Parameter values for the low pressure range (DA) and high pressures (BJH).
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1016",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Hydrogeology - A Global Perspective",title:"Hydrogeology",subtitle:"A Global Perspective",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The field of groundwater hydrology and the discipline of hydrogeology have attracted a lot of attention during the past few decades. 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Many POPs are currently used as pesticides, pharmaceuticals, solvents, and industrial chemicals. Because of their persistence, POPs bioaccumulate and adversely affect human health and the environment. Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) - Monitoring, Impact and Treatment deals with several aspects of POP monitoring, occurrence, impact, and treatment technologies. The book is divided into two sections containing nine chapters that address such topics as the effect of POPs on wildlife, their role in hepatocarcinogenesis, treatment of POPs in wastewater, and much more.",isbn:"978-1-83968-207-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-206-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-208-7",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95151",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"persistent-organic-pollutants-pops-monitoring-impact-and-treatment",numberOfPages:172,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"f5b1589f0a990b6114fef2dadc735dd9",bookSignature:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",publishedDate:"April 13th 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10843.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:841,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 10th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 8th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 6th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 25th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 24th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a year",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Prof. Mohamed Nageeb Rashed enrolled among Top 2% Scientists Around the World from Stanford University, USA, 2020 in the field of Environmental Sciences.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",biography:"Prof. Mohamed Nageeb Rashed is Professor of Analytical and Environmental Chemistry and former vice-dean for environmental affairs, Faculty of Science, Aswan University, Egypt. He received his Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Assiut University, Egypt, in 1989. His research interest is in analytical and environmental chemistry with special emphasis on: (1) monitoring and assessing biological trace elements and toxic metals in human blood, urine, water, crops, vegetables, and medicinal plants; (2) relationships between environmental heavy metals and human diseases; (3) uses of biological indicators for monitoring water pollution; (4) environmental chemistry of lakes, rivers, and well water; (5) water and wastewater treatment by adsorption and photocatalysis techniques; (6) soil and water pollution monitoring, control, and treatment; and (7) advanced oxidation treatment. Prof. Rashed has supervised several MSc and Ph.D. theses in the field of analytical and environmental chemistry. He served as an examiner for several Ph.D. theses in analytical chemistry in India, Kazakhstan, and Botswana. He has published about ninety scientific papers in peer-reviewed international journals and several papers in national and international conferences. He participated as an invited speaker at thirty international conferences. Prof. Rashed is the editor-in-chief and an editorial board member for several international journals in the fields of chemistry and environment. He is a member of several national and international societies. He received the Egyptian State Award for Environmental Research in 2001 and the Aswan University Merit Award for Basic Science in 2020. Prof. Rashed was recognized in Stanford University’s list of the World’s Top 2% Scientists in 2020 and 2021.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"133",title:"Environmental Pollution",slug:"environmental-pollution"}],chapters:[{id:"79742",title:"Endocrine Disruptor Impact on Zebrafish Larvae: Posterior Lateral Line System as a New Target",slug:"endocrine-disruptor-impact-on-zebrafish-larvae-posterior-lateral-line-system-as-a-new-target",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"354033",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"Nasri",slug:"ahmed-nasri",fullName:"Ahmed Nasri"},{id:"420855",title:"Prof.",name:"Patricia",surname:"Aïssa",slug:"patricia-aissa",fullName:"Patricia 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Ndibewu"}]},{id:"79427",title:"Recent Developments in the Application of Advanced Oxidative Processes for Remediation of Persistent Organic Pollutants from Water",slug:"recent-developments-in-the-application-of-advanced-oxidative-processes-for-remediation-of-persistent",totalDownloads:78,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"424233",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Ifeoluwa Oluwafunmilayo",surname:"Daramola",slug:"ifeoluwa-oluwafunmilayo-daramola",fullName:"Ifeoluwa Oluwafunmilayo Daramola"},{id:"424419",title:"Dr.",name:"Matthew",surname:"Ayorinde Adebayo",slug:"matthew-ayorinde-adebayo",fullName:"Matthew Ayorinde Adebayo"}]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"418275",firstName:"Marijana",lastName:"Josipovic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418275/images/16923_n.png",email:"marijana.j@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Larramendy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6644.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14863",title:"Dr.",name:"Sonia",surname:"Soloneski",slug:"sonia-soloneski",fullName:"Sonia Soloneski"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10178",title:"Environmental Emissions",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"febf21ec717bfe20ae25a9dab9b5d438",slug:"environmental-emissions",bookSignature:"Richard Viskup",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10178.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"103742",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",surname:"Viskup",slug:"richard-viskup",fullName:"Richard Viskup"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9653",title:"Light Pollution, Urbanization and Ecology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b1e5d120ec03412f5e22b7cd0d7c69f8",slug:"light-pollution-urbanization-and-ecology",bookSignature:"Levente Hufnagel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9653.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"10864",title:"Dr.",name:"Levente",surname:"Hufnagel",slug:"levente-hufnagel",fullName:"Levente Hufnagel"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"51675",title:"Microporous and Mesoporous Materials in Decontamination of Water Process",doi:"10.5772/64393",slug:"microporous-and-mesoporous-materials-in-decontamination-of-water-process",body:'\n
The microporous materials have been used in the water decontamination process because of their adsorption capacity of a wide variety of contaminants in aqueous phase. The carbon aerogels have become a promising material in adsorption processes of ions. The textural properties have an important function in the adsorption process. However, the adsorption treatment is not sufficient and for this reason research on new processes is necessary in water decontamination.
\nWithin the new processes in water treatment, it has been found that the advanced oxidation process, photocatalysis, is of great importance. The photocatalyst, TiO2, is used more because of its low surface area, which is a very important factor in the photocatalytic activity. For this reason, the mesoporous materials of type SBA-15 support TiO2.
\nTherefore, the processes such as adsorption with carbon aerogels and degradation of organic compounds with Ti-SBA-15 (photocatalyst) are used for water decontamination. The textural properties of these porous materials are different but they can be complementary in processes of water decontamination.
\nIn recent years, the synthesis of nanoporous solids has received much attention, and important methods to fabricate their pore structures have been proposed recently [1–5], such as carbon aerogels. The pore continuity of aerogels, sol-gel process has attracted much attention for the fabrication of porous materials [5]. Aerogels refer to dried gels with a very high relative pore volume [6]. Pekala succeeded in the preparation of carbon aerogels, which are carbonized from organic polymer aerogels in an inert atmosphere such as nitrogen [7, 8]. Due to large surface area and easily tunable nanoporosities, these materials have potential applications in various fields, such as hydrogen fuel storage, catalysis, supercapacitors, electrodes, and anodes in rechargeable lithium ion batteries [9]. In this chapter, we show a new application of these materials to remove ions from aqueous solution, for example, nickel and chromium.
\nThe aerogels could be divided into monolith, powder, and film; and by considering the preparation method, aerogel could be made up of four types including aerogel, xerogel, cryogel, and other aerogel-related materials, hydrogels or alcohogels. While given the different microstructure, aerogel could be classified as microporous (<2 nm) aerogel, mesoporous (2–50 nm) aerogel, and mixed-porous aerogel.
\nThe application design of the carbon aerogel is based on its properties, which rely on the microstructure. Therefore, it is very important to realize the microstructure control during the preparation. Commonly, the preparation process of the aerogel includes the following three key steps [10], as shown in Figure 1:
(I–II)
(III–IV)
(V–VI)
Synthesis of aerogels.
All the three steps could determine the microstructure of the aerogel and affect its properties and applications [11].
\nCarbon aerogel was prepared by the Pekala method via Na2CO3-catalyzed polycondensation of resorcinol with formaldehyde (RF aerogel) in an aqueous solution [12]. In fact, the random network of RF gel has been built by the homogeneous polymerization of resorcinol and formaldehyde in a large proportion of solvent (water) (Figure 2). The mixtures are stirred for a certain period of time and poured into cylindrical glass molds with lid.
\nReaction of polymerization. (a) Enolate ion formation, (b) formation of the monomer, and (c) obtaining cross-linked polymer network [
The resorcinol-formaldehyde wet gels were prepared using resorcinol (98% purity), formaldehyde (37% solution), Na2CO3 (99.9% purity), all from Aldrich, and deionized water. Resorcinol (0.29 mol) was dissolved in deionized water at a certain R/W ratio. Solution of formaldehyde was added to the resorcinol solution (R/F = 0.5) in vigorous stirring. Afterward, Na2CO3 in 0.1 M aqueous solution was added to the previous mixture at different ratios and R/C 100, 400, and 600 samples were obtained. The solutions were placed into tightly closed glass molds (7 cm length × 1 cm internal diameter) and cured: However, the rate of these reactions in the room temperature is very slow. Normally, a multiple-stage heating process is used to accelerate the gelation, 1 day at room temperature, 1 day at 50°C, and 3 days at 70°C.
\nConventionally, the term “aerogels” has been use to designate gels dried under supercritical conditions. Supercritical drying mostly affects only the larger pores that involve network dimensions. The critical point parameters of CO2, which is the most commonly used fluid, are as follows:
(a) Equipment for supercritical fluid used for drying the aerogels: (1) thermocouple, (2) extractor, (3) finned resistor and ventilator, (4) hot air bath, (5) condensation trap-pressure gauge, (6) temperature controller, (7) control unit of the syringe pump, (8) syringe pump, and (9) CO2 cylinder and (b) extractor.
Pyrolysis of the organic polymer aerogels produces carbon aerogels, which are known to have uniform mesopores that depend on the agglomerate structures of uniform spherical carbon particles. The basic idea is to prepare carbonized RF (CRF) aerogels. The organic aerogels were pyrolyzed in N2 atmosphere for 4 hours, or at 850°C samples, resulting in carbon aerogels. It is possible to obtain a CRF aerogel with ultrahigh-specific surface area by activating the carbon skeletons with carbon dioxide under high temperature (normally 800–1200°C) [14]. Carbon dioxide rather corrodes than activates the skeletons, creating more pores (mainly micropore).
\nAdsorption and desorption isotherms of nitrogen on resorcinol-formaldehyde carbon aerogels at 77 K.
The aerogels are known to have outstanding characteristics (e.g., higher surface areas, total pore volumes, and sometimes electrochemical double-layer capacitances).
\n\nThe structures of resorcinol-formaldehyde aerogels depend on the size and number of resorcinol-formaldehyde clusters generated during the polymerization in the synthesis process. Low-temperature nitrogen adsorption measurement is a common means for characterization of nanopore structures in materials. Adsorption and desorption isotherms of N2 on the resorcinol-formaldehyde aerogels at 77 K are shown in Figure 4. Resorcinol-formaldehyde aerogels have type IV isotherms and a characteristic adsorption hysteresis, indicating that microporosity has had an important development regarding the mesoporosity.
\nThe micropore and mesopore structural parameters can be determined from the N2 adsorption isotherm, and in this case, the surface area of carbon resorcinol-formaldehyde aerogels was between 263 and 829 m2/g, mesopore volume was between 0.16 and 0.58 cm3/g, and the micropore volume was between 0.06 and 0.31 cm3/g (Table 1).
\nSample | \n\n | \n | \n|||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
263 | \n0.06 | \n5.97 | \n2.1 | \n7.7 | \n0.16 | \n17.1 | \n|
455 | \n0.23 | \n5.35 | \n3.4 | \n8.1 | \n0.10 | \n17.1 | \n|
829 | \n0.31 | \n8.07 | \n2.2 | \n7.0 | \n0.58 | \n39.3 | \n
Parameter values for the low pressure range (DA) and high pressures (BJH).
Pore size distribution D-A plot.
It means that the higher the ratio R/C increases, the Bet area increases, and hence the development of microporosity. According to the value obtained for the parameter
Resorcinol-formaldehyde aerogels obtained have a homogeneous distribution of micropores and mesopores, which can be seen in the SEM micrograph. Figure 6 shows that mesopores are relatively uniformly distributed in the resorcinol-formaldehyde aerogels.
\nSEM image of resorcinol-formaldehyde aerogels: (a) R/C 100, (b) R/C 400, and (c) R/C 600.
The solution chemistry, pyrolysis temperature, and aerogel density affect the pore structures of carbon aerogels, and the ratio R/C also affects the chemical structure and the distribution of the groups in the surface of the aerogels.
\nA study to determine the effect of initial pH on the distribution of different groups onto the surface was conducted. This was performed by measuring the initial pH of synthesis as soon as all the reagents were mixed and polymerization was initiated. In addition, the pH point of zero charge (pHpzc) was determined. Quantities of the aerogels weighed in a range from 0.050 to 0.300 g in about six samples in an interval of approximately 0.05 g, and each of the materials was placed in vials of 15 mL, and 10 mL of sodium chloride solution (0.1 N NaCl) was added to each of the materials. The vials were capped and left under constant stirring at a temperature of 298 K for 48 hours. The samples are centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 15 minutes. After that the pH of each sample was measured. The pH of each sample based on its weight is plotted, and the point of zero charge is determined as the pH at which the curve tends to all the samples in suspension. Surface chemical groups were followed according to the method of Boehm [15] (Table 2).
\nSample | \npHi synthesis | \nNa2CO3 (lactones) (mEq/g) | \nNaHCO3 (carboxylics) (mEq/g) | \nNaOH (phenol) (mEq/g) | \nNaOC2H5 (carbonyls) (mEq/g) | \nHCl(basics) (mEq/g) | \npHpzc | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
8.35 | \n0.045 | \n0.152 | \n0.000 | \n0.000 | \n0.005 | \n6.78 | \n|
7.16 | \n0.041 | \n0.217 | \n0.000 | \n0.000 | \n0.000 | \n6.75 | \n|
6.31 | \n0.039 | \n0.178 | \n0.000 | \n0.000 | \n0.003 | \n6.62 | \n
Initial pH of synthesis with different surface groups and pHpzc carbon aerogels.
As can be seen, the initial pH of synthesis is slightly alkaline in character, which favors the formation of monomeric agglomerates (enolate ions) at the time of initiating polymerization. Once aerogel resorcinol-formaldehyde is obtained, the pHpzc is near neutrality, thereby inducing adsorption of cations. This variable has an effect on the adsorption capacity and allows explanation and optimization of adsorption, and this is consistent with the presence of surface groups consisting predominantly of lactones and carboxylic groups. This is very important when applying these materials to the adsorption of metal ions from aqueous solution.
\nThe pollution of water resources due to the indiscriminate disposal of heavy metals has been causing worldwide concern for the last few decades. It is well known that some metals can have toxic or harmful effects on many forms of life. Metals, which are significantly toxic to human beings and ecological environments, include chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), manganese (Mn), cadmium (Cd), nickel (Ni), zinc (Zn), and iron (Fe), etc.
\nMoreover, the removal of metal ions from their solutions in the presence of wastewaters may be due to the adsorption on surface and pores and also to complexation by these materials. The concentrations of some of the toxic metals such as nickel and chromium are higher than the permissible discharge levels in these effluents. Therefore, it becomes necessary to remove these heavy metals from these wastewaters by an appropriate treatment before releasing them into the environment.
\nEffect of contact time on removal of Cr3+ and Ni2+ by carbon aerogel.
The adsorption of heavy metals such as nickel and chromium on carbon aerogel R/C 600 was studied by a batch technique. The general method used for this study is described below: A known weight of adsorbent (0.1 g) was equilibrated with 25 mL of the heavy metals solution of known concentration in a stoppered borosil glass flask at a fixed temperature in a thermostatic mechanical shaker for a known period (24 hours) of time. After equilibration, the suspension of the adsorbent was separated from the solution by filtration using Whatman No. 1 filter paper. The concentration of heavy metal ions remaining in the solution was measured by AAS using flame method. The pH of the adsorptive solutions was adjusted using nitric acid and sodium hydroxide at pH 5.0 for nickel and pH 2.0 for chromium.
\nIt is observed that in two cases the percentage removal is comparatively lower for 3-hour contact time, with increasing removal efficiencies at higher contact time of 24 hours (Figure 7). It is evident from the results that the contact time required to attain equilibrium is dependent on the initial concentration of heavy metals. For the same concentration, the percentage removal of heavy metal increases with increase of contact time till equilibrium is attained. The optimal contact time to attain equilibrium with carbon aerogel was experimentally found to be about 6 hours.
\nAdsorption isotherm studies were carried out with different initial Ni2+ and Cr3+concentrations (20–500 mg/L) and a fixed adsorbent concentration of 100 mg for 25.0 mL of solution. The equilibrium data obtained were analyzed in the light of Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms. For estimated residual metal concentration,
where
\nFigure 8 shows the isotherm of nickel and chromium removal onto carbon aerogel. The following linearized forms of the Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm models were used in the present study to provide an objective framework to the generated equilibrium adsorption data. The Langmuir model allowing the calculation of maximum adsorption capacity,
Isotherm curve for Cr3+ and Ni2+ adsorption onto carbon aerogel.
The linearized Freundlich model isotherm is represented by the following equation:
\nwhere
Adsorption capacity as indicated by value of “
\n | Freundlich | \nLangmuir | \n||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
KE | \n1/ | \n\n | \n\n | \n\n | \n\n | \n|
Ni2+ | \n11.55 | \n1.265 | \n0.8947 | \n7.602 | \n2.4125 | \n0.9425 | \n
Cr3+ | \n10.52 | \n1.209 | \n0.9089 | \n4.501 | \n1.9874 | \n0.9117 | \n
Values of Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm constants for the adsorption of heavy metal ions on carbon aerogel.
The physical and biological treatment are not sufficient for total pollutant degradation, for this reason the heterogeneous photocatalysis is been converted into an emergent technique. This technique is nonselective and can be used in the complex samples treatment. Moreover, the sun radiation is possible to be used as a primary energy source and the oxygen as an oxidant agent. This is a clear example of sustainable technology [16].
\nEnergy band diagram TiO2.
In the past decades, photocatalysis has been the research object in the contamination of water and air. The main advantages that were observed are as follows: work under environment conditions, complete destruction of pollutants and intermediaries, and low operating cost that confirmed their applicability in water treatment. However, there are many experimental and technical challenges that include (1) the commercial catalyst available presents low surface areas (factor determinant in the photocatalytic activity), (2) catalyst separation after treatment [17], (3) catalyst development with a strong absorption in the spectrum visible region [18], (4) understanding of the operation parameters of the photoreactor, and (5) mathematical inconsistencies in kinetic modeling.
\nIn these processes, solid semiconductors are used, which are activated by UV light and TiO2 (anatase), since it has a wide band-gap semiconductor (Figure 9) with different potential applications in catalysis, photovoltaics, optoelectronics, etc. [19, 20].
\n\nThe TiO2 is a good photocatalyst of organic compounds, where the absorbed light generates the formation of electron-hole pair (e−/h+). The h+ interacts with the OH− ions to generate hydroxyl radicals (OH•) that have a high oxidation potential and are capable of degrading organic compounds. Electrons are trapped by oxygen to produce superoxide radicals (O2−) [21].
\nCharge transfer and recombination processes occur simultaneously, and the electron-hole pair is recombined before reacting with adsorbed species on the catalyst surface [22]. The efficiency of the photocatalytic reaction depends on factors that determine the degree of oxidation of organic matter. Another determining factor is the nature of the contaminant, the pH of the medium, the wavelength of the radiation, the radiation flux, and the type and concentration of oxidant [23].
\nNanoparticles (TiO2) can be produced in different ways, for example, chemical vapor deposition, sol-gel, the oxidation of titanium tetrachloride, and titanium alkoxides hydrolysis [24]. In addition, it is very interesting to note that to improve its photocatalytic activity and obtain spherical particles with a high surface area, it supports mesoporous materials with porous structure.
\nBecause the TiO2 has a low specific surface area (10–30 m2/g) and to increase the catalytic activity, it has been chosen to be used in mesoporous materials.
\nSBA-15 (Santa Barbara-15) is considered an ordered mesoporous material with hexagonal channels of diameters between 3 and 14 nm, microporous walls (0.5–2 nm), and cylinder sizes (1–3 μm) (Figure 10).
\nScanning electron microscope (SEM) SBA-15.
This mesoporous solids are synthesized using triblock copolymers like a poly(ethylene oxide)-poly(propylene oxide)-poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO-PPO-PEO) EO20PO70EO20 Pluronic®-123 and tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) as the silicate source.
\nThe amphiphilic will form aggregates in aqueous environment due to the PEO chains as they are hydrophilic, while the PPO chains are hydrophobic. The processes that occur in aqueous solution are: (1) the formation of micelles due to the hydrophilic groups, which are oriented to the outer of the micelles and the hydrophobic is located in the interior, and (2) solubilization of block copolymers due to the interaction between water molecules and alkylene oxides through hydrogen bonds [24, 25].
\nIn aqueous solutions, the silicate source (TEOS) is hydrolyzed when added with water and polymerizes to form a silica network (Figures 11–13) [26, 27].
\nHydrolysis of silica source.
Silica network (1): alcohol condensation.
Silica network (2): water condensation.
The synthesis of SBA-15 is carried in acidic conditions because it is necessary to induce the interaction between triblock and TEOS. This can be controlled by pH in acid or basic conditions to modify the hydrolysis rate that is directly proportional to its concentration. In acidic medium, it increases the rate of hydrolysis, while in basic medium it increases the gelation rate. For this reason, the silica source is protonated (pH < 2, since pH = 2 is the isoelectronic point) because the interactions are important at the inorganic-organic interface. In acid media, the hydronium ions are associated with the alkylene oxygen atoms; in this way the long-range Coulombic interactions are added to the coassembly process. The cationic silica is a precursor, and the mechanism is carried out through an intermediate ionic like (S0H+) (X−I+) (Figure 14) [28]. The silicon atom can expand the coordination sphere and allow to coordinate with the anion (Cl−).
\nS0H+X−I+ interaction.
In SBA-15, the self-assembly route occurs through cooperative self-assembly, and the micellar rod cannot be formed before addition of the silica source. The micelles become elongated by the condensation of the silica source. The micellar rods arrange in a hexagonal pattern while the silica walls are built. The polymerization is simultaneous to the elongation and the silica precursor is polymerized on the PEO chains, and the water content in this area decreases to produce a change in the polarity resulting in a reduced curvature of the micelle (Figure 15) [29, 30].
\nSchematic representation of SBA-15 before calcination.
The porous structures are not mesoporous (pore diameter > 2) because of the hexagonal arrangement of cylindrical aggregates. On the other hand, the PEO penetrates the pore walls, resulting in the microporous (pore diameter < 2 nm) production after calcination (Figure 16) [24, 25]. This process allows to remove the surfactants from SBA-15, generally the calcination temperature is 540°C for 6 hours with a rate of 5°C/min. The surfactant is decomposed between 100 and 300°C (Figure 17) and in this case the hexagonal structure retains its size. Above 300°C in air atmosphere, the polymers are combusted and the hexagonal framework is decreased due to its condensation. Approximately, in this stage it obtains a weight loss between 40% and 50%.
\nSchematic representation of SBA-15 after calcination.
Thermogravimetric study in the elimination of surfactant.
These kinds of materials are activated with the inclusion of hetero-elements via postsynthesis or in situ methods that make them catalytically active [31, 32]. For this reason, the SBA-15 is considered one of the materials based on silica and it is considered promising because of its commercial availability, high surface area, thermal stability, and pore size distribution (PSD). On the other hand, it has been found that the addition of TiO2 on these solids facilitates dispersion of anatase crystals, which are the essential active sites for degradation of contaminants and intermediaries. Ti-SBA-15 has been synthesized by chemical vapor deposition.
\nThe CVD method for catalyst preparation has been defined as the process of deposition using reaction between surfaces sites such as OH groups and vapors of metal compounds. CVD is a useful method for the preparation of highly dispersed catalysts. The commercial Ti/SiO2 catalyst was prepared by the impregnation of silica with TiCl4 or an organic titanium compound followed by calcination. The active catalyst contains tetrahedral TiIV chemically bonded to siloxane ligands (≡SiO) [33].
\nIn this way, the titanium is incorporated via postsynthesis. The experimental set up of CVD is depicted in (Figure 18). The SBA-15 is placed in a fixed-bed reactor and is first treated at 400°C in nitrogen flow, then brought back to the deposition temperature at 300°C. The nitrogen flow (150 mL/min) is saturated with TiCl4 in a saturator. The saturator is immersed in a cooling bath at −10°C because of the vapor pressure of TiCl4 at −10°C is 170 Pa (0.17%, V/V). The sample is then purged under nitrogen at 573 K, hydrolyzed at ambient temperature in moist air, dried at 80°C, and finally calcined in dry air at 673 K [34].
\nExperimental set up of chemical deposition vapor.
The reactions that can occur to the synthesized Ti-SBA-15 correspond to Figure 19.
\nChemical vapor deposition reaction TiCl4-SBA-15.
The loss of the OH− at 3750 cm−1 indicates that the free hydroxyl groups are reacting with the TiCl4, when the deposition time is increased and the intensity of absorption peak is decreased (Figure 20). When a small amount of TiCl4 is reacted with the silica, no change in the OH- band intensity is observed. This is observed below 8 hours of reaction. The IR absorption peaks at 1230 and 1070 cm−1 are attributed to υas (Si-O-Si) vibrations of silica framework of SBA-15, and the peak at 802 cm−1 is attributed to υs (Si-O-Si) vibration [34]. The peak at 960 cm−1 belongs to vas (Si-OH) or vas (Si-OH) or vas (Si-O-Ti); this peak appears by two processes:
(1)\tThe silanol groups are reacting more quickly than the hydroxyl groups.
(2)\tThe TiCl4 starts to react with the surface; there are many sites where the surface-attached TiCl3 species can react further to give a bridged TiCl2 species. This gives rise to an increase in the concentration of TiCl3 on the surface. When the TiCl3 does not have a neighboring hydroxyl groups the reaction is completed [33].
FT-IR spectra of Ti-SBA-15-h.
The relation between the peak at 960 and 802 cm−1 can be used to evaluate the amount of the Ti-O-Si bond. As shown in Table 4, when an increase in the deposition time is possible, deposit more Ti species on the SBA-15 surface.
\n\n | (Ti/Si) = | \n
---|---|
Ti-SBA15 8h | \n1.7% | \n
Ti-SBA15 16h | \n5.5% | \n
Ti-SBA15 24h | \n9.4% | \n
Ti-SBA15 32h | \n14.1% | \n
Intensity ratio Ti/Si.
Textural parameters of SBA-15 and Ti-SBA-15-h are calculated from N2 adsorption isotherm at 77 K (Figure 21) and these are presented in Table 1. This type of porous solid exhibited type IV isotherm and the presence of a hysteresis loop [35], which are characteristics of mesoporous solids (2–50 nm pore size). Pore size distributions calculated with the Cylinder Pore NLDFT adsorption branch is reported in Figure 22. The PSD profile showed a broad peak with pore size >2 nm (mesoporous); this value corresponds at 3.4 nm to all samples.
\nIsotherm adsorption N2 77 K.
PSD obtained with N2 77 K silica (cylinder pore, NLDFT adsorption branch).
\n | \n | \n\n (cm3 g−1) | \n\n | \n\n | \n\n | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
SBA-15 | \n593 | \n0.21 | \n0.60 | \n0.81 | \n3.4 | \n
SBA-15-8h | \n537 | \n0.19 | \n0.59 | \n0.78 | \n3.4 | \n
SBA-15-16h | \n423 | \n0.14 | \n0.50 | \n0.64 | \n3.4 | \n
SBA-15-24h | \n414 | \n0.15 | \n0.41 | \n0.56 | \n3.3 | \n
SBA-15-32h | \n374 | \n0.14 | \n0.39 | \n0.52 | \n3.4 | \n
Textural parameters N2 adsorption data.
In Table 5, it is observed that the surface area is decreased when the deposition time is increased. The effects of CVD with TiCl4 have a relation with the porosity, and the micropore volume decrease and is kept constant (0.14 cm3/g) between 16 and 32 hours of deposition. The mesoporous volumes are equal for SBA-15 and Ti-SBA-15-8h, but when the deposition time is increased, the mesoporous volume decreases. This shows a similar behavior to the microporous volume. This behavior is obtained because the titanium species are supported on the surface of SBA-15. The shape of the isotherms obtained allows to deduce that there are no structural changes caused by chemical vapor deposition. Although the isotherms are parallel to the decrease in the total volume, it is due to the distribution of titanium species on the surface.
\n\nThis relates to the results obtained in the IR, where Ti species on the surface increases, thereby decreasing the pore volumes. The effect of TiCl4 on the surface has no effect on the textural properties.
\nThe thermogravimetric stability was evaluated by observing that the inclusion of titanium does not affect this property because a strong interaction is developed between the titanium species and the surface (Figure 23). This is an important property for a photocatalyst that must be stable in a wide temperature range. The mass losses that originate are due to the calcination of the surfactant that was not removed during calcination and this allowed the porosity to be occluded (Figure 24).
\nSchematic representation Ti-SBA-15-h.
Thermogravimetric stability of Ti-SBA-15-h.
Scanning electron microscope images exhibit the morphology of SBA-15. The cylinders are the typical shape of this porous solid. The effect of chemical vapor deposition does not change the surface of the SBA morphology. The cylinders have a size of 1.4 μm and a width of 0.6 μm for all the samples (Figure 25). The chemical vapor deposition allows to obtain high dispersion titanium on the surface. In the SEM-EDX an increase in titanium dispersion can be observed when the deposition time is increased (Figure 26). These materials show a homogeneous distribution on the SBA-15 without apparent preferential concentration of titanium in some areas. The distribution is influenced for hexagonal framework of SBA-15.
\nSEM of Ti-SBA-15-h at different deposition time.
SEM-EDX dispersion titanium on the surface of SBA-15.
The development of new materials such as carbon aerogels for specific applications such as retention of metal ions from aqueous solution is a promising field of research, which has a great scope of further study. Developing materials with a specific texture and modifying the surface chemistry to increase the adsorption capacity are some issues for implementation in these materials.
\nThe chemical vapor deposition is an excellent method to obtain Ti-SBA-15-h with a high disperse titanium on the SBA-15 surface. The TiO2 is very important in photocatalytic process. Actually, different researches are putting efforts to obtain mesoporous materials with titanium to increase the yield in different reactions like photodegradation of organic compounds in water. This is an approximation to understand the synthesis of SBA-15, its mechanisms, and the way to include hetero-elements by chemical vapor deposition. It is necessary to further this line of research with the aim to synthesize photocatalysts that are efficient, cheap, and reusable for the benefit of the environment.
\nThe authors thank the University of the Andes (Bogota, Colombia) and National University of Colombia (Bogotá) by the framework agreement between the two institutions under which this research was developed. Special thanks to the Faculty of Science and the Vice-Rectory of Research at the University of the Andes (Bogota, Colombia) for funding this research and the “Semilla Project” 2016-1 of Faculty of Sciences, University of the Andes (Bogota, Colombia).
Gallbladder cancer (GBC) is the most common malignancy of the biliary tract with an aggressive clinical course and short median survival [1]. While being a rarity in the western world, GBC is one of the major causes of cancer-related morbidity and mortality in South Asian and Southeast Asian countries [2]. Females are more commonly affected than males. According to the cancer statistics of 2020, GBC accounts for 0.6% of the total cancer cases and is associated with 0.9% of total cancer-related deaths [3]. Around 10% of the global GBC burden is contributed by India, with the Northern, Central, and North-eastern parts as the highest contributors [4]. Only 10% of cases present at an early stage which can be owed to the aggressive tumor biology of this cancer and the lack of effective screening techniques for its early detection [5]. Chronic inflammation of the gallbladder remains a major factor in the pathogenesis of GBC, although the causes are multifactorial. Gall stones, heavy metals, environmental toxins, and carcinogens have all been implicated in chronic irritation of the gallbladder mucosa, thereby leading to dysplasia and subsequent development of neoplasia.
The landscape of the microbiome populating our digestive tract has received a lot of scientific attention in recent years [5]. There is ample evidence linking the human microbiome and its metabolites to carcinogenesis. It is proven that balanced flora or microbial eubiosis is related to health while dysbiosis or unbalanced flora can lead to various diseases, including cancers [6, 7]. There can be multiple triggers causing dysbiosis, including fluctuations in the environment, inflammation, infection, medications, dietary changes, or genetic predisposition. The International Agency for Research on Cancer labeled ten microbial species as carcinogens [8]. Around 15–20% of cancers are linked to microbial pathogens, with
Detection of some bacteria does not indicate its causality in inflammation or cancer. However, recent amassing evidence indicates that microbiota dysbiosis and chronic inflammation contribute to carcinogenesis [16]. Several reports point towards strains of Salmonella and Helicobacter colonizing the gall bladder and are linked to an escalated risk of developing GBC [17, 18]. Premalignant lesions were found to be coexisting with chronic Salmonella infestation, despite the absence of gallstones [19]. Various experimental studies and epidemiologic data support the induction of carcinogenesis due to dysbiosis of the gallbladder microbiome. However, results indicating only cultivable species limit these claims. Also, despite the proximity of a large diverse microflora reservoir in the gut, little is known about its impact on the human bile microbiome. In this chapter, we aim to provide a comprehensive review of all the available literature on the gut and biliary microbiome and their association with GBC.
The term microbiome has been derived from two words, “micro” and “biome”, meaning, a specific microbial community with distinct physiological and chemical properties, residing in a well-defined habitat which is their “theatre of activity”. This definition was proposed by Whipps while working on mycoparasites [20]. The term “gut microbiome” or “human microbiome” was coined by Joshua Lederberg in 2001 and since then it has been a topic for debate among researchers [21]. The human microbiome can be defined as a specific community of commensal, symbiotic and pathogenic micro-organisms that reside within our body spaces [22]. These include gut bacteria, eukaryotes, archaea, and specific viruses [23, 24]. In a healthy individual, these bacteria are responsible for various synthetic and metabolic functions and detoxification of various xenobiotics [25]. They form an integral part of the “gut-brain axis” which is bidirectional communication between the gut and the cognitive and emotional centers of the brain. This link is responsible for satiety and appetite regulation, elevation of mood, cognitive development, and neuroprotection [26]. Studies have also found a link between the gut microbiome and immune homeostasis. The complex and bidirectional interaction between the gut microbiota and the host immune system is responsible for the development of both innate and adaptive immunity, thus preventing the body from pathogenic organisms [27, 28]. Moreover, the microbiota is also responsible for the maintenance of gut mucosal integrity and prevents the overgrowth of pathogenic organisms, thus maintaining the first line of defense against the pathogens [29]. Therefore, any imbalance in the gut microbiota may lead to the development of various autoimmune diseases. This concept of “dysbiosis” or “imbalance” in the gut microbiota may result in relative “blooms” of harmful bacteria, especially Enterobacteriaceae [30, 31]. Dysbiosis can be caused by a variety of factors, namely, dietary changes, inflammatory conditions, exposure to drugs, and toxins [32, 33] (Figure 1). The gut bacteria have been linked to a wide variety of cardiovascular diseases [34, 35], obesity [36, 37], inflammatory bowel disease [38], irritable bowel syndrome [39], and some neuropsychiatric diseases like depression [40]. But what has intrigued the researchers is the role of gut microbiota in the development of cancer.
Importance of gut bacterial microflora. The figure illustrates the role of enteric bacteria in the maintenance of homeostasis. The “eubiotic” bacteria display a complex interaction with the various synthetic and metabolic functions of our body as well as in the “gut-brain crosstalk”. Alteration or “dysbiosis” due to any factor (diet, chemicals, antibiotics, inflammatory conditions) may lead to “blooms” of harmful bacteria. The dysbiotic bacteria have now been linked to various cardiovascular, metabolic, neuropsychiatric diseases, including cancer.
To ascertain the role of gut microbiota in the development of cancer, we need to look at the mechanisms responsible for carcinogenesis. The normal cells get altered into cancerous cells, by changes at the cellular, genetic or epigenetic levels. This process is known as “cell transformation” [41]. TP53 is a tumor suppressor gene that encodes the protein P53. P53 acts as a tumor suppressor which causes a transient cell cycle arrest, allowing the cells to repair the damage caused to the DNA before the cell divides. The cells that are unable to repair the damage undergo apoptosis. This ensures that the potentially oncogenic mutations are not propagated [42]. Chronic inflammation causes alteration in the TP53 gene, leading to its inactivation. This results in an unregulated cell cycle and cell division, leading to the accumulation of mutations and uncontrolled cellular proliferation. TP53 alterations were seen in biliary epithelia of patients with gallstone disease with an increased frequency with the disease progression from metaplasia to carcinoma [43]. TP53 was the most commonly mutated gene, followed by PIK3CA, SMAD4, ARID1A, KRAS [44, 45, 46] and amplification of ERBB2 [47].
The study of these genetic alterations and mechanisms of carcinogenesis has been made possible with the development of various ex vivo and in vivo animal models. These models have been used extensively to decipher the etiopathogenesis of GBC and to develop and test the treatment protocols [48]. Ex vivo models use cell lines to study the tumor characteristics and cellular and genetic abnormalities. But it was seen that different cell lines yielded different tumor characteristics for the same type of tumor, thus complicating the interpretation [49]. In vivo models were superior to the cell lines as they used genetically engineered animals that could retain the genetic mutations and could undergo cellular differentiation. The tumor cells with mutated or amplified genes were inoculated in them and studied for the development of cancer [49, 50, 51]. The drawback of these models was the lack of innate immunity which led to altered results as the cancer was not strictly recapitulated [51].
Although these models indicate a causal relationship between the risk factors and carcinogenesis, the human body reacts quite differently as compared to an animal model, thus necessitating the need for the development of an ideal human model.
There has been an ongoing debate among researchers on the role of gut microbiota in the causation of cancer as cancer is neither a contagious nor an infectious disease [16]. The first proposition of the possible role of gut microbiota in cancer causation was given by Russel in 1890, which was supported by positive results over the subsequent years [52, 53, 54]. However, in 1963, a group of scientists from NCI, USA claimed that the bacteria found in the cancer tissues were probably contaminants [16]. This subject remained controversial until Marshall, in his study, proved the association between
Microbiota may act as a carcinogen in two ways, either by inducing a chronic inflammatory state or direct injury by material toxins and metabolites [16, 60, 61, 62]. Release of pro-inflammatory mediators like TNF-α and IL-1 and generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) stimulates lymphoepithelial proliferation and cell division. This leads to immune dysregulation, thereby leading to tumorigenesis [27]. It causes alteration in the cell cycle leading to immunosuppression [63]. It also results in genetic and cellular damage and genomic instability which preclude carcinogenesis [64]. The bacterial toxins are genotoxins that cause DNA damage and may lead to the development of cancer [65, 66]. Thus, chronic bacterial infections demonstrate a dual role in carcinogenesis by both stimulating and inhibiting the immune system.
According to traditional thinking, the biliary tract has always been considered sterile. This is because of the anti-microbial properties possessed by bile which affects the bacterial membrane and DNA [67]. However, inflammatory conditions of the biliary tract, like acute cholecystitis and cholangitis have frequently cultured bacterial colonies commonly found in the human gut; the common organisms being,
Dysbiosis of the gut bacteria has been implicated in the development and progression of various cancers, including gastric [73, 74], colorectal [75], and oral cancers [76, 77], however, their association with causation or progression of the hepatobiliary cancers is still in question. The natural synergy that exists between the bile acid metabolism and the biliary microbiome reaffirms the proposition that biliary microbial dysbiosis may lead to various biliary tract diseases including gallstone formation and the development of cancer.
Cholangiocytes are considered the potential cells of origin for biliary tract cancers, including gallbladder cancer [78]. Any insult to the cholangiocytes leads to the release of pro-inflammatory mediators like IL-6 and IL-1β which results in the differentiation of T helper cells (Th-17 cells). The cholangiocytes interact with Th-17 cells leading to their activation and proliferation, in order to compensate for the cell loss [79]. Moreover, the bacteria and their products are recognized by the cholangiocytes through the Pathogen Associated Molecular Patterns (PAMPs) present in the bile, which interacts with the pattern recognition receptors, that are, the Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and the NOD-like receptors (NLRs), leading to their activation [80]. This results in collagen deposition and fibrosis. The resultant cholangiopathy may lead to ductopenia, dysplasia, and malignant transformation [81]. Chronic inflammation leads to the release of mediators like IL-17, TNF-α, and TGF-β which cause genetic alterations in the tumor suppressor genes and the proto-oncogenes resulting in cell transformation [82]. These mediators are among the few which have been implicated in the causation of carcinogenesis [83, 84, 85].
Gallbladder cancer is the most common biliary tract cancer and the etiopathogenesis is multifactorial [86]. However, chronic inflammation [87] and gallstone disease represent the most important aetiologies in the development of GBC and are supported by Level II evidence [88]. The recent development of culture and culture-independent techniques have identified various organisms which are associated with the formation of both pigmented as well as cholesterol gallstones [89, 90]. These dysbiotic organisms are mainly enteric bacteria that have the ability to form a biofilm, thereby resisting cellular and DNA damage caused by bile. They are namely,
Although various bacteria have now been identified and linked with the development of gallstones and their theoretical association with GBC,
The
Since the first evidence of
There have been several meta-analyses suggesting an association between Helicobacter infection and cancer of the biliary tract with conflicting results [121, 122]. However, a recent meta-analysis has suggested a significant association between
Typhoid fever and GBC are endemic in the Gangetic belt and the northern states of India which provides strong evidence to suggest an association between
Gene fragments of
Study/year | Sample | Bacterial strain | Isolation technique | Inference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Welton et al. [125] | Deceased typhoid carriers | S. typhi | Record registers | Chronic typhoid carriers are 6 times more likely to die of hepatobiliary cancer than controls (P < 0.001) |
Caygill et al. [124] | Chronic typhoid carriers | S. typhi | Record registers | 167-fold higher risk of GBC in chronic typhoid carriers Chronic, and not acute infection is a risk factor for GBC |
Csendes et al. [137] | Tissue, bile | E. coli, E. faecalis, Klebsiella Enterobacter | Culture | Both aerobic and anaerobic gram-negative bacteria were found and may have a role in GBC |
Shukla et al. [130] | Serum | S. typhi | IHA Vi antigen | Significantly high Vi positivity in patients with gallbladder carcinoma compared to controls Risk of developing GBC is 8.47 times more in culture-positive typhoid carriers than the noncarriers |
Dutta et al. [131] | Serum | S. typhi | ELISA Vi antigen | Chronic typhoid carrier state is a risk factor for GBC |
Dewhirst et al. [117] | Multiple sources: animal and human tissue, blood, stool, fetus | H. bilis, Flexisipira rappini, H. pullorum | PCR (16S rRNA) | Correlation of Helicobacter species with GBC and other biliary tract diseases Identified 5 strains of H. bilis, 2 strains of Flexisipira rappini, and one strain of H. pullorum |
Matsukura et al. [118] | Bile | H. bilis | PCR (16S rRNA) | H. bilis infection in bile was associated with gallbladder cancer in Japanese and Thai patients |
Fukuda et al. [112] | Bile, tissue | Helicobacter | PCR, Histology, IHC | Significantly high positivity of Helicobacter DNAs in 52.6% of patients with hepatobiliary cancer than that in the benign cases (P = 0.03) |
Lu et al. [134] | Tissue | Colibacillus B. fragilis, Klebsiella C. perfringens Clostridium | PCR 16S rRNA | Possible association of both aerobic and anaerobic bacteria with GBC |
Murata et al. [119] | Tissue | H. bilis | Nested PCR (16S rRNA) | 4 out of 14 cases with biliary tract cancer were positive for H. bilis which may indicate their role in GBC |
Kobayashi et al. [120] | Bile | H. pylori H. hepaticus H. bilis | PCR | Helicobacter DNA was detected in bile of 86% of malignant biliary diseases DNA fragments of Helicobacter species other than H. pylori, H. hepaticus, and H. bilis were commonly detectable |
Bohr et al. [115] | Tissue | Helicobacter spp. | Culture, IHC, PCR (16S rRNA) | Helicobacter species do not play a predominant role in the pathogenesis of GSD and GBC in the German population |
Shimoyama et al. [113] | Blood | H. hepaticus | ELISA | H. hepaticus-specific antigen was significantly higher in patients with biliary tract cancer (P < 0.05) |
Iyer et al. [132] | Tissue | 143 HPV S. typhi Ty2 S. typhi CT18 S. typhimurium-LT2 S. choleraesuis-SCB67 S. paratyphi-TCC S. paratyphi SPB7 | PCR analysis | Association of non-typhoidal Salmonella species with GBC along with typhoidal strains Chronic carrier state is a risk factor for GBC |
Tsuchiya et al. [114] | Blood | H. pylori | ELISA | No significant differences in antibody titers or H. pylori infection positivity rates between cases and controls |
Song et al. [135] | Tissue | Peptostreptococcus stomatis Enterococcus faecium | DNA extraction and metagenomic sequencing | Existence of an altered microbiota in GBC |
Studies show the association of the gut microbiome with gallbladder cancer.
There is a complex interplay between the human body and its microbiome. While a normal gut flora is essential for homeostasis, dysbiosis may lead to a multitude of diseases. Several mechanisms associated with carcinogenesis are now being utilized in its prevention. GBC has been associated with chronic inflammation and chronic typhoid carrier state; thus, many animal models have been developed to study the role of antibiotics in the eradication of Salmonella, thereby reducing the chances of development of GBC. But the results have been conflicting [128] and Cholecystectomy remains the only definitive treatment for eradication of the carrier state of Salmonella [128]. There was a rise in the number of prophylactic cholecystectomies owing to this but it also saw an increase in the number of colorectal malignancies due to gut bacterial dysbiosis, thereby emphasizing their role in the development of cancer [141].
The role of the gut microbiome in the maintenance of homeostasis encouraged the researchers to utilize their potential in the therapeutic management of the disease. Microbiome therapeutics consist of additive therapy, subtractive therapy, and modulatory therapy. Additive therapy with genetically engineered or natural probiotic agents has shown some benefit in colorectal cancer and is now being utilized in GBC. There is emerging evidence regarding the association of probiotics and dietary changes with a decreased incidence of gallstone disease, thereby reducing the chances of GBC, thus additive therapy with natural or genetically engineered probiotic organisms may prove beneficial. However, there is still a dearth of evidence in this aspect [142, 143]. Subtractive therapy is being utilized by genetically engineered
The gut microbiome forms an integral part of the human body and is often referred to as the “forgotten organ”. Its role in health and disease has been studied extensively over the past two decades but the possibility of its role in cancer causation has caught the eye of researchers. The association between the gut microbiome and cancer has provided new insight into understanding the pathophysiology of cancer and planning the management strategies. There is a strong correlation between gut microbial dysbiosis and the development of colorectal and gastric adenocarcinomas, however, their role in hepatobiliary cancers, especially GBC remains poorly understood. This can be owed to the short survival of GBC resulting in vast unexplored domains of this disease and the difficulty to isolate the bacteria involved via routine culture methods. Moreover, the lack of an ideal animal or a human model has greatly limited the research. The advent of the next-generation sequencing methods has seen emerging evidence linking various bacteria to the etiopathogenesis of GBC, but causality is far from proven. A higher level of evidence either in the form of larger meta-analyses or larger epidemiological studies is needed to establish a consensus.
IntechOpen - where academia and industry create content with global impact
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The recent manifesting effects of climate change are considered to have aggravated the negative effects of abiotic stresses on plant productivity. On the other hand, the complexity of plant mechanisms controlling important traits and the limited availability of germplasm for tolerance to certain stresses have restricted genetic advances in major crops for increased yields or for improved other traits. However, some level of success has been achieved in understanding crop tolerance to abiotic stresses; for instance, identification of abscisic acid (ABA) receptors (e.g., ABA-responsive element (ABRE) binding protein/ABRE binding factor (AREB/ABF) transcription factors), and other regulons (e.g., WRKYs, MYB/MYCs, NACs, HSFs, bZIPs and nuclear factor-Y (NF-Y)), has shown potential promise to improve plant tolerance to abiotic stresses. Apart from these major regulons, studies on the post-transcriptional regulation of stress-responsive genes have provided additional opportunities for addressing the molecular basis of cellular stress responses in plants. This chapter focuses on the progress in the study of plant tolerance to abiotic stresses, and describes the major tolerance pathways and implicated signaling factors that have been identified, so far. To link basic and applied research, genes and proteins that play functional roles in mitigating abiotic stress damage are summarized and discussed.",book:{id:"5098",slug:"plant-genomics",title:"Plant Genomics",fullTitle:"Plant Genomics"},signatures:"Geoffrey Onaga and Kerstin Wydra",authors:[{id:"176967",title:"Prof.",name:"Kerstin",middleName:null,surname:"Wydra",slug:"kerstin-wydra",fullName:"Kerstin Wydra"},{id:"176968",title:"Dr.",name:"Geoffrey",middleName:null,surname:"Onaga",slug:"geoffrey-onaga",fullName:"Geoffrey Onaga"}]},{id:"50897",doi:"10.5772/64351",title:"Advances in Plant Tolerance to Biotic Stresses",slug:"advances-in-plant-tolerance-to-biotic-stresses",totalDownloads:3206,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:31,abstract:"Plants being sessile in nature encounter numerous biotic agents, including bacteria, fungi, viruses, insects, nematodes and protists. A great number of publications indicate that biotic agents significantly reduce crop productivity, although there are some biotic agents that symbiotically or synergistically co-exist with plants. Nonetheless, scientists have made significant advances in understanding the plant defence mechanisms expressed against biotic stresses. These mechanisms range from anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, genetics, development and evolution to their associated molecular dynamics. Using model plants, e.g., Arabidopsis and rice, efforts to understand these mechanisms have led to the identification of representative candidate genes, quantitative trait loci (QTLs), proteins and metabolites associated with plant defences against biotic stresses. However, there are drawbacks and insufficiencies in precisely deciphering and deploying these mechanisms, including only modest adaptability of some identified genes or QTLs to changing stress factors. Thus, more systematic efforts are needed to explore and expand the development of biotic stress resistant germplasm. In this chapter, we provided a comprehensive overview and discussed plant defence mechanisms involving molecular and cellular adaptation to biotic stresses. The latest achievements and perspective on plant molecular responses to biotic stresses, including gene expression, and targeted functional analyses of the genes expressed against biotic stresses have been presented and discussed.",book:{id:"5098",slug:"plant-genomics",title:"Plant Genomics",fullTitle:"Plant Genomics"},signatures:"Geoffrey Onaga and Kerstin Wydra",authors:[{id:"176967",title:"Prof.",name:"Kerstin",middleName:null,surname:"Wydra",slug:"kerstin-wydra",fullName:"Kerstin Wydra"}]},{id:"48940",doi:"10.5772/60873",title:"Biochemical Parameters in Tomato Fruits from Different Cultivars as Functional Foods for Agricultural, Industrial, and Pharmaceutical Uses",slug:"biochemical-parameters-in-tomato-fruits-from-different-cultivars-as-functional-foods-for-agricultura",totalDownloads:2446,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Tomato and tomato based products are an important agricultural production worldwide. More than 80 % of grown tomatoes in the worldwide are processing in the products such as tomato juice, paste, puree, catsup, sauce, and salsa. Tomato fruit is rich in phytochemicals and vitamins. Tomato nutritional value, color, fruit and flavor of their products depends mainly on lycopene, β-carotene, ascorbic acid and sugars and their ratio in fruits. Epidemiological studies and the results associated with the consumption of tomato products against the prevention of chronic diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular disease, confirming the tomato products as a functional food, and show that lycopene and β-carotene acts as an antioxidant. In order to increase the amount of these elements in tomato fruit, it is important to evaluate and investigate tomato genotypes influence to the carotenoids accumulation. Studies have confirmed that the carotenoid content in tomato fruits is determined by genotypic characteristics. In this work the main attention will be focused on from the biochemical and physical properties in tomato of different varieties, chemical and physical properties, to functional properties of supercritical fluid extraction of lycopene from tomato processing by products supercritical fluid tomato extracts.",book:{id:"4596",slug:"plants-for-the-future",title:"Plants for the Future",fullTitle:"Plants for the Future"},signatures:"Pranas Viskelis, Audrius Radzevicius, Dalia Urbonaviciene, Jonas\nViskelis, Rasa Karkleliene and Ceslovas Bobinas",authors:[{id:"83785",title:"Prof.",name:"Pranas",middleName:null,surname:"Viskelis",slug:"pranas-viskelis",fullName:"Pranas Viskelis"},{id:"171932",title:"Dr.",name:"Dalia",middleName:null,surname:"Urbonavičienė",slug:"dalia-urbonaviciene",fullName:"Dalia Urbonavičienė"},{id:"173562",title:"Dr.",name:"Audrius",middleName:null,surname:"Radzevicius",slug:"audrius-radzevicius",fullName:"Audrius Radzevicius"},{id:"173563",title:"MSc.",name:"Jonas",middleName:null,surname:"Viskelis",slug:"jonas-viskelis",fullName:"Jonas Viskelis"},{id:"173564",title:"Dr.",name:"Rasa",middleName:null,surname:"Karkleliene",slug:"rasa-karkleliene",fullName:"Rasa Karkleliene"},{id:"173565",title:"Dr.",name:"Ceslovas",middleName:null,surname:"Bobinas",slug:"ceslovas-bobinas",fullName:"Ceslovas Bobinas"}]},{id:"50295",doi:"10.5772/63361",title:"Genomics of Salinity Tolerance in Plants",slug:"genomics-of-salinity-tolerance-in-plants",totalDownloads:2680,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Plants are frequently exposed to wide range of harsh environmental factors, such as drought, salinity, cold, heat, and insect attack. Being sessile in nature, plants have developed different strategies to adapt and grow under rapidly changing environments. These strategies involve rearrangements at the molecular level starting from transcription, regulation of mRNA processing, translation, and protein modification or its turnover. Plants show stress-specific regulation of transcription that affects their transcriptome under stress conditions. The transcriptionally regulated genes have different roles under stress response. Generally, seedling and reproductive stages are more susceptible to stress. Thus, stress response studies during these growth stages reveal novel differentially regulated genes or proteins with important functions in plant stress adaptation. Exploiting the functional genomics and bioinformatics studies paved the way in understanding the relationship between genotype and phenotype of an organism suffering from environmental stress. Future research programs can be focused on the development of transgenic plants with enhanced stress tolerance in field conditions based upon the outcome of genomic approaches and knowing the mystery of nucleotides sequences hidden in cells.",book:{id:"5098",slug:"plant-genomics",title:"Plant Genomics",fullTitle:"Plant Genomics"},signatures:"Abdul Qayyum Rao, Salah ud Din, Sidra Akhtar, Muhammad Bilal\nSarwar, Mukhtar Ahmed, Bushra Rashid, Muhammad Azmat Ullah\nKhan, Uzma Qaisar, Ahmad Ali Shahid, Idrees Ahmad Nasir and\nTayyab Husnain",authors:[{id:"83285",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdul Qayyum",middleName:null,surname:"Rao",slug:"abdul-qayyum-rao",fullName:"Abdul Qayyum Rao"},{id:"147560",title:"Prof.",name:"Tayyab",middleName:null,surname:"Husnain",slug:"tayyab-husnain",fullName:"Tayyab Husnain"},{id:"179282",title:"Mr.",name:"Salah Ud",middleName:null,surname:"Din",slug:"salah-ud-din",fullName:"Salah Ud Din"},{id:"179283",title:"Ms.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Akhtar",slug:"sidra-akhtar",fullName:"Sidra Akhtar"},{id:"179284",title:"Mr.",name:"Bilal",middleName:null,surname:"Sarwar",slug:"bilal-sarwar",fullName:"Bilal Sarwar"},{id:"179285",title:"Mr.",name:"Mukhtar",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"mukhtar-ahmed",fullName:"Mukhtar Ahmed"},{id:"179286",title:"Dr.",name:"Uzma",middleName:null,surname:"Qaisar",slug:"uzma-qaisar",fullName:"Uzma Qaisar"},{id:"179287",title:"Dr.",name:"Bushra",middleName:null,surname:"Rashid",slug:"bushra-rashid",fullName:"Bushra Rashid"},{id:"179288",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Shahid",slug:"ahmad-ali-shahid",fullName:"Ahmad Ali Shahid"},{id:"179289",title:"Dr.",name:"Idrees Ahmad",middleName:null,surname:"Nasir",slug:"idrees-ahmad-nasir",fullName:"Idrees Ahmad Nasir"}]},{id:"48893",doi:"10.5772/60936",title:"Understanding the Genetics of Clubroot Resistance for Effectively Controlling this Disease in Brassica Species",slug:"understanding-the-genetics-of-clubroot-resistance-for-effectively-controlling-this-disease-in-brassi",totalDownloads:2263,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Clubroot disease is one of the most serious diseases of Brassica species, which is caused by soil-borne pathogen Plasmodiophora brassicae Woronin. Clubroot disease has a long history on vegetable crops belonging to the Brassica species; most recently, this disease is also invading rapeseed/canola crop around the globe. The clubroot disease causes significant yield and quality losses in highly infected fields. Clubroot pathogens invade into the host plant roots and infect root tissues with the formation of abnormal clubs, named as galls, which results in incompetent plant roots to intake water and nutrients and eventually dead plants. As it is a soil-borne disease and accomplishes its disease cycle in two different phases and both phases are highly efficient to damage root system as well as to release more inoculum, there are many challenges to control this disease through chemical and other cultural practices. In general, clubroot disease can be effectively managed by developing resistant cultivars. In this chapter, various resistance sources of clubroot disease in different Brassica species have been discussed with potential applications in canola/rapeseed breeding programs worldwide. Importance of gene mapping and molecular marker development efforts by different research studies for clubroot in B. rapa, B. oleracea, and B. napus has been stressed. Transcriptomic and metabolomic changes occurring during host–pathogen interactions are also covered in this chapter, which would enhance our understanding and utilization of clubroot resistance in Brassica species.",book:{id:"4596",slug:"plants-for-the-future",title:"Plants for the Future",fullTitle:"Plants for the Future"},signatures:"Arvind H. Hirani and Genyi Li",authors:[{id:"173418",title:"Dr.",name:"Genyi",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"genyi-li",fullName:"Genyi Li"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"48920",title:"Molecular Farming in Plants",slug:"molecular-farming-in-plants",totalDownloads:3319,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Plant molecular farming describes the production of recombinant proteins and other secondary metabolites in plants. This technology depends on a genetic transformation of plants that can be accomplished by the methods of stable gene transfer, such as gene transfer to nuclei and chloroplasts, and unstable transfer methods like viral vectors. An increasing quest for biomedicines has coincided with the high costs and inefficient production systems (bacterial, microbial eukaryotes, mammalian cells, insect cells, and transgenic animals). Therefore, transgenic plants as the bioreactors of a new generation have been the subject of considerable attention with respect to their advantages, such as the safety of recombinant proteins (antibodies, enzymes, vaccines, growth factors, etc.), and their potential for the large-scale and low-cost production. However, the application of transgenic plants can entail some worrying concerns, namely the amplification and diffusion of transgene, accumulation of recombinant protein toxicity in the environment, contamination of food chain, and costs of subsequent processing. The given threats need to be the subject of further caution and investigation to generate valuable products, such as enzymes, pharmaceutical proteins, and biomedicines by the safest, cheapest, and most efficient methods.",book:{id:"4596",slug:"plants-for-the-future",title:"Plants for the Future",fullTitle:"Plants for the Future"},signatures:"Tarinejad Alireza and Rahimi Esfanjani Nader",authors:[{id:"173317",title:"Dr.",name:"Alireza",middleName:null,surname:"Tarinejad",slug:"alireza-tarinejad",fullName:"Alireza Tarinejad"},{id:"174002",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Nader",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimi Esfanjani",slug:"nader-rahimi-esfanjani",fullName:"Nader Rahimi Esfanjani"}]},{id:"48940",title:"Biochemical Parameters in Tomato Fruits from Different Cultivars as Functional Foods for Agricultural, Industrial, and Pharmaceutical Uses",slug:"biochemical-parameters-in-tomato-fruits-from-different-cultivars-as-functional-foods-for-agricultura",totalDownloads:2446,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Tomato and tomato based products are an important agricultural production worldwide. More than 80 % of grown tomatoes in the worldwide are processing in the products such as tomato juice, paste, puree, catsup, sauce, and salsa. Tomato fruit is rich in phytochemicals and vitamins. Tomato nutritional value, color, fruit and flavor of their products depends mainly on lycopene, β-carotene, ascorbic acid and sugars and their ratio in fruits. Epidemiological studies and the results associated with the consumption of tomato products against the prevention of chronic diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular disease, confirming the tomato products as a functional food, and show that lycopene and β-carotene acts as an antioxidant. In order to increase the amount of these elements in tomato fruit, it is important to evaluate and investigate tomato genotypes influence to the carotenoids accumulation. Studies have confirmed that the carotenoid content in tomato fruits is determined by genotypic characteristics. In this work the main attention will be focused on from the biochemical and physical properties in tomato of different varieties, chemical and physical properties, to functional properties of supercritical fluid extraction of lycopene from tomato processing by products supercritical fluid tomato extracts.",book:{id:"4596",slug:"plants-for-the-future",title:"Plants for the Future",fullTitle:"Plants for the Future"},signatures:"Pranas Viskelis, Audrius Radzevicius, Dalia Urbonaviciene, Jonas\nViskelis, Rasa Karkleliene and Ceslovas Bobinas",authors:[{id:"83785",title:"Prof.",name:"Pranas",middleName:null,surname:"Viskelis",slug:"pranas-viskelis",fullName:"Pranas Viskelis"},{id:"171932",title:"Dr.",name:"Dalia",middleName:null,surname:"Urbonavičienė",slug:"dalia-urbonaviciene",fullName:"Dalia Urbonavičienė"},{id:"173562",title:"Dr.",name:"Audrius",middleName:null,surname:"Radzevicius",slug:"audrius-radzevicius",fullName:"Audrius Radzevicius"},{id:"173563",title:"MSc.",name:"Jonas",middleName:null,surname:"Viskelis",slug:"jonas-viskelis",fullName:"Jonas Viskelis"},{id:"173564",title:"Dr.",name:"Rasa",middleName:null,surname:"Karkleliene",slug:"rasa-karkleliene",fullName:"Rasa Karkleliene"},{id:"173565",title:"Dr.",name:"Ceslovas",middleName:null,surname:"Bobinas",slug:"ceslovas-bobinas",fullName:"Ceslovas Bobinas"}]},{id:"51235",title:"Advances in Plant Tolerance to Abiotic Stresses",slug:"advances-in-plant-tolerance-to-abiotic-stresses",totalDownloads:4335,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:45,abstract:"During the last 50 years, it has been shown that abiotic stresses influence plant growth and crop production greatly, and crop yields have evidently stagnated or decreased in economically important crops, where only high inputs assure high yields. The recent manifesting effects of climate change are considered to have aggravated the negative effects of abiotic stresses on plant productivity. On the other hand, the complexity of plant mechanisms controlling important traits and the limited availability of germplasm for tolerance to certain stresses have restricted genetic advances in major crops for increased yields or for improved other traits. However, some level of success has been achieved in understanding crop tolerance to abiotic stresses; for instance, identification of abscisic acid (ABA) receptors (e.g., ABA-responsive element (ABRE) binding protein/ABRE binding factor (AREB/ABF) transcription factors), and other regulons (e.g., WRKYs, MYB/MYCs, NACs, HSFs, bZIPs and nuclear factor-Y (NF-Y)), has shown potential promise to improve plant tolerance to abiotic stresses. Apart from these major regulons, studies on the post-transcriptional regulation of stress-responsive genes have provided additional opportunities for addressing the molecular basis of cellular stress responses in plants. This chapter focuses on the progress in the study of plant tolerance to abiotic stresses, and describes the major tolerance pathways and implicated signaling factors that have been identified, so far. To link basic and applied research, genes and proteins that play functional roles in mitigating abiotic stress damage are summarized and discussed.",book:{id:"5098",slug:"plant-genomics",title:"Plant Genomics",fullTitle:"Plant Genomics"},signatures:"Geoffrey Onaga and Kerstin Wydra",authors:[{id:"176967",title:"Prof.",name:"Kerstin",middleName:null,surname:"Wydra",slug:"kerstin-wydra",fullName:"Kerstin Wydra"},{id:"176968",title:"Dr.",name:"Geoffrey",middleName:null,surname:"Onaga",slug:"geoffrey-onaga",fullName:"Geoffrey Onaga"}]},{id:"49554",title:"The Extraordinary Nature of RNA Interference in Understanding Gene Downregulation Mechanism in Plants",slug:"the-extraordinary-nature-of-rna-interference-in-understanding-gene-downregulation-mechanism-in-plant",totalDownloads:2318,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Gene silencing (also known as ribonucleic acid [RNA] interference [RNAi] or interfering RNA) was first recognized in plants and is considered one of the most significant discoveries in molecular biology in the last several years. These short-chain ribonucleic acid molecules regulate eukaryotic gene expression. The phenomenon involves a process that promotes RNA transcripts degradation through complementarity between RNA molecules and RNAi transcripts, resulting in the reduction of their translation levels. There are two principal classes of regulatory RNA molecules: small interfering RNAs (siRNA) and microRNAs (miRNA). Both are generated from the cleavage of double-stranded self-complementary RNA hairpins by a DICER enzyme that belongs to the RNase III family. Small RNAs (of about 21–24 nucleotides in size) guide specific effector Argonaute protein to a target nucleotide sequence by complementary base pairing. Thereby, the effector protein complex downregulates the expression of RNA or DNA targets. In plants, cis-regulatory RNAi sequences are involved in defense mechanisms against antagonistic organisms and transposition events, while trans-regulatory sequences participate in growth-related gene expression. siRNA also performs neutral antiviral defense mechanisms and adaptive stress responses. This document is an attempt to scrutinize the RNAi nature in understanding gene downregulation mechanism in plants and some technical applications.",book:{id:"5098",slug:"plant-genomics",title:"Plant Genomics",fullTitle:"Plant Genomics"},signatures:"Jorge Ricaño-Rodríguez, Jacel Adame-García, Silvia Portilla-\nVázquez, José M. Ramos-Prado and Enrique Hipólito-Romero",authors:[{id:"176624",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Ricaño-Rodríguez",slug:"jorge-ricano-rodriguez",fullName:"Jorge Ricaño-Rodríguez"},{id:"176991",title:"Dr.",name:"Jacel",middleName:null,surname:"Adame-García",slug:"jacel-adame-garcia",fullName:"Jacel Adame-García"},{id:"176992",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrique",middleName:null,surname:"Hipólito-Romero1",slug:"enrique-hipolito-romero1",fullName:"Enrique Hipólito-Romero1"},{id:"176993",title:"Dr.",name:"José María",middleName:null,surname:"Ramos-Prado",slug:"jose-maria-ramos-prado",fullName:"José María Ramos-Prado"},{id:"177760",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvia",middleName:null,surname:"Portilla-Vázquez",slug:"silvia-portilla-vazquez",fullName:"Silvia Portilla-Vázquez"}]},{id:"50295",title:"Genomics of Salinity Tolerance in Plants",slug:"genomics-of-salinity-tolerance-in-plants",totalDownloads:2680,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Plants are frequently exposed to wide range of harsh environmental factors, such as drought, salinity, cold, heat, and insect attack. Being sessile in nature, plants have developed different strategies to adapt and grow under rapidly changing environments. These strategies involve rearrangements at the molecular level starting from transcription, regulation of mRNA processing, translation, and protein modification or its turnover. Plants show stress-specific regulation of transcription that affects their transcriptome under stress conditions. The transcriptionally regulated genes have different roles under stress response. Generally, seedling and reproductive stages are more susceptible to stress. Thus, stress response studies during these growth stages reveal novel differentially regulated genes or proteins with important functions in plant stress adaptation. Exploiting the functional genomics and bioinformatics studies paved the way in understanding the relationship between genotype and phenotype of an organism suffering from environmental stress. Future research programs can be focused on the development of transgenic plants with enhanced stress tolerance in field conditions based upon the outcome of genomic approaches and knowing the mystery of nucleotides sequences hidden in cells.",book:{id:"5098",slug:"plant-genomics",title:"Plant Genomics",fullTitle:"Plant Genomics"},signatures:"Abdul Qayyum Rao, Salah ud Din, Sidra Akhtar, Muhammad Bilal\nSarwar, Mukhtar Ahmed, Bushra Rashid, Muhammad Azmat Ullah\nKhan, Uzma Qaisar, Ahmad Ali Shahid, Idrees Ahmad Nasir and\nTayyab Husnain",authors:[{id:"83285",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdul Qayyum",middleName:null,surname:"Rao",slug:"abdul-qayyum-rao",fullName:"Abdul Qayyum Rao"},{id:"147560",title:"Prof.",name:"Tayyab",middleName:null,surname:"Husnain",slug:"tayyab-husnain",fullName:"Tayyab Husnain"},{id:"179282",title:"Mr.",name:"Salah Ud",middleName:null,surname:"Din",slug:"salah-ud-din",fullName:"Salah Ud Din"},{id:"179283",title:"Ms.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Akhtar",slug:"sidra-akhtar",fullName:"Sidra Akhtar"},{id:"179284",title:"Mr.",name:"Bilal",middleName:null,surname:"Sarwar",slug:"bilal-sarwar",fullName:"Bilal Sarwar"},{id:"179285",title:"Mr.",name:"Mukhtar",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"mukhtar-ahmed",fullName:"Mukhtar Ahmed"},{id:"179286",title:"Dr.",name:"Uzma",middleName:null,surname:"Qaisar",slug:"uzma-qaisar",fullName:"Uzma Qaisar"},{id:"179287",title:"Dr.",name:"Bushra",middleName:null,surname:"Rashid",slug:"bushra-rashid",fullName:"Bushra Rashid"},{id:"179288",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Shahid",slug:"ahmad-ali-shahid",fullName:"Ahmad Ali Shahid"},{id:"179289",title:"Dr.",name:"Idrees Ahmad",middleName:null,surname:"Nasir",slug:"idrees-ahmad-nasir",fullName:"Idrees Ahmad Nasir"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"365",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11413,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983"},editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",slug:"attilio-rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",slug:"yanfei-(jacob)-qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:12,paginationItems:[{id:"82374",title:"The Potential of the Purinergic System as a Therapeutic Target of Natural Compounds in Cutaneous Melanoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105457",signatures:"Gilnei Bruno da Silva, Daiane Manica, Marcelo Moreno and Margarete Dulce Bagatini",slug:"the-potential-of-the-purinergic-system-as-a-therapeutic-target-of-natural-compounds-in-cutaneous-mel",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82096",title:"An Important Component of Tumor Progression: Fatty Acids",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105087",signatures:"Jin Wang, Qifei Wang and Guangzhen Wu",slug:"an-important-component-of-tumor-progression-fatty-acids",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - 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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. 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