line length. On dry surface, droplet impact dynamics on droplet-covered surface area is essential to local cooling performance. The process of a liquid droplet impact was divided by Rioboo et al. [43] into five successive phases: kinematic, spreading, relaxation, wetting, and equilibrium. Most research work has been focused on spreading and relaxation. In the spreading phase, contact line expands radially until reaching a maximum spreading, which is determined by droplet initial diameter, impact velocity, surface tension, viscosity, and wettability of the solid surface (Li et al. [44]). The maximum spread diameter is of critical importance in spreading phase. Clanet et al. [45] found that on a super-hydrophobic surface the maximal spread is significantly dependent on the viscosity of liquid droplets and scales as a function of Weber number~We1/4. van Dam and Clerc [46] found a significant difference of maximum spread between substrates with small and large contact angles, showing the significant influence of wettability in the later stage of impact. A lower air pressure was found to suppress the droplet spreading, leading to a smaller maximum spread [47].
\nSome analytical models were proposed to predict impact process, most of which were based on the energy conservation of the impact droplet. Chandra and Avedisian [48] developed an empirical correlation of viscous dissipation, including estimated spreading time, simplified dissipation function, and estimated volume of viscous dissipation. Gao and Li [49] proposed a theoretical model based on the actual dynamic shape of the droplet that could successfully predict the maximum spreading diameter and receding diameter during the recoiling process. Some of the researchers put efforts on the investigation of splash using varied dry surfaces. Surface roughness and textures were demonstrated to influence the splash limit [50, 51]. Droplet impact on a moving surface was found to show different splash and non-splash phenomena as compared to stationary surfaces [52]. Previous studies on splash threshold under different surface conditions are summarized in Table 1.
\nSurface conditions | \nThreshold parameter K | \nCritical value Kc | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|---|
Dry surface | \n(WeRe1/2)1/2 | \n57.7 | \nMundo et al. [50] | \n
We0.5Re−0.391 | \n0.8458 | \nVander Wal et al. [53] | \n|
Moving dry surface | \nWeRe1/2(1−2.5\n | \n5700 | \nBird et al. [52] | \n
Stationary liquid film | \n(WeRe1/2)0.8 | \n2100 | \nCossali et al. [54] | \n
We0.5Re0.17 | \n63 | \nVander Wal et al. [53] | \n|
Flowing liquid film | \nWeRe1/2(1 + \n | \n3378 | \nGao and Li [42] | \n
Summary of splash thresholds under different surface conditions [42].
On heated dry surface, Bernardin et al. [55] mapped the boiling curve of droplet impact cooling as the same as the spray cooling. In the regime of single-phase liquid cooling, Pasandideh-Fard et al. [56] observed that increasing impact velocity would enhance heat flux around the impact area. This is because the raising droplet velocity promotes droplet spreading, thus increasing the wetted area on the heated substrate. However, increasing droplet impact velocity slightly enhances heat flux at the impact point. Batzdorf et al. [57] proposed a theoretical mode to predict the heat transfer rate during the droplet impact. The theoretical prediction is more accurate when the liquid Prandtal number \n
On superheated surface with temperature over 200°C, Tran et al. [58] found three significant phenomena after droplet impact: contact boiling (droplet contacts with the surface), film boiling (vapor layer formed underneath the droplet), and spray film boiling (vapor layer and tiny droplets ejected upward) (see Figure 7a). Their experiments showed that the maximum spreading of a droplet impact follows a universal scaling with the Weber number (~We2/5), which is steeper than that on nonheated surface (~We1/4) [45]. The steeper curve on heated surface results from a driving mechanism, which is caused by the evaporating vapor radially expanding and pushing liquid outward. Staat et al. [59] indicated that the Leidenfrost transition temperature shows little dependence on the Weber number of affecting droplet, but the transition to splashing shows a strong dependence on the surface temperature. Adera et al. [60] reported the formation of non-wetting droplets on a super-hydrophilic micro-structured surface by slightly heating the surface above the saturation temperature of the droplet fluid, which is contributed by the increased thermal conductivity and decreased vapor permeability of the structured region. In experimental study of Jung et al. [61], the transient temperature distribution during droplet spread was detected using infrared thermography. In contact boiling, the droplet coolant contacts the surface and the maximum heat flux is quick to reach at early impact stage ~2 ms at impact point. In film boiling, non-wetting surface appears at the early impact, and the maximum heat flux is even lower than that in contact boiling due to the existence of vapor layer underneath the droplet. On heated surface, the study of simultaneous impact of multiple droplets is few, which needs further discussion of droplet collision influence on contact line and local evaporation. This benefits the understanding of two-phase spray cooling and optimization of cooling efficiency.
\n(a) Phase diagram of water droplet impact on a superheated surface [58], (b) plot of the maximum spreading diameter versus weber number [58].
Stationary film occurs in the center of normal spray impact, or locates where the spray nozzle axis insects with the impact surface in inclined spray (see Figure 2). On a stationary film, most researchers focused on spread process and splash formation mechanism after impact. Yarin and Weiss [62] developed a quasi-one-dimensional model, which predicts the existence of a kinematic discontinuity in the velocity and film thickness distribution. The discontinuity corresponds to the emergence of an uprising liquid sheet. Roisman and Tropea [63] generalized Yarin’s theory for the case of arbitrary velocity vectors in the liquid films both inside and outside the crown. Yarin and Weiss [62] experimentally found the crown radius from the impact center could be expressed as a function of the non-dimensional spreading time. Two empirical parameters existing in their model was given by the later study of Cossali et al. [64]. Droplet impact on a stationary film may or may not result in the splash. Finding the threshold condition for splash impact has been the focus of a few experimental studies. Cossali et al. [64] tested drops of various mixtures of water and glycerol affecting a thin liquid film and proposed an empirical parameter for predicting the occurrence of splash impact. For thick films, Cossali et al. [54] and Rioboo et al. [65] found a critical value of the threshold parameter, i.e. \n
The interaction between droplet flow and film flow is fundamental fluid dynamics in single-phase spray cooling or nucleate boiling (see Figure 2b). Impact dynamics was addressed in some researches. Alghoul et al. [66] presented an experimental investigation of a liquid droplet affecting onto horizontal moving liquid films. An asymmetrical crown shape was observed due to the effect of the moving film. Che et al. [67] demonstrated the on inclined falling flow asymmetrical crown shape is also formed after droplet impact. Gao and Li [42] further analyzed the early evolvement of droplet impact based on experiments and theoretical model (see Figure 6c). Once droplet lands on the film, the droplet flow quickly spreads and pushes the liquid outwards, causing the uprising liquid sheets. However, crown sheet is asymmetric owing to the collision mechanism on crown base. At the early stage of droplet impact, the direction of spreading flow is opposite to that of film flow at the upstream of impact point, while their direction is the same at the downstream. Uprising crown sheet may splash, which is dependent of the instability of the sheet rim. The stretching rate of crown sheet is a key factor influencing the rim instability. Analysis was conducted to derive equation of stretching rate, finding that the highest stretching rate appears at the location which droplet spreading flow is right opposite to the film flow, and the location is also the most probable location of splash. The value of splash threshold was provided to estimate whether splash occurs or not. The secondary droplets from splash fly away from the cooled surface, which do not contribute to the cooling performance. In other words, suppression of splash occurrence should benefit cooling enhancement.
\nThe late study of Gao and Li [68, 69] further observed the whole development of droplet impact on flowing film, and demonstrated its relation to the local cooling. The impact process is observed by high-speed video, showing two states: spreading state, replacing state. In spreading state, the droplet flow spreads and gradually slows down until reaching the maximum spread. After that, the droplet flow is pushed towards the downstream and eventually replaced by the film flow. The measured temperature also shows two stages: response stage when the temperature quickly decreases, and recovery stage in which the temperature recovers to the steady state. An enhancement factor was proposed to indicate convection enhancement relative to the steady-state cooling. The peak enhancement is used to consider enhancement influence of impact velocity, droplet size and film flow rate, which is proportional to the square root of the ratio of the droplet flow rate to the film flow rate~\n
One possible phenomenon in spray cooling is that fresh droplets continuously impact the surface at a certain frequency. The droplet flow is defined as the droplet train flow. The fluid dynamics behind this is the interaction of continuous droplet train flow with the flowing film formed on the heated surface. To investigate heat transfer of spray cooling from this aspect, a few studies have been conducted on the heat transfer of continuous droplet train impinging on hot surfaces. Qiu et al. [70] demonstrated surface temperature influence on the impact dynamics. Prior to the steady state, the droplet film spreads on the heated surface, and the surface temperature enhances the spreading rate of the flowing film when the surface temperature is over the boiling point. With the increase of the surface temperature the steady-state film-wetted area decreases, and eventually maintains constant after the temperature is greater than 190°C. Besides, the temperature also affects the splashing angle (see Figure 8). A stable splashing angle marked by red line is established at higher surface temperature greater than 192°C. The later study of Qiu et al. [71] showed that the inclination of the droplet train decreases the splashing angle and increases the averaged secondary droplet size.
\nThe impact dynamics of droplet train at different surface temperature and the droplet velocity is 15.2 m/s [70].
Soriano et al. [72] presented an experimental observation of multiple droplet train impingement. Impact spacing between multiple droplet streams would affect spreading and splashing in impact regimes, and the optimal cooling performance was achieved when the film velocity was not disturbed by adjacent droplet streams. Zhang et al. [73, 74] further demonstrated that both impact spacing and impingement pattern significantly affect local and global cooling performance on the hot surface. In comparison with the circular jet impingement cooling, the droplet train impingement achieves a better cooling performance for various impingement patterns. The same conclusion was made when comparing the cooling performance of droplet train and jet impingement on flowing film that cools the hot surface [75]. Through piezoelectric nozzles more groups of jet flow were generated and broke up to droplet train for cooling the hot surface [76], and the maximum heat flux reaches~ 170 W/cm2 with the nozzle diameter of 25 μm. However, unclear impact dynamics and its relation to local cooling need the further study.
\nOur recent studies try to understand spray cooling from droplet burst aspect [75, 77]. Different from droplet train cooling, it assumed that in spray cooling droplet groups impact the surface at a constant frequency rather than droplet train. Each droplet group is defined as a droplet burst, and each burst contains a constant number of droplets, which is called burst size. The frequency at which droplet bursts are generated is called the burst frequency. The generation mechanism of droplet burst was first proposed by Gao and Li [75, 77] and implemented in tests. A droplet generator combined with controlled interrupter is applied for droplet burst generation. A droplet train is ejected from droplet generator with droplet frequency \n
Droplet burst flows are generated by interrupting a droplet train flow (\n\n\nf\n0\n\n=\n\n1000 Hz) using an interrupter with an angle θ = 330° and varied frequencies \n\n\nf\nb\n\n\n: (a) 18.3 Hz, (b) 13.5 Hz, (c) 25.0 Hz, (d) 30.1 Hz, and (e) schematic of a droplet burst flow with \n\nn\n=\n\n6 [75, 77].
For the impact of one droplet burst (see Figure 10), at \n
(a) Impact dynamics of a drop burst flow affecting the film flow; (b1) surface temperature distribution at \n\nt\n=\n 0 s; (b2) & (b3) temperature change; (c1) heat transfer coefficient at \n\n\n\nt\n=\n\n\n0 s; (c2) & (c3) change of heat transfer coefficient [75, 77].
For the impact of one droplet burst flow, the temperature at impact point is measured. Temperature measurement shows that the burst flow causes the temperature to quickly decrease, and then the temperature fluctuates with the constant fluctuation frequency and amplitude in full-developed stage. The fluctuation frequency is equal to the burst impact frequency. The temperature at the impact point remains lower than the film cooling temperature without droplet burst impact. Heat transfer coefficient shows three development stages of the convection: affecting, restoring, and restored. During the restored stage, local cooling has returned to the film cooling. The restored stage may not exist if the time interval between bursts \n
The comparison of burst flows shows that the trough value of the fluctuating temperature, \n
Spray cooling is one effective cooling technology for handling high-power density and high heat flux removal requirement. In spray cooling, liquid coolant is emitted from a pressurized nozzle and breaks up into numerous secondary droplets affecting heated surface that is covered by radially flowing film. The cooling is achieved through the convection heat transfer from the heated surface to the film flow, nucleate boiling, liquid conduction inside the film flow, and interfacial evaporation from the liquid film. Based on research outcomes reported in the literature, spray cooling technology is reviewed from two aspects: the spray level and the droplet level. In the spray level, these studies emphasize the cooling performance to spray property. Some key properties are summarized in this chapter, involving spray characterization, nozzle positioning, phase change, and enhanced surface. In the droplet level, the studies focus on local heat transfer associated with droplet impact conditions, which are classified into a few categories: impact of single droplet on dry surface, stationary film, flowing film, impact of droplet train, and impact of droplet burst. Although spray impact cannot be simply considered as the superposition of single droplets, the studies in droplet level provide experimental and theoretical basis to explain what happened on heated surface and the relevant local heat transfer mechanism in spray cooling.
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",metaTitle:"Retraction and Correction Policy",metaDescription:"Retraction and Correction Policy",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/retraction-and-correction-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"IntechOpen’s Retraction and Correction Policy has been developed in accordance with the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) publication guidelines relating to scientific misconduct and research ethics:
\\n\\n1. RETRACTIONS
\\n\\nA Retraction of a Chapter will be issued by the Academic Editor, either following an Author’s request to do so or when there is a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct. Upon receipt of a report by a 3rd party, the Academic Editor will investigate any allegations of scientific misconduct, working in cooperation with the Author(s) and their institution(s).
\\n\\nA formal Retraction will be issued when there is clear and conclusive evidence of any of the following:
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\\n\\n1.2. REMOVALS AND CANCELLATIONS
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\\n\\nA Statement of Concern detailing alleged misconduct will be issued by the Academic Editor or publisher following a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct when:
\\n\\nIntechOpen believes that the number of occasions on which a Statement of Concern is issued will be very few in number. In all cases when such a decision has been taken by the Academic Editor the decision will be reviewed by another editor to whom the author can make representations.
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\\n\\nA Correction will be issued by the Academic Editor when:
\\n\\n3.1. ERRATUM
\\n\\nAn Erratum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter originates from the production process handled by the publisher.
\\n\\nA published Erratum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\\n\\n3.2. CORRIGENDUM
\\n\\nA Corrigendum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter is a result of an Author’s miscalculation or oversight. A published Corrigendum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\\n\\n4. FINAL REMARKS
\\n\\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\\n\\nIn the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen’s Retraction and Correction Policy has been developed in accordance with the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) publication guidelines relating to scientific misconduct and research ethics:
\n\n1. RETRACTIONS
\n\nA Retraction of a Chapter will be issued by the Academic Editor, either following an Author’s request to do so or when there is a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct. Upon receipt of a report by a 3rd party, the Academic Editor will investigate any allegations of scientific misconduct, working in cooperation with the Author(s) and their institution(s).
\n\nA formal Retraction will be issued when there is clear and conclusive evidence of any of the following:
\n\nPublishing of a Retraction Notice will adhere to the following guidelines:
\n\n1.2. REMOVALS AND CANCELLATIONS
\n\n2. STATEMENTS OF CONCERN
\n\nA Statement of Concern detailing alleged misconduct will be issued by the Academic Editor or publisher following a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct when:
\n\nIntechOpen believes that the number of occasions on which a Statement of Concern is issued will be very few in number. In all cases when such a decision has been taken by the Academic Editor the decision will be reviewed by another editor to whom the author can make representations.
\n\n3. CORRECTIONS
\n\nA Correction will be issued by the Academic Editor when:
\n\n3.1. ERRATUM
\n\nAn Erratum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter originates from the production process handled by the publisher.
\n\nA published Erratum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n3.2. CORRIGENDUM
\n\nA Corrigendum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter is a result of an Author’s miscalculation or oversight. A published Corrigendum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n4. FINAL REMARKS
\n\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\n\nIn the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
\n\nThe general principles set out above apply to Retractions and Corrections issued in all IntechOpen publications.
\n\nAny suggestions or comments on this Policy are welcome and may be sent to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2017-09-11
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. 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