Protection and precautions of the aesthetic procedures to be utilised.
\r\n\tThe present book intends to provide to the reader a comprehensive overview of the state of art in empathy studies, embracing the different theoretical points of view and illustrating the advanced research such as the application of new technologies to promote perspective-taking. The critical aspects and the future directions of the study on empathy will also be presented.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-612-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-611-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-613-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"4c1042dfe15aa9cea6019524c4cbff38",bookSignature:"Ph.D. Sara Ventura",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11443.jpg",keywords:"Theoretical Model, Skill, Perspective Taking, Training Programs, Practical Implications, Advanced Research, Future Directions, Virtual Reality, Augmented Reality, New Trends, Assistive Technology",numberOfDownloads:19,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 1st 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 8th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 7th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 26th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 25th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Passionate researcher in the application of new technologies to psychological treatments, neuro-rehabilitation, human behavior, and the evolution of the human-computer interaction. In 2017 Dr. Ventura won a competitive grant (Santiago Grisolia) at the University of Valencia at LABPSITEC group, where she was awarded her Ph.D. degree, supervised by Prof. Rosa Baños at the University of Valencia, and co-directed by Prof. Giuseppe Riva of the Catholic University of Milan.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"227763",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura",slug:"sara-ventura",fullName:"Sara Ventura",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/227763/images/system/227763.jpg",biography:"Sara Ventura gained a B.Sc in Psychology at the University of Padua (Italy) in 2013 and an M.Sc. in Ergonomic Psychology at the Catholic University of Milan (Italy) in 2015. In 2016, she carried out a postgraduate training at Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Mexico (Mexico) at the Ciberpsychology lab, working on a rehabilitation protocol for people with acquired brain injury through Virtual Reality. In 2020, Sara gained the Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology at University of Valencia (Spain) working with the LabPsitec group and focusing her research on the study of embodiment and empathy with the support of Virtual Reality. Actually, she is working both with Alma Mater Studiorum – University of Bologna (Italy), and the University of Valencia (Spain) on the fields of embodiment, stroke rehabilitation, empathy and patient care. Her research interests mainly focus on the adoption of new technologies, particularly Virtual/Augmented Reality and Artificial Intelligence for the psycho-social wellbeing with clinical and non-clinical populations, the study of human-computer interaction, and the user experience. 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It is well-known that the pandemic of COVID-19 has affected everyone and every sector we are involved in, either physically mentally or even economically. One of the most affected sectors is the sector of public health. The health care providers represent the front line defence and the most critical components of any healthcare system across the globe. The pandemic of COVID-19 has put an unprecedented challenge on the healthcare providers, including dermatologists [2, 3] to cope with such an outbreak. Many studies have reported that SARS-CoV-2 can stay on inanimate surfaces such as stainless steel, copper, plastics, and papers [4, 5, 6]. Our contact with lifeless surfaces might represent a source of infection if we contact a living tissue or mucus of suspected or confirmed cases of COVID-19; this was our motivation to write this chapter to summarise precautions from the literature on how dermatologists can apply some contact practices when dealing with expected infections. This chapter has been divided into five sections: the first section of the introduction; section two about consent and precaution; section three about aesthetic procedure protection, section four about general principles, and the last section about dermatoscopy procedures. The chapter references focused on the published expertise of the prestigious Indian Association of Dermatologists Venereologists and Leprologists (IADVL) and the World Health Organisation (WHO) in this field.
The dermatologist and patient should consider the precautions of the COVID-19 pandemic. A dermatologist’s ability to manage their patients care is the single most critical criterion for patient safety. Depending on the type of treatment being conducted, the risk-benefit ratio of undergoing a procedure should be considered. Procedures that need many appointments to the institution for follow-up are best postponed, so performing treatments requiring the least number of sessions is preferable [7]. Patients should be aware of the possibility of being exposed to the infection on their visit to the healthcare facility. It is better if the dermatologist explains the risk of invasiveness of the treatment and contracting the virus. The dermatologist may also list the side effects of the procedure that may need counselling pre-procedure. Patients on treatment after the pandemic may need to be monitored by video teleconsultation serial imaging, or followed up with a USB or portable patient-friendly dermatoscope, while some other patients starting treatments may still need to undergo onsite visits and procedures [7].
It was proven that even vaccinated individuals can get infected with COVID-19 [8]. If any staff member tests positive or expresses symptoms of infection, the personnel should undergo screen testing with Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). According to the Centers of Disease Control (CDC) in the United States of America, the individual with a positive result should remain in quarantine until testing negative after 5 to 7 days if the individual is fully vaccinated and after 14 days if not fully vaccinated to prevent the spread of the virus [9]. Rotational shifts of staff members, in which staff members are divided into two teams for 7 days on-duty and 7 days off-duty, might be a viable alternative [10].
It is essential to support medical staff mentally during the pandemic and on the other hand avoid frightening the patients in an excessive way so that they do not abstain from medically justified procedures, including skin cancer surgery. Some individuals might seek counselling sessions and therapy to stay in their best mind and energy through the tough times. This allows the staff to stay more balanced about the seriousness of the virus.
Disposable masks and sanitizers should be offered to the patients at the entrance of the healthcare institute, as all patients should enter with three layered or cotton masks. Gloves can be provided as extra protection to avoid direct skin contact with surfaces that may be exposed to the virus. A thermometer should be used at the entrance to measure the fever of individuals before entering the facility, as high fever can be a sign of infection. The waiting rooms should adhere to social distancing, with 2 meters (~6 feet) distance between individuals [11]. To avoid overcrowding, patients are allowed to have one or even no companion with them to the appointment. The waiting room should be made only available for individuals who come in time for their appointments. If a person is late, the appointment should be rescheduled for another time. The patient should be transferred promptly to the consultation room without waiting long in the waiting area, and social distance is essential even if a close inspection is required during counselling [10].
The staff must disinfect all devices and tools that come in contact with the patient. The operating rooms must be sterilised after each patient [12]. To avoid contact with numerous surfaces throughout the process, the patient should be required to wear a gown or overall. To disinfect the operating rooms, remove all machines, beds, stools, and chairs from the room and spray a sodium hypochlorite solution over all surfaces, including the floor, doors, windows, curtains, and cupboards [10]. The operating rooms should have ventilation and enhanced airflow. A powerful exhaust fan can be used in the operation area to optimise airflow, with stand-alone air conditioning devices in the rooms instead of the central air conditioning system [10].
PPEs are protective equipment meant to protect employees’ health by limiting their exposure to viruses. Goggles, face shields, masks, gloves, coveralls/gowns (with or without aprons), head cover, and shoe covers are all examples of PPE. It is advised for all the staff in the clinic to use PPE for extra protection from the virus. The PPE kit differs depending on the procedure and an individual’s risk of exposure.
Gown, mask, goggles/face shield, then gloves are the steps in the PPEs donning sequence, whereas gloves, goggles/face shield, gown, mask, then hand hygiene or gown and gloves, goggles/face shield, mask, and lastly, hand hygiene are the steps in the PPEs doffing sequence (Figures 1 and 2). Hand hygiene should be conducted before going on to the next stage if hands contact any contaminated PPE surface. They should be disposed of accordingly, depending on the procedure. The interior of the biohazard bag should be treated with a 1 per cent sodium hypochlorite solution before being knotted, and the exterior should be decontaminated with 1 per cent sodium hypochlorite [10].
Steps to put on PPEs, including gown.
Steps to take off PPEs, including gown.
The N-95 masks can be used multiple times if disinfected correctly. The authors in the reference below suggest that masks can be discarded after five usages. After use, place the mask in a permeable paper mask and set it aside for 4 days to dry. On day 6, it should be used again. Similarly, vaporised hydrogen peroxide and U.V. germicidal radiation (UVC 254 nm) can also be used to decontaminate the N-95 masks [10].
The aesthetic procedures are classified into three categories depending on the invasiveness of the procedure; these categories are invasive, minimally invasive, and non-invasive. According to the Indian Association of Dermatologists Venereologists and Leprologists (IADVL) each category requires different protection and precautions [7] summarised in Table 1. Invasive procedures include those that have the potential for aerosolisation and ablation because they expose the patient and health workers to the infection [7]. It is advised only to perform invasive procedures if no other treatment is possible. The non-invasive procedures require basic protection and caution. The dermatologist should wear a N-95 respirator mask and Latex/Nitrile gloves. The patient is required to wear a three-layered mask. In contrast, the precautions of minimally invasive procedures include advanced caution, moderate protection, and additional protective equipment. Reasonable protection includes goggles, a N-95 respirator mask, Latex/Nitrile gloves, and a gown. Extreme caution, advanced safety, and additional protective equipment are mandatory to perform invasive procedures. Advanced protection requires goggles, face-shield, N-95 respirator mask, surgical gloves, coverall/gowns, head cover, and shoe cover.
Invasive | Minimally Invasive | Non-Invasive |
---|---|---|
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Protection and precautions of the aesthetic procedures to be utilised.
The World Health Organisation (WHO) have issued a list of precautions and recommendations guideline to help prevent the spread of COVID-19. The facility must follow these guidelines for the safety of both the patients and staff. Personalised protective equipment (PPE) should be worn with an examination in negative pressure rooms must be followed if there is a high possibility of being exposed to infection [12].
All procedures should occur in a ventilated area, with the required protection used depending on the procedure.
Some patients may have an asymptomatic syndrome, so everyone should adhere to social distancing and universal precautions (WHO).
The instruments and tools in the facility should be sanitised with different chemicals depending on the type of material; this applies to dermatoscopes.
The tools should be sterilised, and the region that will be examined should be disinfected before starting the procedure.
Replace medical tools and products with disposables if available.
Tools and materials used in the examination or the procedure should be disposed of as per biomedical waste guidelines, and all surfaces must be cleaned with 60–90% isopropyl alcohol.
Disposable bins should be available in all rooms.
Patients should wear a mask at all times to prevent the spread of infection unless the treated area is around the mouth and nose.
Immunosuppressed patients and those on immunosuppressive medication should avert invasive procedures [7].
Procedures can be performed safely if an individual is on a regular hydroxychloroquine dose for rheumatoid arthritis patients or if an individual is on COVID-19 prophylaxis protocol [7].
Some treatment procedures might have a high risk of exposure to infection; hence, safer alternative treatments can be used instead of what is needed to be avoided. For example, platelet-rich plasma, platelet-rich factor, and growth factor concentrate are part of the blood and blood product treatments that can be avoided until after the pandemic, while mesotherapy using hair growth concentrates can substitute these procedures. If medical facials are not essential, they should be deferred and alternated with a prescription from the dermatologist. Carbon facials are avoided because they are plume generating procedures that need extreme caution [7]. Procedures such as laser toning and carbon peels can be postponed or performed with proper PPE/overalls and the use of disposable equipment [10]. The carbon peel, just like the carbon facials, highly generates plumes.
It is obligatory to use a complete COVID-19 PPE kit for dermabrasion procedures; otherwise, they should be postponed. All disposable and personal protection kits should be discarded accordingly. Fat grafting procedures must be deferred because the danger of transmission is serious while handling tissues [7]. Hyaluronic acid filler can be used instead. It is best to avoid hot probe electrosurgery procedures that produce plumes. These procedures are electrofulguration, electrodessication, and electrocautery. To limit plume generation, cold probe devices such as higher frequency—radiofrequency devices may be utilised for electro sectioning [7]. Avoiding various procedures such as cosmetic tattooing, tattoo removing and dermaplaning is recommended. Mucosal and oozy/fissured lesions should be deferred in dermatoscopy [12].
Some procedures may need particular recommendations for precaution against the virus.
Fillers, toxins, threads, and lipolysis injections are classified under injectables. For safety, the dermatologist should follow basic protection and caution. Use povidone-iodine to cover oral and nasal mucosa for procedures around the nose and perioral region since it has been found to be viricidal against SARSCoV2 for 3 h [13]. SteristripsTM or an appropriate skin dressing should be worn for 48 h after the surgery, followed by antibiotic cream and medical plaster within the first 2 days [7].
In micro-needling, use disposable derma rollers, discard the cartridge of motorised devices, and sterilise the tip of radiofrequency devices using glutaraldehyde after each patient [14].
Non-invasive and minimally invasive chemical peels for face, nail, and body need prescribed skin barrier repair creams after treatment. In the post-care recommendations, the patient should be urged to moisturise well since dry skin after a peel might lead to more frequent touching of the face and the theoretical risk of virus transmission through abraded skin.
Dermabrasions are better avoided, while microdermabrasion can be done with extreme care because dry skin scrubbing can cause aerosol generation.
Use moderate protection for procedures that require radiofrequency for extra precaution.
Nonsurgical body contouring procedures require basic protection and caution as they are not dangerous to perform.
The dermatologist should use 60–90% isopropyl alcohol swaps to clean the scoped lesion with alcohol-containing solutions utilised as interface medium in dermatoscopy. Instead of the handheld contact dermatoscope, noncontact polarised dermatoscope, video, or USB dermatoscopy can be used [12].
Most various procedures are safe. Electroporation, skin boosters, and low light laser therapy are non-invasive or minimally invasive procedures that require almost no pre-or- post-care. Because microblading can cause some bleeding, it is advised to use full PPE and apply sterile/Tegaderm™ [7] wound dressing overnight to ensure skin closure.
In laser and energy-based devices, the lens of the machines is cleaned with 70% ethyl alcohol [10]. Special PPE kits are worn while performing carbon laser peels, ablative lasers, fractional resurfacing, tattoo removal, IPL photorejuvenation, mono/bi/multipolar radio frequency (RF) firming, and High intensity Focused Ultrasound (HiFU) [10]. Disposable cup and brush for carbon solution or cooling gel application and disposable cling wrapping for the handpiece and machine and cooling equipment disinfection can be used when needed. Different treatments require particular caution and protection depending on the technology used; please see Table 2 below.
Technique | Technology |
---|---|
Carbon laser peel | Q-switched Nd:YAG laser |
Ablative lasers | Continuous wave CO2 laser |
Laser epilation | 810 nm, 1064 nm, 755 nm, or triple wavelength |
Fractional resurfacing | CO2, Er:YAG, Er:glass, thulium laser |
IPL photo rejuvenation, mono/bi/multipolar RF firming, HiFU | IPL, mono/bipolar RF, HiFU |
Tattoo removal | Nanosecond Q switched Nd:YAG, HiFU or picosecond laser |
The technology of laser and energy based procedures [10].
IPL: intense pulsed light; HiFU: high intensity focused ultrasound; RF: radio frequency; Q-switched laser: Quality-switched laser; Nd:YAG laser: (neodymium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet laser; Nd:Y3Al5O12); Er:YAG laser: (erbium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet laser); Er:glass laser: erbium glass lasers.
The dermatologist should follow basic protection and caution before performing procedures. There must be smoke evacuators and ventilation in all the rooms where the procedures are performed as some procedures may generate plume. The dermatoscope should be wiped with 70% isopropyl alcohol and covered with a disposable dermoscopic lens [12].
These precautions may decrease the possibility of virus transmission through the device. Between the dermatoscope lens and the lesion, a polyvinyl chloride (PVC) film is applied, and a transparent adhesive tape can be put to aid contact dermatoscopy once the immersion fluid has been deposited with a glass slide can be placed over the lesion in front of the dermatoscope [12]. The PCV, tape, and glass slide act as a barrier between the patient and the device. For microscopy, a disposable polyethylene tube can be used with a USB dermatoscope [12]. It is recommended that if the dermatologist is going to use mobile phone to see photos with a dermatoscope to clean it first. A digital dermatoscopy report is preferred because an audiovisual paperless communication is desirable specially when there is a distance between the patients and the healthcare providers. Some limitation of digital dermatoscopy may remain, such as low resolution images, ethical dilemma, patient’s privacy and medico-legal responsibility.
All dermoscopic examination materials should be disposed of according to biomedical waste rules. To decrease the nosocomial infection when practicing dermatoscopy, there are many precautions to be taken into consideration, especially when dealing with suspected COVID-19 cases such as:
Telephone and or web-based interview form to be filled before dermatoscopy to check the travel history and the presence of any symptoms [10]. This form should include instructions for patients on the clinic’s measures related to coronavirus.
To use commercially available and disposable dermoscopic lens cover.
To use transparent adhesive tapes or microscopic glass slides over the skin lesions when contact dermatoscopy is applied [15].
It is vital to have a set of precautions and recommendations for the dermatologists to help them carry on their clinical practice safely in COVID-19 era; it is rightly said that “prevention is better than cure”. The pandemic of COVID-19 has significantly affected many sectors all over the world. We did not expect such a catastrophic outbreak, and it might not be the last. The presence of clear and informative safety consensus guidelines for the dermatologists when dealing with suspected or confirmed cases of COVID-19 is essential to stop the viral transmission from the patients to health care providers and then to their family members.
The authors thank Mr. Josip Knapic, the author service manager at Intechopen Limited (U.K.), for following up during this chapter’s writing phase.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
In Africa, goats are deeply entrenched in almost every African culture [1], particularly within communities that are not able to keep large livestock. Goats offer advantages in animal production as they have a relatively high productivity in harsh environments, use inexpensive feed resources, have a short reproductive cycle and have higher prolificacy when compared to cows [1, 2].
The global goat population has seen a sharp increase over the past decade, and the worlwide population is currently estimated at more than 1 billion animals [3]. Approximately 96% of these animals are meat goats and are found in developing countries in Asia and Africa [4]. Following the global trend, the African goat population has also increased over the last five years to represent 41% of the world’s population, and currently approaches 423 million goats. Approximately 35 million of these goats are part of the Southern African population.
Goats have been an important part of humanity since their domestication 10 000 years ago and they have since spread across the globe [5, 6]. Their roles and relative importance are not static but vary according to the agro-ecological zone, production system and socio-cultural context in which they are found [7]. Goats are one of the most important livestock species in developing countries [8, 9]. Their importance hinges on the fact that they provide meat, hides, fibre, and can be milked for home consumption [1, 10, 11]. Goats are also used for socio-economic purposes, such as festive, religious and ceremonial occasions [7, 12, 13]. They play an important economic role, providing cash-flow and being an accessible source of credit in order to meet immediate social and financial obligations [9]. Goats are therefore often described as the “village bank” [9, 14].
Goats and sheep are the preferred livestock species in dry areas due to their ability to convert poor quality pasture into good quality protein for human consumption [15]. Additionally, because of their small size, goats allow the slaughter and consumption of the entire carcass by a family in few days, without the risk of deterioration due to the absence of conserving/cooling facilities in villages of developing countries [1, 16, 17].
Goats have the potential to decrease poverty in Africa due to the role they play in food security. Through the exchange of goats for agricultural labor, they could potentially increase food security for many people in rural areas where crop production is their main activity and source of food [18]. Goat meat can significantly contribute to food security in terms of preserved (dried) protein, as their meat is of high nutritional value, with superior lean characteristics [19]. Furthermore, food security can be increased through exploiting synergies between crops and livestock, using manure and conversion of crop by-products by livestock [20, 21, 22]. Livestock plays an important role in the production of staple foods, such as cereals. They provide fertiliser (via manure) and contribute to land preparation by means of draught power. Additionally, they can be sold to generate cash necessary to buy resources for farming practices [20]. Therefore, livestock can contribute to an increase in both the area of land cultivated, as well as the productivity and efficiency with which crops are produced, resulting in the sustainability of farming systems [20]. It is estimated that worldwide livestock manure supplies up to 23% of gross nitrogen input in mixed crop–livestock systems and approximately 12% for cropping in developing countries [23]. Despite these well-known arguments, the real contribution of goats at household level has not been quantified, as most valuation systems depend on monetary standards which only take the financial contribution into account, and frequently neglect the non-monetary contribution of goats. Thus the real contribution of goats to improved livelihoods due to increased food security, especially for poor-resource communities, is unknown [13].
This chapter aims to review smallholder goat production in Southern Africa. A literature review was performed to discuss the importance of the main indigenous goat breeds and the production systems in which they are kept, as well as the constraints faced by goat farmers.
This review aims to provide background information on the current smallholder management practices of goat keepers in Southern Africa. For this, relevant information from scientific works (literature reviews, original articles, scientific reports, proceedings, and systematic reviews) related to the topic of interest and related keywords (e.g., “smallholder”, “communal”, “goats”, “reproduction”, and “extensive”) were searched. The review provides a systematic and comprehensive analysis of the findings, strengths, and limitations of the compiled studies.
Goats play a vital role in the cultural, social and economic life of rural communities. Indigenous goat breeds contribute significantly to both food security and to improved livelihoods for various resource-poor communities, especially those in rural and hard-to-reach areas [11, 24, 25]. Althought the information on the real contribution of goats to human food security and livelihoods is scarce [26], their role and relative importance varies noticeably across regions and cultural groups. The role of goats is socioeconomic well-being of people in terms of nutrition, income, savings, insurance against emergencies, cultural and ceremonial purposes [7]. Goats are used to help family members, conduct ceremonies and rituals, make linkages with ancestors, pay bride wealth (
A survey by Mataveia
According to FAOSTAT [34], during the last decade there was an increase in goat production globally and currently there are more than 1 billion goats, with Africa contributing 36.2%, Asia 58.2%, Americas 3.5%, Europe 1.7% and Oceania 0.4%. In Southern Africa, goats are the second most important livestock species after cattle [13]. Approximately 96% of the world’s goat population is kept in developing countries, of which 64% are found in rural arid (38%) and semi-arid (26%) agro-ecological zones [13]. The top-ten countries producing goat meat are all from Asia and Africa; indicating the importance of goat meat to people in resource-poor areas [5]. In Africa, goat meat production has increased from 1.1 million tons in 2008 to 1.3 million tons in 2017 [4]; of which the majority is produced and consumed locally (within households) [5, 35].
The Southern African goat population currently consists of approximately 38 million goats [36]. There are various goat breeds in Southern Africa, of which the Mashona, Matabele, Tswana, Nguni, Landim [13] and Pafuri [29] are the dominant ones. The goat populations in Southern Africa vary between countries: these variations in goats population are summarised in Table 1. Tanzania has the highest number with 18.9 million goats while Botswana has the smallest goat population (1.4 m) in Southern Africa [34].
Country | Population (in millions) |
---|---|
Angola | 4.7 |
Botswana | 1.4 |
Malawi | 8.9 |
Mozambique | 3.7 |
Namibia | 1.9 |
South Africa | 5.2 |
Eswatini | 2.4 |
Tanzania | 18.9 |
Zambia | 2.9 |
Zimbabwe | 4.7 |
Number of goats in southern African countries from [34].
FAO [37] reported that there is approximately 576 goat breeds currently distributed across the world, with 17% of these in Africa. Although goats are found in all types of ecological zones, they are mainly concentrated in tropical, dry zones. As a result of natural selection, goats exhibit a wide range of physiological diversity which results in an ability to adapt to different environments [35]. The main breeds of indigenous goats breed in Southern Africa are shown in Table 2 (Figure 1).
Country | Breed | Sources |
---|---|---|
Angola | Angola dwarf | [38] |
Botswana | Tswana | [38, 39, 40, 41] |
Malawi | Malawi goats | [38, 42, 43] |
Mozambique | Pafuri, Tete, Cabo Delgado and Landim | [12, 38, 41, 42] |
Namibia | Capriviti, Ovambo | [44] |
South Africa | Boer*, Kalahari Red*, Savanna*, Nguni, Tswana, Venda, xhosa, Swazi Zulu and Tankwa | [32, 38, 45, 46, 47] |
Eswatini | Nguni and Swazi | [13, 38, 45] |
Tanzania | Maasai, Gogo, Small East African, Sukuma, Sonjo, Pare, Kunene and Kavango | [48, 49] |
Zambia | Tswanaand Matabele | [38] |
Zimbabwe | Matabele, Binga, Chipinge, Matopo, Tswane, Shurugwi and Tsholotsho | [13, 38, 41, 50] |
Main indigenous goat breeds found in southern Africa.
The Boer, Kalahari Red and Savanna are commercial meat-type goat breeds that were locally developed.
Some of the indigenous goat breeds found in southern Africa region [
Table 3 shows the production parameters of some indigenous goats in Southern Africa under communal conditions. Because of their small physical size and superior adaptation traits, indigenous breeds are still preferred in the harsh environments of Southern Africa [10]. According to Sebei et al. [57], the major constraints to goat production are the high mortality rates among kids and slow growth among those that survive. The high disease and parasite challenge and low levels of nutrition contribute to the commonly observed poor growth performance resulting in lower production and reproduction performance [58].
Breed | Birth | Kid mortality (%) | Body Weight (Kg) | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Months | |||||||||||
3 | 5–6 | 12 | Mature | ||||||||
Boer [10, 59, 60] | 4.0 | 3.5 | 40.6 | 30–33 | 22.3 | 40–50 | No | 92.0 | No | 120–140 | 70–90 |
Landim [10, 60, 61, 62] | 2.5 | 2.3 | 37.0 | 9.6 | 8.2 | 14.3 | 12.3 | 22.0 | 21.6 | 50.0 | 35.40 |
Swazi [63] | 2.0 | 1.8 | 30.0 | No | No | 8.0 | No | 14.5 | No | 35.2 | 30.0 |
Matabele [8, 13, 64] | 2.5 | 2.5 | 30.0 | No | No | 11.3 | 10.2 | 18.4 | 17.5 | 50–55 | 39.0 |
Malawi [13, 43] | 2.0 | 1.8 | 16.7 | 9.0 | 8.9 | 25.0 | No | No | No | 29.0 | 21.0 |
Pafuri [13, 56] | 3.0 | 2.4 | No | 8,0 | No | 10.1 | No | 16.7 | No | 60.0 | 43.0 |
Tswana [13, 65, 66, 67] | 4.3 | 3.6 | 33.3 | 13.4 | 11.4 | 17.8 | 16.2 | 25.39 | 24.14 | 44.0 | 40.0 |
Kalahari red [68, 69] | 2.7 | 2.0 | 19.7 | 9.8 | 8.3 | 15.6 | 12.8 | No | No | 115 | 75.0 |
Savanna [68, 70] | No | No | 17.5 | 30 | 25 | No | No | No | No | No | 60.0 |
Main production parameters of some indigenous goats in southern Africa under communal conditions.
The reproductive performance (age at first kidding and kidding interval) of some indigenous goats in Southern Africa are shown in Table 4. Gracinda et al. [62] suggested that supplementing goats with highly nutritive alternative feed sources has a positive effect on physiological functions. Supplementation with lupin grain [71] and soybean meal or corn grain [72], can improve reproduction efficiency by reducing the age at puberty and increasing ovulation rates. Energy deficiency decreases kid growth, and has an adverse effect on reproduction [73, 74]. There is a need to supplement the goats utilising the selected species with energy, protein, and phosphorus to meet the nutrient requirement for maintenance and reproduction [75].
Breed | Age at first kidding (months) | Kidding interval (d) |
---|---|---|
Boer [59, 76, 77] | 15–18.0 | 234–238 |
Landim [13, 78, 79] | 15–20.0 | 243–394 |
Pafuri [78] | 15.6 | — |
Matabele [13, 80, 81] | 14–23.0 | 240 |
Malawi [13, 82] | 15.6–16 | 330–365 |
Swazi [63] | 11.5 | 248 |
Tswana [65] | 10.0 | 365 |
Doe fertility of indigenous goats in southern Africa under communal conditions.
In Southern Africa, small ruminant production systems are classified as traditional (communal) or commercial (intensive) production systems. Most local and indigenous goats are kept in small-scale production systems in communal and resource-poor areas [75]. These systems depend on the exploitation of resources in dry-land areas, and a balance between the livestock’s requirements and the environment’al resources [83]. Kaufmann et al. [83], also classifies this system as a “social-ecologogical system”.
The traditional production system is characterised by informal labour (mostly from a family member), commonly with low livestock numbers per unit area and minimal use of technology and other inputs [84, 85]. The system is often hindered by land and water shortages, infections and predators [29]. The smallholders generally do not have the skills or resources available for animal recording and there is uncontrolled breeding, often resulting in inbreeding. The traditional production system is further divided into two main production systems, namely the mixed crop-livestock system and the pastoral production system [1, 86, 87].
The mixed crop-livestock system is used in most member states of the Southern African Development Communities Countries (SADC), including Mozambique [13]. This system is characterised by raising a small number of goats together with other livestock, such as cattle, pigs and poultry. Livestock and crop cultivation are maintained as complementary ventures; e.g. animals provide manure that will be available for fertilising the soil for crop production while livestock in return benefit by feeding on crop residues during the time of feed shortages [87, 88]. This system is characterised by low managerial and financial inputs [89]. It is an extensive farming system, with free-ranging, herding and tethering as the main management systems. This system is used by almost all pastoralists in Africa, where goats are frequently kept in mixed flocks with sheep. Children commonly herd goats, while the day-to-day management and care of young stock usually fall to women [1]. Under this system, animals graze communal land and animal herds owned by different families or individuals move from one area to another for grazing and water [87, 90, 91]. The goats graze over large areas of unwanted or marginal lands which are usually ill-suited for agricultural use [87, 92, 93].
In this system, low-skilled labour (often family members and children) are used as the primary goat handlers. They usually herd goats, sheep and cattle (as well as camels) together to graze wayside or waste vegetation. Management is limited to letting the goats out to graze during the day and confining them at night in enclosures, which are constructed using thorn bushes or wooden poles to protect them from theft and predation [92, 93]. There is no controlled breeding and no supplementary feeding or veterinary care for the animals, except for the extension services provided through government institutions [13]. Due to a shortage of water and forage, malnutrition is the primary limiting factor for profitable production of small ruminants, particularly during the dry season [13]. Goat productivity and offtake rates from these systems are typically low. Shortages in nutrients and exposure to diseases, parasites, as well as challenging climatic conditions with frequent and prolonged droughts are responsible for slow growth, which leads to low productivity [94, 95].
The semi-intensive or agropastoral production system is typically encountered in urban and peri-urban areas [88]. In this system, the goats usually graze two to four hours daily and then return to their paddocks. Usually, the farmers returning with the flock at night supply tree leaves and/or grass to feed them until the following morning, when they can graze again [93].
Tethering is a widespread practice of small ruminant management by smallholders in Southern African countries such as Mozambique [29], Zambia [13] and South Africa [59]. This system is used to protect animals from theft and to prevent them from destroying crops and also allows farmers to conduct other activities [13]. Goats are often tethered in the morning and herded in the afternoon when children have returned from school. In this management system, water is provided when the goats are moved to shelter at night and supplementation is limited (i.e. salt or mineral bricks), or absent. The only supplements, (which are provided infrequently) are household scraps, small quantities of grains or their by-products [62].
Both these traditional systems make use of a high degree of variability – in terms of composition and nutritional value of forage, quantity and quality of the water supply, accessibility of supplements, veterinary care and any other resources. The variability is almost seen as an advantage and is used to keep production costs low by strategically selecting available resources at specific time points.
Approximately 70% of Southern African goats are kept under traditional management systems where the farm structure comprises of about twenty goats [33]. The resultant goat productivity is relatively low due to minimal inputs, poor infrastructure, undefined marketing channels and multiple breeding objectives [29, 96]. Goats are popular and most preferred by smallholder due to their ability to deal with a range of climatic condition including disease challenges, inadequate feed resources and low management [3, 97]. Devendra [98], pointed out the important criteria in Southern African region for the selection of the suitable type of animal to be grown. In the criteria were included the environments (semi-arid and tropical), limited feed resources, differences in energy requirement and digestive efficiency among ruminants.
Goats are resistant to heat stress, droughts, food and water scarcity as well as diseases; they can maintain production and reproduction performance under harsh environmental conditions. This is in part due to their smaller body size which enables efficient utilisation of low-quality forage and their tolerance to water scarcity and ability to retain superior thermoregulation [38, 99, 100]. Climate change is expected to increase the frequency, intensity and length of droughts with a negative impact on rural areas, especially in sub-Saharan Africa where the human population is mostly dependent on rain for crop and livestock production [101]. However, indigenous goats have developed mechanisms, which allow them to adapt to high environmental temperatures and to achieve thermo-tolerance in extremely challenging environments [38, 102]. These mechanisms include physical, physiological and biochemical changes, such as a reduced feed intake and metabolic heat production [99, 103].
There is ample evidence that livestock and indigenous breeds that evolved in stressful tropical environments have a range of unique adaptive traits that enable them to survive and be productive and reproductive [102, 104, 105]. These goats feed primarily from browsing fodder, as potential sources of affordable feed for ruminants in developing countries. This is especially true during dry seasons, due to the ability of the available foliage to remain green and maintain its protein content, making these fodder potential sources of energy and protein to the goats [39].
Heat stress is an element that negatively affects livestock production and reproduction performance [99]. However, goats are considered less susceptible to heat stress than cattle because of their small metabolic size and their capacity to conserve water [106, 107]. Indigenous breeds of small ruminants in arid zones, such as the black Bedouin goats and Barmer goats herded in the deserts of Sinai (Middle East) and Rajasthan (India), can survive without drinking water for several days, often only drinking water once every four days [107, 108]. Desert goats have been reported to have a superior ability to withstand dehydration, and are considered among the most efficient ruminants in this regard [109]. The biological mechanisms that enables desert goats to cope with droughts depend on their ability to withstand dehydration and to minimise water losses via urine and faeces [99, 108].
Most indigenous goat breeds are physically small which help them to regulate water loss and heat gain in scorching environments [103, 110]. Their colour adaptation of the integumentary system also helps them to reflect heat [103]. Various morphological traits, such as body size and shape [108], coat and skin colour, hair type, and fat storage aid goats in their superior adaptation to harsh environments [103, 106, 111]. Typically, dark-coated animals have higher heat loads than light-coloured ones [112] and the light-coloured coat is deemed superior in tropical regions [113]. Additionally, skin pigmentation provides protection for deep tissues against solar short-wave radiation in tropical regions [114].
Reducing feed intake is another way to decrease heat stress in warm environments as the heat increment due to feeding, especially in ruminants, is a significant source of heat production [115, 116]. Goats are one of the ruminant browsers that suffer least during droughts [117]. This is due to their ability to survive on a diet constituted normally of browsing, which is least affected by the drought [102]. If the drought persists, the carrying capacity of the veld will inevitably fall but it will still be able to support goats longer than other herbivores, such as sheep and cattle, due to the goats’ capacity to reduce their metabolism and to maintain this low metabolic requirement [38, 102]. The ability of goats to survive prolonged periods of water deprivation also allows them to graze far from watering sites and to exploit available pastures optimally.
The adaptation of goats during periods of feed shortage can be via the following processes: low metabolic requirements, their capability to decrease their metabolism, increased digestive efficiency, an ability to utilise high-fibre feed and the deposition of nutrients in the form of fat as feed reserve [102].
Goats have low metabolic requirements during a period of shortage of natural pasture [38]. They can adjust to a low energy intake by reducing their energy metabolism [108, 118] and are thus able to maintain their body weight in times when food is scarce. A low metabolic requirement is an advantage if the quantity and quality of vegetation are inadequate. The improved temperate breeds are more productive than indigenous tropical breeds if ample high-quality feed is available; however, they lose weight and have increased mortalities when the environment becomes challenging and they must graze on poor quality veld. Under the same circumstances, adapted indigenous animals still grow and other physiological processes continue, such as reproduction and milk yield [102]. The adapted tropical animals recycle nutrients more efficiently than improved temperate breeds and their metabolism is reduced when the animal is losing weight [107].
The ability to reduce their metabolism permits goats to survive even after prolonged periods of severely restricted food availability [38, 102]. Their selective browsing behaviour [108] and an efficient digestive system allow the goats to maximise food intake and scarce nutrients [118]. Adejoro and Hassen [119] showed that the intake and digestibility of low quality foods could be increased by adding urea to that diet. Therefore, there is a favourable association between the improved reutilising rate of urea and better digestion of such food in desert goats.
Silanikove [108] reported the digestive efficiency of indigenous goats and their ability to utilise high-fibre feed. Goats have superior digestive efficiency compared to sheep and cattle when using high-fibre low-quality forages because of the longer mean retention time in the rumen [98, 120]. They can also eat more tannin-rich material and can thus utilise plant species that cannot be consumed by sheep [100, 108]. Goat breeds that are indigenous to semi-arid and arid areas can utilise low-quality high-fibre feed more efficiently than their exotic equivalents and also outperform indigenous sheep and cattle breeds [121]. For instance, indigenous desert black Bedouin goats outperformed Swiss Saanen goats in terms of digestive efficiency when fed on roughage diets in both controlled environments [121] and under natural conditions in a harsh environment [122].
Ruminants accumulate energy in adipose tissues when the quality and quantity of feed is sufficient, and mobilise it to meet energy requirements during periods of shortage [123, 124]. In a tropical environment, the rainy seasons alternate with dry seasons. The capacity to accumulate fat during the rainy seasons for its subsequent use for maintenance and biological functions (like pregnancy and lactation) in the dry season is an essential strategy for survival [124]. The typical vegetation of grass and shrub during the dry and rainy in Southern Africa are shown in Figures 2 and 3, respectively.
A typical vegetation of grass and shrub during the dry season. Source: the figure developed by the authors.
A typical vegetation of grass and shrub during the rainy season. Source: the figure developed by the authors.
In Southern Africa, the veld quantity and quality are highly variable and represent the main limitation of livestock production [125]. In addition, the grassland is affected by seasonality, where the dry seasons are generally long and characterised with low quantity and quality veld [74]. A herd of veld goats are shown in Figure 4.
A herd of veld goats during dry season. Source: the figure developed by the authors.
Most indigenous and locally developed goats in Southern Africa are kept in small-scale production system in communal areas. The goat keepers exploit the severe variability of these systems (in terms of nutrition, water availability, environmental factors and livestock resources) to make strategic choices to keep production costs as low as possible.
Due to their ability to adapt to harsh environmental conditions and different foods, goats can maintain sufficient levels of production and reproduction performance in adverse climates. Goat keepers need to strike a careful balance between human-animal-environment interactions to ensure that goats maintain their essential contribution to the livelihoods of limited-resource populations in developing countries.
The authors are gratefully to the Fundo Nacional de Investigação – Projecto No 164 - Inv/FNI and Fundo para a Investigação Aplicada e Multissectorial (FIAM)- Project No 5.2.4.-Inv/FIAM for their financial support.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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\\n\\nEntire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by, or on behalf of, the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (known as the "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of any fraudulent pre-contract misrepresentation or concealment.
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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. 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His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). 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