Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\n
Seeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\n
Over these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\n
We are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\n
Thank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\n
Now with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n
"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\n
Seeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\n
Over these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\n
We are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\n
Thank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\n
Now with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5595",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Phosphoric Acid Industry - Problems and Solutions",title:"Phosphoric Acid Industry",subtitle:"Problems and Solutions",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Phosphoric acid is an important industrial acid that is utilized for manufacturing phosphatic fertilizers and industrial products, for pickling and posterior treatment of steel surfaces to prevent corrosion, for ensuring appropriate paint adhesion, and for the food and beverages industry, e.g., cola-type drinks to impart taste and slight acidity and to avoid iron sedimentation. This industry is spread out in countries of four continents - Asia, Africa, America, and Europe - which operate mines and production plants and produce fertilizers. Phosacid is one of the most widely known acids. The global phosacid market and its many phosphate derivatives are expanding worldwide; this trend is expected to continue in the next years, thus producing innovative products.",isbn:"978-953-51-3354-4",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3353-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4750-3",doi:"10.5772/63661",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"phosphoric-acid-industry-problems-and-solutions",numberOfPages:170,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"ec75fb45faeb353659ea5c4d962db77e",bookSignature:"Michael Schorr Wiener and Benjamin Valdez",publishedDate:"July 12th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5595.jpg",numberOfDownloads:10768,numberOfWosCitations:8,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:9,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:18,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 23rd 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 13th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 9th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 8th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 6th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"16436",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Schorr",slug:"michael-schorr",fullName:"Michael Schorr",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/16436/images/system/16436.jpg",biography:"Michael Schorr is a Professor and Doctor Honoris Causa at the Institute of Engineering of the University of Baja California in Mexico, and a member of the Mexican National System of Investigators, Level II. He was granted the B.Sc. degree in Chemistry and the M.Sc. degree in Materials Engineering, both by the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology and, during the period of 1986-2004, served as Editor of the Corrosion Reviews journal. He was actively involved in the development of desalination processes in Israel, focusing particularly on the selection and testing of corrosion-resistant materials required for fabrication of the pertinent equipment and plants. Professor Schorr has fifty years of experience in controlling environmental and industrial corrosion in Latin America, Europe, USA, South Africa and Israel. He authored and co-authored 240 scientific and technical publications on corrosion science, engineering and technology, as well as several books in English, Spanish and Hebrew.",institutionString:"Autonomous University of Baja California",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"65522",title:"Dr.",name:"Benjamin",middleName:null,surname:"Valdez",slug:"benjamin-valdez",fullName:"Benjamin Valdez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/65522/images/system/65522.jpg",biography:"Benjamin Valdez is the director of the Institute of Engineering of the University of Baja California, a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences and the National System of Researchers of Mexico. He was granted a B.S. degree in Chemical Engineering, an M.Sc. degree in Chemistry and a PhD. in Chemistry by the Autonomous University of Guadalajara. He has been Guest Editor for several special issues in journals on materials and member of the editorial boards of Corrosion Reviews, Corrosion Engineering Science and Technology and Revista Metalurgia. Dr. Valdez is the Coordinator of the National Corrosion Network. He is a full professor at the University of Baja California participating in activities on basic research, technological development and teaching postgraduate programs at the UABC and the Autonomous University of Campeche. His activities include research on the topics; corrosion and materials, electrochemical and industrial processes, chemical processing of agricultural and natural products, and consultancy in corrosion control in industrial plants and environments. He is the author of books, chapters in books and scientific articles on electrochemistry, biodeterioration and corrosion of materials and general chemistry. He is the head of the corrosion and materials department and the founder of the master and doctoral program in sciences and engineering for UABC. His professional career includes the collaboration with chemical, oil, water and energy industries of Mexico, and the preservation of the industrial infrastructure.",institutionString:"Autonomous University of Baja California",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"9",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"490",title:"Industrial Chemistry",slug:"industrial-chemistry"}],chapters:[{id:"55389",title:"Thermochemistry and Kinetics of the Reactions of Apatite Phosphates with Acid Solutions (II)",doi:"10.5772/68087",slug:"thermochemistry-and-kinetics-of-the-reactions-of-apatite-phosphates-with-acid-solutions-ii-",totalDownloads:1238,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Mohamed Jemal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55389",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55389",authors:[{id:"15449",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"Jemal",slug:"mohamed-jemal",fullName:"Mohamed Jemal"}],corrections:null},{id:"56294",title:"Recent Trends in Phosphatase-Mediated Bioremediation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68658",slug:"recent-trends-in-phosphatase-mediated-bioremediation",totalDownloads:1567,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Gouri Chaudhuri, Uma Selvaraj, Venu Babu and Richard W.\nThilagaraj",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56294",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56294",authors:[{id:"192857",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",surname:"Thilagaraj",slug:"richard-thilagaraj",fullName:"Richard Thilagaraj"},{id:"195962",title:"Dr.",name:"P. Venu",surname:"Babu",slug:"p.-venu-babu",fullName:"P. Venu Babu"},{id:"195963",title:"Dr.",name:"Gouri",surname:"Chaudhuri",slug:"gouri-chaudhuri",fullName:"Gouri Chaudhuri"},{id:"195964",title:"Ms.",name:"Uma",surname:"Selvaraj",slug:"uma-selvaraj",fullName:"Uma Selvaraj"}],corrections:null},{id:"55434",title:"Diluted Thermopressurized Phosphoric Acid: A Gentle Proton Donor for Polysaccharide Acid Depolymerization and (Bio)processing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68236",slug:"diluted-thermopressurized-phosphoric-acid-a-gentle-proton-donor-for-polysaccharide-acid-depolymeriza",totalDownloads:1133,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"José Domingos Fontana, Marcela Tiboni and Heidegrid Siebert\nKoop",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55434",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55434",authors:[{id:"192320",title:"Prof.",name:"José Domingos",surname:"Fontana",slug:"jose-domingos-fontana",fullName:"José Domingos Fontana"},{id:"195692",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcela",surname:"Tiboni",slug:"marcela-tiboni",fullName:"Marcela Tiboni"},{id:"195694",title:"Dr.",name:"Heidegrid",surname:"Siebert Koop",slug:"heidegrid-siebert-koop",fullName:"Heidegrid Siebert Koop"}],corrections:null},{id:"56162",title:"Phosphoric Acid Industry: Problems and Solutions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70031",slug:"phosphoric-acid-industry-problems-and-solutions",totalDownloads:3903,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,signatures:"Benjamín Valdez Salas, Michael Schorr Wiener and Juan Ricardo\nSalinas Martinez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56162",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56162",authors:[{id:"16436",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",surname:"Schorr",slug:"michael-schorr",fullName:"Michael Schorr"}],corrections:null},{id:"55219",title:"Occupational, Public and Environmental Radiological Impact Caused by the Phosphoric Acid Industry: The Case of Huelva (Spain)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68567",slug:"occupational-public-and-environmental-radiological-impact-caused-by-the-phosphoric-acid-industry-the",totalDownloads:805,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"José Luis Guerrero‐Márquez, Fernando Mosqueda Peña, Juan\nMantero, Guillermo Manjón, Rafael García‐Tenorio and Juan Pedro\nBolívar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55219",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55219",authors:[{id:"57724",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",surname:"Manjon",slug:"guillermo-manjon",fullName:"Guillermo Manjon"},{id:"111020",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan Pedro",surname:"Bolivar",slug:"juan-pedro-bolivar",fullName:"Juan Pedro Bolivar"},{id:"111022",title:"Prof.",name:"Rafael",surname:"Gacia Tenorio",slug:"rafael-gacia-tenorio",fullName:"Rafael Gacia Tenorio"},{id:"193940",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",surname:"Mosqueda",slug:"fernando-mosqueda",fullName:"Fernando Mosqueda"},{id:"193941",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",surname:"Mantero",slug:"juan-mantero",fullName:"Juan Mantero"},{id:"193942",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"José Luis",surname:"Guerrero-Márquez",slug:"jose-luis-guerrero-marquez",fullName:"José Luis Guerrero-Márquez"}],corrections:null},{id:"54724",title:"Phosphate-Based Organic-Inorganic Hybrid Materials: Design, Construction and Technological Applications",doi:"10.5772/68140",slug:"phosphate-based-organic-inorganic-hybrid-materials-design-construction-and-technological-application",totalDownloads:980,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Hussein M. H. Alhendawi, Ernesto Brunet and Elena Rodríguez-\nPayán",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54724",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54724",authors:[{id:"104228",title:"Prof.",name:"Ernesto",surname:"Brunet",slug:"ernesto-brunet",fullName:"Ernesto Brunet"},{id:"193745",title:"Dr.",name:"Hussein",surname:"Alhendawi",slug:"hussein-alhendawi",fullName:"Hussein Alhendawi"},{id:"193746",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",surname:"Rodríguez-Payán",slug:"elena-rodriguez-payan",fullName:"Elena Rodríguez-Payán"}],corrections:null},{id:"54906",title:"Purification of Phosphoric Acid by Liquid‐Liquid Equilibrium",doi:"10.5772/67926",slug:"purification-of-phosphoric-acid-by-liquid-liquid-equilibrium",totalDownloads:1144,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Khatereh Bahrpaima",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54906",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54906",authors:[{id:"193562",title:"Dr.",name:"Khatereh",surname:"Bahrpaima",slug:"khatereh-bahrpaima",fullName:"Khatereh Bahrpaima"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"51",title:"Desalination",subtitle:"Trends and Technologies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"desalination-trends-and-technologies",bookSignature:"Michael Schorr",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/51.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16436",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",surname:"Schorr",slug:"michael-schorr",fullName:"Michael Schorr"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"68579",slug:"corrigendum-to-industrial-heat-exchanger-operation-and-maintenance-to-minimize-fouling-and-corrosion",title:"Corrigendum to: Industrial Heat Exchanger: Operation and Maintenance to Minimize Fouling and Corrosion",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/68579.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68579",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68579",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/68579",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/68579",chapter:{id:"52929",slug:"industrial-heat-exchanger-operation-and-maintenance-to-minimize-fouling-and-corrosion",signatures:"Teng Kah Hou, Salim Newaz Kazi, Abu Bakar Mahat, Chew Bee Teng,\nAhmed Al-Shamma’a and Andy Shaw",dateSubmitted:"March 23rd 2016",dateReviewed:"October 10th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"April 26th 2017",book:{id:"6080",title:"Heat Exchangers",subtitle:"Advanced Features and Applications",fullTitle:"Heat Exchangers - Advanced Features and Applications",slug:"heat-exchangers-advanced-features-and-applications",publishedDate:"April 26th 2017",bookSignature:"S M Sohel Murshed and Manuel Matos Lopes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6080.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24904",title:"Prof.",name:"S. M. Sohel",middleName:null,surname:"Murshed",slug:"s.-m.-sohel-murshed",fullName:"S. M. Sohel Murshed"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"93483",title:"Dr.",name:"Salim Newaz",middleName:null,surname:"Kazi",fullName:"Salim Newaz Kazi",slug:"salim-newaz-kazi",email:"salimnewaz@um.edu.my",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"187135",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kah Hou",middleName:null,surname:"Teng",fullName:"Kah Hou Teng",slug:"kah-hou-teng",email:"alex_teng1989@hotmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Liverpool John Moores University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"194347",title:"Prof.",name:"Abu Bakar",middleName:null,surname:"Mahat",fullName:"Abu Bakar Mahat",slug:"abu-bakar-mahat",email:"ir_abakar@um.edu.my",position:null,institution:null},{id:"194348",title:"Dr.",name:"Bee Teng",middleName:null,surname:"Chew",fullName:"Bee Teng Chew",slug:"bee-teng-chew",email:"chewbeeteng@um.edu.my",position:null,institution:null},{id:"194349",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Shamma'A",fullName:"Ahmed Al-Shamma'A",slug:"ahmed-al-shamma'a",email:"A.Al-Shamma'a@ljmu.ac.uk",position:null,institution:null},{id:"194350",title:"Prof.",name:"Andy",middleName:null,surname:"Shaw",fullName:"Andy Shaw",slug:"andy-shaw",email:"A.Shaw@ljmu.ac.uk",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"52929",slug:"industrial-heat-exchanger-operation-and-maintenance-to-minimize-fouling-and-corrosion",signatures:"Teng Kah Hou, Salim Newaz Kazi, Abu Bakar Mahat, Chew Bee Teng,\nAhmed Al-Shamma’a and Andy Shaw",dateSubmitted:"March 23rd 2016",dateReviewed:"October 10th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"April 26th 2017",book:{id:"6080",title:"Heat Exchangers",subtitle:"Advanced Features and Applications",fullTitle:"Heat Exchangers - Advanced Features and Applications",slug:"heat-exchangers-advanced-features-and-applications",publishedDate:"April 26th 2017",bookSignature:"S M Sohel Murshed and Manuel Matos Lopes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6080.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24904",title:"Prof.",name:"S. M. Sohel",middleName:null,surname:"Murshed",slug:"s.-m.-sohel-murshed",fullName:"S. M. Sohel Murshed"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"93483",title:"Dr.",name:"Salim Newaz",middleName:null,surname:"Kazi",fullName:"Salim Newaz Kazi",slug:"salim-newaz-kazi",email:"salimnewaz@um.edu.my",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"187135",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kah Hou",middleName:null,surname:"Teng",fullName:"Kah Hou Teng",slug:"kah-hou-teng",email:"alex_teng1989@hotmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Liverpool John Moores University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"194347",title:"Prof.",name:"Abu Bakar",middleName:null,surname:"Mahat",fullName:"Abu Bakar Mahat",slug:"abu-bakar-mahat",email:"ir_abakar@um.edu.my",position:null,institution:null},{id:"194348",title:"Dr.",name:"Bee Teng",middleName:null,surname:"Chew",fullName:"Bee Teng Chew",slug:"bee-teng-chew",email:"chewbeeteng@um.edu.my",position:null,institution:null},{id:"194349",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Shamma'A",fullName:"Ahmed Al-Shamma'A",slug:"ahmed-al-shamma'a",email:"A.Al-Shamma'a@ljmu.ac.uk",position:null,institution:null},{id:"194350",title:"Prof.",name:"Andy",middleName:null,surname:"Shaw",fullName:"Andy Shaw",slug:"andy-shaw",email:"A.Shaw@ljmu.ac.uk",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"6080",title:"Heat Exchangers",subtitle:"Advanced Features and Applications",fullTitle:"Heat Exchangers - Advanced Features and Applications",slug:"heat-exchangers-advanced-features-and-applications",publishedDate:"April 26th 2017",bookSignature:"S M Sohel Murshed and Manuel Matos Lopes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6080.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24904",title:"Prof.",name:"S. M. Sohel",middleName:null,surname:"Murshed",slug:"s.-m.-sohel-murshed",fullName:"S. M. Sohel Murshed"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"8640",leadTitle:null,title:"Cancer Chemoresistance",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tNeoplasia is considered to be the result of aberrations in the homeostatic mechanisms regulating cell turnover. This may be due to a combination of genetic, epigenetic and stochastic factors. Drug resistance is one of the major reasons for treatment failure and tumor relapse. Hence, an improved understanding of the mechanisms of neoplastic growth is possible based on systematic cataloging of the druggable targets for each of the major hallmarks of cancer. This approach can also aid in the refinement and validation of the in vitro and in vivo models, as well as provide pointers for the development of novel systems. Genomic instability and mutation, as well as tumor-promoting inflammation should be included as underlying factors influencing the process of neoplasia along with factors dysregulating energetics. The focus of this book is to update the reader on an integrated perspective including epigenetics data and corroborative mechanistic evidence from multiple model systems including humans. This will enable the reader to better comprehend the current scenario in terms of the pharmacological aspects pertaining to cancer chemoresistance. Also, the challenges for the molecular oncology will be discussed as well as probable strategies and a road-map for cancer chemotherapeutic drug development.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:null,priceUsd:null,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2a80fe34c552bb6ca76ef9cd8f21e377",bookSignature:"Dr. Suresh P.K.",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8640.jpg",keywords:"Molecular Mechanisms of Aberrations, Proliferation Mechanisms, Types of Cell Death, Signal Transduction Pathways, Angiogenesis in Cancer, Angiogenesis in Wound Healing, Molecular Mechanisms of Invasion, Molecular Mechanisms of Metastasis, Telomeres, Stem Cells, Delivery Challenges, Evasion Mechanisms",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 5th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 26th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 25th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 15th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 14th 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"190244",title:"Dr.",name:"Suresh",middleName:null,surname:"P.K.",slug:"suresh-p.k.",fullName:"Suresh P.K.",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190244/images/system/190244.jpeg",biography:"P.K. Suresh is a Professor at the School of Biosciences & Technology, VIT, Vellore (2009 to date). He has approximately 18.5 years of teaching, research and administrative experience in Biotechnology & Industrial Biotechnology and allied disciplines. He had also headed Biotechnology & Industrial Biotechnology departments and has handled a wide variety of theory papers. He has 45 research publications in SCOPUS-indexed journals and has completed 3 funded projects as the Principal Investigator. He has made several presentations at International conferences. He has guided 5 doctoral students (2 as co-guide) and is currently guiding 5 students in the doctoral program. He has organized and participated actively in several Faculty Development Programs in areas as diverse as Stem Cells, Bio-inspired Design and Pharmacokinetics and was also a resource person in these events.",institutionString:"School of Biosciences & Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Vellore Institute of Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"6",title:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"177731",firstName:"Dajana",lastName:"Pemac",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/177731/images/4726_n.jpg",email:"dajana@intechopen.com",biography:"As a Commissioning Editor at IntechOpen, I work closely with our collaborators in the selection of book topics for the yearly publishing plan and in preparing new book catalogues for each season. This requires extensive analysis of developing trends in scientific research in order to offer our readers relevant content. Creating the book catalogue is also based on keeping track of the most read, downloaded and highly cited chapters and books and relaunching similar topics. I am also responsible for consulting with our Scientific Advisors on which book topics to add to our catalogue and sending possible book proposal topics to them for evaluation. Once the catalogue is complete, I contact leading researchers in their respective fields and ask them to become possible Academic Editors for each book project. Once an editor is appointed, I prepare all necessary information required for them to begin their work, as well as guide them through the editorship process. I also assist editors in inviting suitable authors to contribute to a specific book project and each year, I identify and invite exceptional editors to join IntechOpen as Scientific Advisors. I am responsible for developing and maintaining strong relationships with all collaborators to ensure an effective and efficient publishing process and support other departments in developing and maintaining such relationships."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6694",title:"New Trends in Ion Exchange Studies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3de8c8b090fd8faa7c11ec5b387c486a",slug:"new-trends-in-ion-exchange-studies",bookSignature:"Selcan Karakuş",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6694.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206110",title:"Dr.",name:"Selcan",surname:"Karakuş",slug:"selcan-karakus",fullName:"Selcan Karakuş"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"53115",title:"Pressure Drop and Boiling Heat Transfer Characteristics of R410A in Macro-Scale and Mini-Scale Channels",doi:"10.5772/65966",slug:"pressure-drop-and-boiling-heat-transfer-characteristics-of-r410a-in-macro-scale-and-mini-scale-chann",body:'\n
1. Introduction
\n
Mini‐channels are \x3c!--
Please check the unit "kgm2/s" as set throughout the chapter for correctness.
--\x3eprogressively used in making the compact heat exchangers nowadays. The application of these heat exchanger types in refrigeration and air‐conditioning fields shows various advantages such as higher efficiency, lower air side pressure drop, reducing refrigerant charge and the more compactness size compared to the conventional types. The development of numerous tube types enables the creation of even more effective compact heat exchangers.
\n
At the low value of saturation temperature (normally from -30 to 20°C), say, those are typically applied in refrigeration and air‐conditioning, Kim et al. [1] investigated the boiling heat transfer coefficient of R‐410A in smooth/micro‐fin tubes within the conditions: the saturation temperature ranged from -15 to 5°C, the mass fluxes of 70–211 kgm2/s and the heat fluxes of 5–15 kW/m2. In this study, the authors reported that the heat transfer coefficients increased with the increasing of heat flux and mass flux. In addition, the average heat transfer coefficients of micro‐fin tubes were 80–150% and 10–60% higher than those of smooth tubes for the outside diameter (OD) of 9.52 and 7.0 mm, respectively. Kim et al. [2] demonstrated the boiling heat transfer of R‐410A in horizontal copper tubes. The results were carried out in 9.52 mm OD tube with following conditions: the saturation temperature of 15°C, the heat flux of 11kW/m2 and the mass flow of 30–60 kg/h. This study also reported that the average evaporation heat transfer coefficients of micro‐fin tubes were higher than those of the smooth tubes for both refrigerants, R22 and R‐410A. In the other research, Wellsandt et al. [3] reported the heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop of R410A and R407C during evaporation inside horizontal herringbone‐micro‐fin tubes. The authors found that, at moderate vapour quality regime, the effect of mass flux on the heat transfer coefficient was insignificant while a strong influence was observed when the vapour quality was over 60%. Inside smooth tube, the heat transfer coefficient, pressure drop and flow pattern of CO2, R410A and R22 were investigated by Park et al. [4]. The results were reported for 6.1 mm inner diameter tube within the saturation temperature of -15 and -30°C, the mass flux of 100–400 kgm2/s, the heat flux of 5–15 kW/m2 and the vapour quality ranged from 0.1 to 0.8. In this study, the heat transfer coefficients of R‐410A are affected by the change of heat flux, mass flux and quality. The nucleate and convective boiling heat transfer mechanisms were consequently activated.
\n
For high evaporation temperature application such as industrial heat pump systems, Padovan et al. [5] presented the experimental results of boiling heat transfer of R134a and R410A in horizontal micro‐fin tube at high saturation temperature. The wide range of testing conditions that were investigated include: the mass flux from 80 to 600 kgm2/s, the heat flux from 14 to 83.5 kW/m2, the vapour quality from 0.1 to 0.99 and covered the saturation temperature of 30 and 40°C. The dominance of convective boiling mechanism on heat transfer coefficient was observed at the saturation temperature of 30°C. Moreover, the effect of nucleate boiling mechanism was more distinct when the saturation temperature raised. On the other side, the heat transfer coefficient of R410A in micro‐fin tube is higher than that in plain tube. This result agreed well with the others in previous studies.
\n
In addition, beside the researches on single channel, various studies on heat transfer and pressure drop of R410A in multi‐port tube have been published. Cavallini et al. [6] reported the frictional pressure gradient of R236ea, R134a and R410A inside multi‐port mini‐channels with the hydraulic diameter of 1.4 mm. The experimental results covered a wide range of reduced pressure from 0.1 to 0.5, and the mass flux ranged from 200 to 1400 kgm2/s. The study showed that the existing frictional pressure drop correlations were unable to predict the data of R410A. Jatuporn et al. [7] investigated the heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop of R410A in horizontal aluminium multi‐port mini‐channel having the hydraulic diameter of 3.48 mm. The strong effects of mass flux, heat flux and saturation temperature on heat transfer coefficient were observed while only mass flux and saturation temperature affected on pressure drop. Recently, Chien et al. [8] also reported the heat transfer and pressure drop of R410A in multi‐port mini‐channels with smaller hydraulic diameters, 1.14 and 1.16 mm. The data were conducted with the mass fluxes of 50–150 kgm2/s, the heat fluxes of 3 and 6 kW/m2 and the saturation temperature of 6°C. This study reported that only heat flux affected on heat transfer coefficient of R410A while only mass flux affected on pressure drop. A heat transfer coefficient correlation was also developed in this study.
\n
However, due to the variation in tube geometry and diameter, the heat transfer characteristics and pressure drop of R410A during evaporation process should be experimentally validated to optimise the design of heat exchangers. In order to bring out an overview to the reader, this chapter investigates the experimental results with the wide range of operating conditions as well as the tube diameters, which have been evaluated in our lab in the past [9–11] and recently. The influence of mass flux, heat flux and channel diameter on the heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop was well reported. In addition, the comparison between the experimental results and several existing pressure drop and heat transfer coefficient correlations was carried out. Finally, the development of correlations of pressure drop and heat transfer coefficient correlations for heat exchanger with mini‐channel design was demonstrated in this study.
\n
2. Experimental facilities and data reduction
\n
2.1. Experimental model
\n
Figure 1(a) and (b) depicts the schematic diagram of the experimental apparatus for copper tube and stainless tube, respectively. In general, both facilities mainly consist of a refrigerant loop, the water loops and the data acquisition system. The refrigerant loop included the receiver tank, the sub‐cool unit, the Coriolis mass flow meter, the condense unit and test sections. In boiling mode, the refrigerant was delivered clockwise by the gear pump. The mass flow rate could be controlled by changing the pump speed and was measured by the flow meter. The quality of flow was adjusted in pre‐heater to the desired value before entering the test section. The test sections could be heated by a water loop or an electric transformer as shown in the figure. When using the water loop, the heat capacity could be varied by mastering the mass flow rate or temperature of inlet water. On the other hand, when using the transformer, the power could be set by controlling the input voltage. The refrigerant was then evaporated in the test section. The vapour at the outlet of test section was condensed by a condenser unit and accumulated into the receiver. The experimental apparatus was well insulated with rubber and foam to minimise the effect of surround environment temperature.
Figure 1.
The experimental apparatus: (a) copper tube and (b) stainless tube.
\n
The detail of test sections for copper tube was depicted in Figure 2(a). The test tubes were made from copper with the inner diameters of 6.61 and 7.49 mm. The effective length was 1200 mm. As shown in the figure, the test sections were divided into four separated sub‐sections with a length of 300 mm. Along the test section, the T‐type thermocouples were attached, each 150 mm of length, at three positions: top, middle and bottom. At the adiabatic pipes between two consecutive sub‐sections, thermocouples and pressure transducers were set up to measure the local pressure drop. Two sight glasses were installed at the beginning and end of test sections to visualise the flow pattern.
Figure 2.
The test sections: (a) copper tube and (b) stainless tube.
\n
Figure 2(b) describes the detail setup of test section using the stainless tube. The tubes have a diameter of 1.5 and 3.0 mm with a length of 1500 and 3000 mm, respectively. The T‐type thermocouples were also attached at the top, middle and bottom points, each 100 mm, along the test section from the inlet. Two pressure transmitters were located at the inlet and outlet of the test section. To enhance the accuracy of pressure drop value, a differential pressure transducer was also set up.
\n
The physical properties of the refrigerant were obtained from REFPROP 8 [12]. The temperature, pressure and mass flow rate data were recorded using the data acquisition.
\n
2.2. Data reduction
\n
The data were collected using a data acquisition and were analysed in real time by the data reduction program. All the information about test conditions and data during the operation were displayed on the monitor.
\n
2.2.1. Heat transfer coefficient
\n
In the case of using water heating loop, the heat capacity of each sub‐section Qn is calculated from mass flow rate and rising enthalpy of cooling water flowing inside the water tubes as follows:\n
Qn=Wncp(Tnout−Tnin)−QlossE1
\n
where n, cp, and Tn are the mass rate of flow, specific heat and temperature of cooling water in sub‐section n, respectively. Qloss is the heat loss on the test section, which was determined when calibrating the system. In the case of using an electric transformer, the heat capacity can be determined by the root mean square values of electric voltage and current as follows:\n
Q=IRMS×URMSE2
\n
The local heat transfer coefficient inside the channel can be evaluated as the ratio of the heat flux to saturation minus the inside wall temperature:\n
h=QA×(Twi−Tsat)E3
\n
At the inlet of test section, the saturation temperatures were determined by the local measured pressures. At the outlet of each sub‐section, the saturation temperatures were then calculated by subtracting the inlet temperature to the one raised by pressure drop. In the current study, the difference of temperature between the saturated refrigerant and inside wall was very high. In addition, the temperature drop raised by the pressure drop was kind of small. Therefore, the saturation temperature between the inlet and outlet of test section could be calculated as the linear function of two known values. The temperature of inside tube wall, Twi, was determined based on the steady‐state one‐dimensional radial conduction heat transfer through the wall with and without the internal heat generation for the cases, heat flux was applied by the electric transformer and hot water, respectively.
\n
The vapour quality, x, at the measurement locations, z, was determined based on the thermodynamic properties:\n
x=i−ififgE4
\n
In some cases, since the refrigerant flow could not be saturated completely before entering the test section, the sub‐cooled length was determined as follows:\n
zsc=Lif−ifiΔi=Lif−ifi(Q/W)E5
\n
2.2.2. Pressure drop
\n
The total pressure drop of two‐phase fluid in general is calculated by the sum of the static head Δpstatic, the momentum Δpmomentum and the frictional pressure drop Δpfrictional:\n
Δptotal=Δpstatic+Δpmom+ΔpfrictE6
\n
Since the horizontal tube was used in this study, the pressure head can be neglected. The saturated refrigerant from liquid is evaporated linearly with the test distance to vapour‐liquid mixture at the vapour quality x. Therefore, the momentum pressure drop can be defined by following equation:\n
Figure 3 illustrates the significant effect of mass flux and vapour quality on pressure drop gradient of copper tube with the inner diameters of 6.61 and 7.49 mm. The pressure drops are higher with the higher mass flux. The reason can be explained in that, in horizontal tube, the pressure drop is mainly contributed by the frictional and momentum pressure components. When the mass flux increases, the flow velocity increases, which raises both of two components. This effect of mass flux on the two‐phase pressure drop was well observed in various studies including \x3c!--
For Figures 3, 4, 7-9, two part figures were given, but the same is not mentioned in captions. Please specific the part labels in the captions.
--\x3ethe single‐mini/conventional‐channel and multi‐port tubes [4, 8, 15–19].
Figure 3.
The effect of mass flux, heat flux and mass quality on pressure drop of R410A: (a) Di = 6.61 mm; (b) Di = 7.49 mm.
\n
In addition, the pressure drop gradient also increases with the increase of mass quality. When the dry out occurred, the reduction in frictional pressure drop was observed. Moreover, the effect of heat flux on pressure drop is unclear.
\n
The effects of tube diameter are depicted in Figure 4. The pressure drops of gradient increases when the tube diameter decreases. The wall shear stress that raises higher in smaller tube is believed to be the reason for this phenomenon.
Figure 4.
The effect of inner tube diameter on pressure drop of R410A: (a) G = 200 kg/m2s; (b) G = 320 kg/m2s.
\n
In this study, the experimental data are validated by comparing with some well‐known frictional pressure drop correlations [20–23], as shown in Figure 5. Among them, a correlation proposed by Gronnerud [20] shows the best prediction with a mean deviation of 17.24%. His correlation determined the dependence of frictional pressure drop on the Froude number and could be applied to a wide range of mass quality from 0 to 1. Both of two correlations proposed by Chisholm [21] and Muller and Heck [23] have mean deviations of above 30%. The correlation proposed by Chisholm [21] was based on the empirical method and the one proposed by Muller and Heck [23] expressed the interpolation between the liquid and vapour flow. The correlation proposed by Friedel [22] used a wide range of data and was commended for the ratio of liquid/vapour, which is less \x3c!--
For Figure 5, four part figures were given, but the same is not mentioned in caption. Please specific the part labels in the caption.
--\x3ethan 1000.
Figure 5.
Comparison of experimental data with some existing frictional pressure drop correlations: (a) Gronnerud [[20]]; (b) Chisholm [21]; (c) Friedel [22]; (d) Muller-Steinhagen and Heck [23].
\n
In order to improve the prediction of pressure drop of R410A in horizontal tube as well as simplify the calculation, a new frictional pressure drop is developed. The general form is developed based on the ideal of Lockhart‐Martinelli [24]. The frictional pressure drop is comprised of frictional pressure drop of liquid‐phase adjusted by two‐phase multiplier. The equation can be determined as follows:\n
dpdzf=(dpdzF)foϕf2E9
\n
where the frictional pressure drop of liquid phase is defined as follows:\n
(dpdzF)fo=2ffoG2DhρfE10
\n
and ff0 is frictional factor, which can be determined based on the flow regime:\n
From that, a regression program is developed using the experimental data as the input variable. The final factor is calculated and expressed as follows:\n
ϕf2=62.373x1.086(1−x)0.151E12
\n
The proposed frictional pressure drop correlation shows a good prediction with the mean deviation of 9.29% and the average deviation of -0.69%. The comparison between the experimental data and predicting model is shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6.
Comparison of experimental data with proposed frictional pressure drop correlation.
\n
3.2. Heat transfer coefficient
\n
Figure 7(a) and (b) illustrates the effect of mass flux on the heat transfer coefficient of R410A in 1.5 and 6.61 mm inner diameter, respectively. In low quality regime, the effect of mass flux in 1.5 mm tube, called mini‐channel, is insignificant while the inverse trend of mass flux effect is shown in 6.61 mm tube, called conventional channel. It indicates that the nucleate boiling is predominant in mini‐channel. The similar results are reported in other studies [10, 25–28]. The different contribution of nucleate boiling to the heat transfer coefficient of refrigerant between mini‐channel and conventional channel, therefore, should be validated before applying the heat transfer model of macro‐scale to mini‐scale channel and vice versa. At higher quality regime, due to the active force of convective boiling, the effect of mass flux on heat transfer coefficient is clear. The higher mass flux raises the higher heat transfer coefficient.
Figure 7.
The effect of mass flux on heat transfer coefficient of R410A: (a) Di = 1.5 mm; (b) Di = 6.61 mm.
\n
The strong effect of heat flux on the heat transfer coefficient is shown in Figure 8. The trend depicts that the heat transfer coefficient of R‐410A was higher with the increase in heat flux and vapour quality. The similar phenomenon was also observed in the studies of Park et al. [4] and Mastrullo et al. [29]. That means the convective boiling mechanism was active on the heat transfer mechanism of R‐410A in mini‐channel.
Figure 8.
The effect of heat flux on heat transfer coefficient of R410A : (a) Di = 1.5 mm; (b) Di = 7.49 mm.
\n
Figure 9 shows the effect of tube diameter on the heat transfer coefficient. The heat transfer coefficient of R410A was higher with smaller tube diameter. It can be explained that the heat transfer surface area per unit volume increases when the diameter decreases at the same operating conditions, therefore, increase the heat transfer coefficient.
Figure 9.
The effect of inner diameter on heat transfer coefficient of R410A : (a) Di = 1.5 & 3.0 mm; (b) Di = 6.61 & 7.49 mm.
\n
In order to validate the experimental heat transfer coefficient of R410A in both mini‐ and macro‐scale channel, Chien et al. [11] compared the data with various heat transfer coefficient correlations [26, 30–34] include both of the correlations developed for mini‐scale channel and the ones developed for macro‐scale channel. The data bank consists of 452 data points including 61 data with Dh > 3.0 mm (macro‐scale) and 391 data with Dh ≤ 3.0 mm (mini‐scale). The distribution of data is depicted in Figure 10 and the comparison is depicted in Figure 11. The summary of heat transfer coefficient correlation is depicted in Table 1. The inaccuracy of existing general heat transfer correlations in predicting the experimental data of R410A resulted due to the extrapolation of the operating condition from the previous model to the present data as well as the significant effect of specific working fluid as proposed by Kandlikar [35, 36]. The development \x3c!--
For Figure 11, six part figures were given, but the same is not mentioned in captions. Please specific the part labels in the caption.
--\x3eof a new boiling heat transfer coefficient correlation for R410A in mini‐ and macro‐scale channels, therefore, is needed.
Figure 10.
The data distribution.
Figure 11.
Comparison of experimental data with some existing correlation: (a) Lazarek and Black [26]; (b) Shah [32]; (c) Gungor and Winterton [32]; (d) Liu and Winterton [33]; (e) Tran et al. [34]; (f) Bertsch et al. [35].
htp=F.hl+S.hnbhl=0.023Rel0.8Prl0.4(klDi);F=1+24000Bo1.16+1.37(1Xtt)0.86hnb=55Pr0.12q2/3(−log10pr)−0.55M−0.5;S=(1+0.55F0.1Relo0.16)−1 If the tube is horizontal and the Froude number Frl is less than 0.05 then F, S should be multiplied by the factor F.Frl(0.1−2Frl);SFrl0.5, respectively.
Flow boiling heat transfer correlations considered in this work
In general, the boiling heat transfer coefficient mainly consists of two mechanisms: the nucleate boiling and the forced convective boiling mechanism. Hence, the form proposed by Chen [37] is widely accepted and is used in this study to develop the new correlation. This form is based on the superposition model with the contribution of two heat transfer mechanisms. The formula is defined as:\n
htp=F.hlo+S.hpoolE13
\n
In the above equation, the enhancement of convective boiling due to the increase of flow velocity when the vapour quality increases was counted by the enhanced factor F. On the other hand, the suppression of nucleate boiling term when the fluid layer thickness decrease as the vapour quality increases is defined as suppression factor S. The heat transfer coefficient of liquid phase in force convective heat transfer mechanism can be defined by the Dittus‐Boelter [38] correlation as follows:\n
hlo=0.023Rel0.8Prl0.4klDE14
\n
Due to the higher velocities and the development of the thinner film layers, the heat transfer coefficients of two‐phase flow are normally higher than those of single phase. For that reason, the enhancement factor F is consequently determined under the effect of the density ratio and vapour quality ratio. In the studies of Chen [37] and Gungor‐Winterton [31], enhancement factor F is defined as the function of Martinelli parameter Xtt. Shah [30], on the other hand, replaced this parameter by convection number Co since the influence of viscosity ratio was not found. In present study, the correlate analysis shows the same value of the Martinelli parameter and convection number on the enhancement factor. Therefore, the calculation of F can be simplified by the function of convection number F = f(Co), where the convection number was defined as follows:\n
Co=(1−xx)0.8(ρgρl)0.5E15
\n
Using the regression method, the final form of enhancement factor F is proposed as follows:\n
F=1.061exp(0.042Co)E16
\n
Copper [39] developed the heat transfer correlation for nucleate boiling with the large data bank and showed a good prediction. Hence, in the remaining term, the nucleate boiling and the Copper correlation can be used to determine the pool boiling heat transfer. The equation is defined as follows:\n
hpool=55PR0.12(−log10(PR))−0.55M−0.5qH0.67E17
\n
Then, the suppression factor S can be modelled by a least square program. After various test, the final form of factor S is determined as the function of the convection and confinement number. The formula is expressed as follows:\n
S=0.238Co0.238Cf1.11E18
\n
where the confinement number is defined as follows:\n
Cf=1Dσg(ρl−ρg)E19
\n
The proposed heat transfer coefficient correlation archives the mean deviation of 20.66 and 21.06% for macro‐scale‐ and mini‐scale channel, respectively. The detail comparison of the proposed correlation and the experimental data is shown in Figure 12. Figure 13 summarises the overall comparison of existing heat transfer coefficient correlation and the proposed one with the present data of R410A. Among the existing correlations, the one proposed by Gungor‐Winterton [31] showed the best prediction for the macro‐channel with the mean deviation of 25% while this correlation failed to predict the heat transfer coefficient of mini‐channel. The heat transfer coefficient correlation proposed by Tran et al. [33] predicted the experimental data with the mean deviation of around 30% for both macro‐ and mini‐channel.
Figure 12.
Comparison between experimental and predicted heat transfer coefficient.
Figure 13.
Summary of mean deviation.
\n
4. Conclusions
\n
The boiling heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop characteristics of R410A in horizontal tube with the inner diameter of 1.5, 3.0, 6.61 and 7.49 mm were demonstrated in this chapter. The data of heat fluxes ranging from 10 to 40 kW/m2, mass fluxes ranging from 100 to 600 kgm2/s, the vapour quality up to 1.0 and the saturation temperatures of 5–15°C. The results can be summarised as follows:\n
The pressure drop of R410A is strongly affected by the mass flux, vapour quality and the inner tube diameter but the heat flux.
The boiling heat transfer coefficient of R410A increased with the increase in mass flux, heat flux and the decreasing of inner tube diameter. However, in mini‐channel, the effect of mass flux is only observed at the moderate quality regime, which indicates the predominance of nucleate boiling mechanism in mini‐channel.
The experimental pressure drop data were validated with some well‐known correlations. Among them, the one developed by Gronnerud [20] showed the best prediction. A modified frictional pressure drop was proposed with the mean deviation of 9.29% versus the present data.
The two‐phase boiling heat transfer coefficient data were also compared with various general correlations. A new heat transfer coefficient correlation was also proposed that archived the good deviation versus the experimental data.
\n\n
Acknowledgments
\n
This research was supported by Basic Science Research Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (NRF‐2016R1D1A1A09919697).
\n',keywords:"mini‐channels, heat transfer, pressure drop, correlation, heat exchanger",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/53115.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/53115.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53115",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53115",totalDownloads:948,totalViews:311,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"March 31st 2016",dateReviewed:"September 26th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"April 26th 2017",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"This chapter demonstrates the two‐phase flow pressure drop and heat transfer of R410A during boiling in various tube types. The pressure drop and local heat transfer coefficients were obtained for heat fluxes ranging from 10 to 40 kW/m2, mass fluxes ranging from 100 to 600 kg/m2s, the vapour quality up to 1.0 and the saturation temperatures of 5–15°C. The test sections were made of various tube diameters of 1.5, 3.0, 6.61 and 7.49 mm, respectively. The effect of mass flux, heat flux, saturation temperature and inner tube diameter on pressure drop and heat transfer coefficient was analysed. The experimental results were compared against several existing pressure drop and heat transfer coefficient correlation. New correlations of pressure drop and boiling heat transfer coefficient were also developed in this present study.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/53115",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/53115",book:{slug:"heat-exchangers-advanced-features-and-applications"},signatures:"Jong-Taek Oh, Nguyen Ba Chien, Kwang-Il Choi and Pham Quang\nVu",authors:[{id:"14439",title:"Prof.",name:"Jong-Taek",middleName:null,surname:"Oh",fullName:"Jong-Taek Oh",slug:"jong-taek-oh",email:"ohjt@chonnam.ac.kr",position:null,institution:null},{id:"195659",title:"Dr.",name:"Chien Ba",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",fullName:"Chien Ba Nguyen",slug:"chien-ba-nguyen",email:"chienfm50@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Experimental facilities and data reduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Experimental model",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Data reduction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.2.1. Heat transfer coefficient",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.2.2. Pressure drop",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Result and discussions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.1. Pressure drop",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.2. Heat transfer coefficient",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Yongchan, K., Kookjeong, S., Jin, T. C. (2002). Evaporation heat transfer characteristics of R‐410A in 7 and 9.52 mm smooth/micro‐fine tubes. Int. J. Refrigeration, 25, 716–730.'},{id:"B2",body:'Man‐Hoe, K., Joeng‐Seob, S. (2005). Evaporating heat transfer of R22 and R410A in horizontal smooth and micro tubes. Int. J. Refrigeration, 28, 940–948.'},{id:"B3",body:'Wellsandt, S., Vamling, L. (2005). Evaporation of R407C and R410A in a horizontal herringbone microfin tube: heat transfer and pressure drop. Int. J. Refrigeration, 28, 901–911.'},{id:"B4",body:'Park, C. Y., Hrnjak, P. S. (2007). CO2 and R410A flow boiling heat transfer, pressure drop, and flow pattern at low temperatures in a horizontal smooth tube. Int. J. Refrigeration, 30(1), 166–178.'},{id:"B5",body:'Padovan, A., Del Col, D., Rossetto, L. (2011). Experimental study on flow boiling of R134a and R410A in a horizontal microfin tube at high saturation temperatures. Appl. Therm. Eng., 31(17–18), 3814–3826.'},{id:"B6",body:'Cavallini, A., Del Col, D., Doretti, L., Matkovic, M., Rossetto, L., Zilio, C. (2005). Two‐phase frictional pressure gradient of R236ea, R134a and R410A inside multi‐port mini‐channels. Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci., 29(7), 861–870.'},{id:"B7",body:'Kaew‐On, J., Wongwises, S. (2009). Experimental investigation of evaporation heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop of R‐410A in a multiport mini‐channel. Int. J. Refrigeration, 32(1), 124–137.'},{id:"B8",body:'C. Nguyen, V. Pham, Choi, K-I, OH, J-T, Heat Transfer Coefficient and Pressure Drop of R410A During Evaporation Inside Aluminum Multiport Minichannels, in: Vol. 2 Photovoltaics; Renewable-Non-Renewable Hybrid Power Syst. Smart Grid, Micro-Grid Concepts; Energy Storage; Sol. Chem. Sol. Heat. Cool. Sustain. Cities Communities, Transp. Symp. Integr. Buil, ASME, 2015: p. V002T18A004'},{id:"B9",body:'Choi, K.‐I., Pamitran, A. S., Oh, C.‐Y., Oh, J.‐T. (2008). Two‐phase pressure drop of R‐410A in horizontal smooth minichannels. Int. J. Refrigeration, 31(1), 119–129.'},{id:"B10",body:'Oh, J. T., Pamitran, A. S., Choi, K. I., Hrnjak, P. (2011). Experimental investigation on two‐phase flow boiling heat transfer of five refrigerants in horizontal small tubes of 0.5, 1.5 and 3.0 mm inner diameters. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf., 54(9–10), 2080–2088.'},{id:"B11",body:'Chien, N. B., Vu, P. Q., Choi, K.‐I., Oh, J.‐T. (2015). A general correlation to predict the flow boiling heat transfer of R410A in macro‐/mini‐channels. Sci. Technol. Built Environ., 21(5), 526–534.'},{id:"B12",body:'Lemmon, E. W., Huber, M. L., McLinden, M. O. (2007). NIST standard reference database 23: reference fluid thermodynamic and transport properties‐REFPROP, Version 8.0. National Institute of Standards and Technology, USA.'},{id:"B13",body:'Steiner, D. (1993). Heat transfer to boiling saturated liquids. VDI Heat Atlas 1st edition. Society Process Engineering and Chemical Engineering. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. (Translator: J. W. Fullarton, Dusseldorf.)'},{id:"B14",body:'Rouhani, Z., Axelsson, E. (1970). Calculation of volume void fraction in subcooled and quality region. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf., 13, 383–393.'},{id:"B15",body:'Choi, K.‐I., Pamitran, A. S., Oh, J.‐T., Saito, K. (2009). Pressure drop and heat transfer during two‐phase flow vaporization of propane in horizontal smooth minichannels. Int. J. Refrigeration, 32(5), 837–845.'},{id:"B16",body:'Zhao, Y., Molki, M., Ohadi, M. M., Dessiatoun, S. V. (2000). Flow boiling of CO2 in microchannels. ASHRAE Trans. 106(Part 1), 437–445.'},{id:"B17",body:'Yoon, S. H., Cho, E. S., Hwang, Y. W., Kim, M. S., Min, K., Kim, Y. (2004). Characteristics of evaporative heat transfer and pressure drop of carbon dioxide and correlation development. Int. J. Refrigeration, 27, 111–119.'},{id:"B18",body:'Oh, H. K., Ku, H. G., Roh, G. S., Son, C. H., Park, S. J. (2008). Flow boiling heat transfer characteristics of carbon dioxide in a horizontal tube. Appl. Therm. Eng., 28, 1022–1030.'},{id:"B19",body:'Cho, J. M., Kim, M. S. (2007). Experimental studies on the evaporative heat transfer and pressure drop of CO2 in smooth and micro‐fin tubes of the diameters of 5 and 9.52 mm. Int. J. Refrigeration, 30, 986–994.'},{id:"B20",body:'Gronnerud, R. (1972). Investigation in liquid holdup, flow resistance and heat transfer in circular type evaporator, part IV: two‐phase resistance in boiling refrigerant. Bulletin de l\'Inst du Froid, Annexe, 1972.'},{id:"B21",body:'Chisholm, D. (1973). Pressure gradient due to the friction during the flow of evaporating two‐phase mixture in smooth tubes and channel. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf., 16, 347–358.'},{id:"B22",body:'Friedel, L. (1979). Improve friction pressure drop correlation for horizontal and vertical two‐phase pipe flow. European Two‐Phase Flow Group Meeting, Ispra, Italia, June, Paper E2.'},{id:"B23",body:'Muller‐Steinhagen, H., Heck, K. (1986). A simple friction pressure drop correlation for two phase flow in pipe. Chem. End. Process., 20, 297–308.'},{id:"B24",body:'Lockhart, R. W., Martinelli, R. C. (1949). Proposed correlation of data for isothermal two‐phase, two‐component flow in pipes. Chem. Eng. Prog., 45, 39–48.'},{id:"B25",body:'Kew, P. A., Cornwell, K. (1997). Correlations for the prediction of boiling heat transfer in small‐diameter channels. Appl. Therm. Eng., 17(8–10), 705–715.'},{id:"B26",body:'Lazarek, G. M., \x3c!--
Ref. 26 is a duplicate entry of Ref. 30, hence Ref. 30 has been deleted. Accordingly references have been renumbered in the text as well as in the ref. list. Please check.
--\x3eBlack, S. H. (1982). Evaporative heat transfer, pressure drop and critical heat flux in a small diameter vertical tube with R‐113. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf., 25, 945–960.'},{id:"B27",body:'Wambsganss, M. W., France, D. M., Jendrzejczyk, J. A., Tran, T. N. (1993). Boiling heat transfer in a horizontal small‐diameter tube. J. Heat Transf., 115, 963–975.'},{id:"B28",body:'Tran, T. N., Wambsganss, M. W., France, D. M. (1996). Small circular‐and rectangular‐channel boiling with two refrigerants. Int. J. Multiphase Flow, 22(3), 485–498.'},{id:"B29",body:'Mastrullo, R., Mauro, A. W., Thome, J. R., Toto, D., Vanoli, G. P. (2012). Flow pattern maps for convective boiling of CO2 and R410A in a horizontal smooth tube: experiments and new correlations analyzing the effect of the reduced pressure. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf., 55(5–6), 1519–1528.'},{id:"B30",body:'Shah, M. M. (1982). Chart correlation for saturated boiling heat transfer: equations and further study. ASHRAE Trans. (United States), 88(1), 185–196.'},{id:"B31",body:'Gungor, K., Winterton, R. (1986). A general correlation for flow boiling in tubes and annuli. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf., 29(3), 351–358.'},{id:"B32",body:'Liu, Z., Winterton, R. (1991). A general correlation for saturated and subcooled flow boiling in tubes and annuli, based on a nucleate pool boiling equation. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf., 34(11), 2759–2766.'},{id:"B33",body:'Tran, T., Wambsganss, M., France, D. (1996). Small circular‐and rectangular‐channel boiling with two refrigerants. Int. J. Multiphase Flow, 3(4), 485–498.'},{id:"B34",body:'Bertsch, S. S., Groll, E. A., Garimella, S. V. (2009). A composite heat transfer correlation for saturated flow boiling in small channels. Int. J Heat Mass Transf., 52(7–8), 2110–2118.'},{id:"B35",body:'Kandlikar, S. (1990). A general correlation for saturated two‐phase flow boiling heat transfer inside horizontal and vertical tubes. J. Heat Transf., 112(1), pp. 219–228.'},{id:"B36",body:'Kandlikar, S., Steinke, M. (2003). Predicting heat transfer during flow boiling in minichannels and microchannels, ASHRAE Trans., 109, 667–676.'},{id:"B37",body:'Chen, J. C. (1966). A correlation for boiling heat transfer to saturated fluids in convective flow. Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Dev., 5, 322–329.'},{id:"B38",body:'Dittus, F. W., Boelter, L. M. K. (1930). Heat transfer in automobile radiators of the turbulent type. Univ. Calif. Publ. Eng., 2, 443–461.'},{id:"B39",body:'Cooper, M. G. (1984). Heat flow rates in saturated nucleate pool boiling e a wide‐ranging examination using reduced properties. Adv. Heat Transf., 16, 157–239.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Jong-Taek Oh",address:"ohjt@chonnam.ac.kr",affiliation:'
Department of Refrigeration and Air‐Conditioning, Chonnam National University, Yeosu, Chonnam, South Korea
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Nguyen Ba Chien",address:null,affiliation:'
Graduate School, Chonnam National University, Yeosu, Chonnam, South Korea
Graduate School, Chonnam National University, Yeosu, Chonnam, South Korea
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"6080",title:"Heat Exchangers",subtitle:"Advanced Features and Applications",fullTitle:"Heat Exchangers - Advanced Features and Applications",slug:"heat-exchangers-advanced-features-and-applications",publishedDate:"April 26th 2017",bookSignature:"S M Sohel Murshed and Manuel Matos Lopes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6080.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24904",title:"Prof.",name:"S. M. Sohel",middleName:null,surname:"Murshed",slug:"s.-m.-sohel-murshed",fullName:"S. M. Sohel Murshed"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"54697",title:"Introductory Chapter: Advanced Features and Applications of Heat Exchangers–An Outline",slug:"introductory-chapter-advanced-features-and-applications-of-heat-exchangers-an-outline",totalDownloads:1086,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"S M Sohel Murshed and Manuel L Matos Lopes",authors:[{id:"24904",title:"Prof.",name:"S. M. Sohel",middleName:null,surname:"Murshed",fullName:"S. M. Sohel Murshed",slug:"s.-m.-sohel-murshed"},{id:"185759",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:"Manuel Luis",surname:"Matos Lopes",fullName:"Manuel Matos Lopes",slug:"manuel-matos-lopes"}]},{id:"53115",title:"Pressure Drop and Boiling Heat Transfer Characteristics of R410A in Macro-Scale and Mini-Scale Channels",slug:"pressure-drop-and-boiling-heat-transfer-characteristics-of-r410a-in-macro-scale-and-mini-scale-chann",totalDownloads:948,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Jong-Taek Oh, Nguyen Ba Chien, Kwang-Il Choi and Pham Quang\nVu",authors:[{id:"14439",title:"Prof.",name:"Jong-Taek",middleName:null,surname:"Oh",fullName:"Jong-Taek Oh",slug:"jong-taek-oh"},{id:"195659",title:"Dr.",name:"Chien Ba",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",fullName:"Chien Ba Nguyen",slug:"chien-ba-nguyen"}]},{id:"53595",title:"Comprehensive Study of Compact Heat Exchangers with Offset Strip Fin",slug:"comprehensive-study-of-compact-heat-exchangers-with-offset-strip-fin",totalDownloads:1778,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Latife Berrin Erbay, Mehmet Mete Öztürk and Bahadɪr Doɪan",authors:[{id:"129442",title:"Prof.",name:"L. Berrin",middleName:null,surname:"Erbay",fullName:"L. Berrin Erbay",slug:"l.-berrin-erbay"},{id:"187233",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet Mete",middleName:null,surname:"Öztürk",fullName:"Mehmet Mete Öztürk",slug:"mehmet-mete-ozturk"},{id:"187234",title:"MSc.",name:"Bahadır",middleName:null,surname:"Doğan",fullName:"Bahadır Doğan",slug:"bahadir-dogan"}]},{id:"53343",title:"Comprehensive Study of Heat Exchangers with Louvered Fins",slug:"comprehensive-study-of-heat-exchangers-with-louvered-fins",totalDownloads:1647,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Latife Berrin Erbay, Bahadır Doğan and Mehmet Mete Öztürk",authors:[{id:"129442",title:"Prof.",name:"L. Berrin",middleName:null,surname:"Erbay",fullName:"L. Berrin Erbay",slug:"l.-berrin-erbay"},{id:"187233",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet Mete",middleName:null,surname:"Öztürk",fullName:"Mehmet Mete Öztürk",slug:"mehmet-mete-ozturk"},{id:"187234",title:"MSc.",name:"Bahadır",middleName:null,surname:"Doğan",fullName:"Bahadır Doğan",slug:"bahadir-dogan"}]},{id:"52814",title:"Condensation Heat Transfer on Geometrically Enhanced Horizontal Tube: A Review",slug:"condensation-heat-transfer-on-geometrically-enhanced-horizontal-tube-a-review",totalDownloads:1194,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Hafiz Muhammad Ali",authors:[{id:"187624",title:"Dr.",name:"Hafiz Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",fullName:"Hafiz Muhammad Ali",slug:"hafiz-muhammad-ali"}]},{id:"52935",title:"Heat Transfer of Supercritical Fluid Flows and Compressible Flows",slug:"heat-transfer-of-supercritical-fluid-flows-and-compressible-flows",totalDownloads:1320,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Yu Ito",authors:[{id:"187847",title:"Prof.",name:"Yu",middleName:null,surname:"Ito",fullName:"Yu Ito",slug:"yu-ito"}]},{id:"54148",title:"Heat Exchangers in the Aviation Engineering",slug:"heat-exchangers-in-the-aviation-engineering",totalDownloads:2367,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Antonio Carozza",authors:[{id:"187078",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Carozza",fullName:"Antonio Carozza",slug:"antonio-carozza"}]},{id:"53747",title:"Operation and Performance Analysis of Steam Generators in Nuclear Power Plants",slug:"operation-and-performance-analysis-of-steam-generators-in-nuclear-power-plants",totalDownloads:2384,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Siniša Šadek and Davor Grgić",authors:[{id:"187243",title:"Dr.",name:"Sinisa",middleName:null,surname:"Sadek",fullName:"Sinisa Sadek",slug:"sinisa-sadek"},{id:"200563",title:"Dr.",name:"Davor",middleName:null,surname:"Grgić",fullName:"Davor Grgić",slug:"davor-grgic"}]},{id:"52929",title:"Industrial Heat Exchanger: Operation and Maintenance to Minimize Fouling and Corrosion",slug:"industrial-heat-exchanger-operation-and-maintenance-to-minimize-fouling-and-corrosion",totalDownloads:2275,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Teng Kah Hou, Salim Newaz Kazi, Abu Bakar Mahat, Chew Bee Teng,\nAhmed Al-Shamma’a and Andy Shaw",authors:[{id:"93483",title:"Dr.",name:"Salim Newaz",middleName:null,surname:"Kazi",fullName:"Salim Newaz Kazi",slug:"salim-newaz-kazi"},{id:"187135",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kah Hou",middleName:null,surname:"Teng",fullName:"Kah Hou Teng",slug:"kah-hou-teng"},{id:"194347",title:"Prof.",name:"Abu Bakar",middleName:null,surname:"Mahat",fullName:"Abu Bakar Mahat",slug:"abu-bakar-mahat"},{id:"194348",title:"Dr.",name:"Bee Teng",middleName:null,surname:"Chew",fullName:"Bee Teng Chew",slug:"bee-teng-chew"},{id:"194349",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Shamma'A",fullName:"Ahmed Al-Shamma'A",slug:"ahmed-al-shamma'a"},{id:"194350",title:"Prof.",name:"Andy",middleName:null,surname:"Shaw",fullName:"Andy Shaw",slug:"andy-shaw"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5395",title:"Heat Exchangers",subtitle:"Design, Experiment and Simulation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2df2e51f2bb427d6a50b215ac8d1e68c",slug:"heat-exchangers-design-experiment-and-simulation",bookSignature:"S M Sohel Murshed and Manuel Matos Lopes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5395.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24904",title:"Prof.",name:"S. M. Sohel",surname:"Murshed",slug:"s.-m.-sohel-murshed",fullName:"S. M. Sohel Murshed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"54723",title:"Introductory Chapter: An Overview of Design, Experiment and Numerical Simulation of Heat Exchangers",slug:"introductory-chapter-an-overview-of-design-experiment-and-numerical-simulation-of-heat-exchangers",signatures:"S M Sohel Murshed and Manuel L Matos Lopes",authors:[{id:"24904",title:"Prof.",name:"S. M. Sohel",middleName:null,surname:"Murshed",fullName:"S. M. Sohel Murshed",slug:"s.-m.-sohel-murshed"},{id:"187120",title:"Prof.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Matos Lopes",fullName:"Manuel Matos Lopes",slug:"manuel-matos-lopes"}]},{id:"54521",title:"Basic Design Methods of Heat Exchanger",slug:"basic-design-methods-of-heat-exchanger",signatures:"Cüneyt Ezgi",authors:[{id:"187086",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Cüneyt",middleName:null,surname:"Ezgi",fullName:"Cüneyt Ezgi",slug:"cuneyt-ezgi"}]},{id:"53559",title:"Design of Heat Transfer Surfaces in Agitated Vessels",slug:"design-of-heat-transfer-surfaces-in-agitated-vessels",signatures:"Vitor da Silva Rosa and Deovaldo de Moraes Júnior",authors:[{id:"187128",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Vitor",middleName:null,surname:"Rosa",fullName:"Vitor Rosa",slug:"vitor-rosa"},{id:"188792",title:"Dr.",name:"Deovaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Moraes Júnior",fullName:"Deovaldo Moraes Júnior",slug:"deovaldo-moraes-junior"}]},{id:"53653",title:"Heat Exchanger Design with Topology Optimization",slug:"heat-exchanger-design-with-topology-optimization",signatures:"Mark Christian E. Manuel and Po Ting Lin",authors:[{id:"188800",title:"Prof.",name:"Mark Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Manuel",fullName:"Mark Christian Manuel",slug:"mark-christian-manuel"},{id:"203597",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Po Ting",middleName:null,surname:"Lin",fullName:"Po Ting Lin",slug:"po-ting-lin"}]},{id:"53454",title:"A Multi-Period Synthesis Approach to Designing Flexible Heat- Exchanger Networks",slug:"a-multi-period-synthesis-approach-to-designing-flexible-heat-exchanger-networks",signatures:"Adeniyi Jide Isafiade and Alireza Bahadori",authors:[{id:"187910",title:"Dr.",name:"Adeniyi",middleName:null,surname:"Isafiade",fullName:"Adeniyi Isafiade",slug:"adeniyi-isafiade"},{id:"194735",title:"Prof.",name:"Alireza",middleName:null,surname:"Bahadori",fullName:"Alireza Bahadori",slug:"alireza-bahadori"}]},{id:"54179",title:"Basic Aspects of Gas Turbine Heat Transfer",slug:"basic-aspects-of-gas-turbine-heat-transfer",signatures:"Shailendra Naik",authors:[{id:"188479",title:"Dr.",name:"Shailendra",middleName:null,surname:"Naik",fullName:"Shailendra Naik",slug:"shailendra-naik"}]},{id:"53737",title:"Direct-Contact Heat Exchanger",slug:"direct-contact-heat-exchanger",signatures:"Hua Wang, Qingtai Xiao and Jianxin Xu",authors:[{id:"188706",title:"Prof.",name:"Hua",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Hua Wang",slug:"hua-wang"},{id:"188742",title:"Mr.",name:"Qingtai",middleName:null,surname:"Xiao",fullName:"Qingtai Xiao",slug:"qingtai-xiao"},{id:"188992",title:"Dr.",name:"Jianxin",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",fullName:"Jianxin Xu",slug:"jianxin-xu"}]},{id:"52675",title:"Measurement of Transient Fluid Temperature in the Heat Exchangers",slug:"measurement-of-transient-fluid-temperature-in-the-heat-exchangers",signatures:"Magdalena Jaremkiewicz",authors:[{id:"91054",title:"Dr.",name:"Magdalena",middleName:null,surname:"Jaremkiewicz",fullName:"Magdalena Jaremkiewicz",slug:"magdalena-jaremkiewicz"}]},{id:"54145",title:"Transient Effectiveness Methods for the Dynamic Characterization of Heat Exchangers",slug:"transient-effectiveness-methods-for-the-dynamic-characterization-of-heat-exchangers",signatures:"Tianyi Gao, Bahgat Sammakia and James Geer",authors:[{id:"189256",title:"Dr.",name:"Tianyi",middleName:null,surname:"Gao",fullName:"Tianyi Gao",slug:"tianyi-gao"},{id:"189353",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Bahgat",middleName:null,surname:"Sammakia",fullName:"Bahgat Sammakia",slug:"bahgat-sammakia"},{id:"189354",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"James",middleName:null,surname:"Geer",fullName:"James Geer",slug:"james-geer"}]},{id:"53874",title:"Unsteady Mixed Convection from Two Isothermal Semicircular Cylinders in Tandem Arrangement",slug:"unsteady-mixed-convection-from-two-isothermal-semicircular-cylinders-in-tandem-arrangement",signatures:"Erick Salcedo, César Treviño, Juan C. Cajas and Lorenzo Martínez-\nSuástegui",authors:[{id:"101401",title:"Dr.",name:"Lorenzo",middleName:"Alberto",surname:"Martinez",fullName:"Lorenzo Martinez",slug:"lorenzo-martinez"},{id:"188946",title:"Dr.",name:"César",middleName:null,surname:"Treviño",fullName:"César Treviño",slug:"cesar-trevino"},{id:"188947",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Cajas",fullName:"Juan Carlos Cajas",slug:"juan-carlos-cajas"},{id:"188948",title:"MSc.",name:"Erick",middleName:null,surname:"Salcedo",fullName:"Erick Salcedo",slug:"erick-salcedo"}]},{id:"53025",title:"Computational Modeling of Vehicle Radiators Using Porous Medium Approach",slug:"computational-modeling-of-vehicle-radiators-using-porous-medium-approach",signatures:"Barbaros Çetin, Kadir G. Güler and Mehmet Haluk Aksel",authors:[{id:"188023",title:"Prof.",name:"Barbaros",middleName:null,surname:"Çetin",fullName:"Barbaros Çetin",slug:"barbaros-cetin"},{id:"188025",title:"Prof.",name:"Mehmet Haluk",middleName:null,surname:"Aksel",fullName:"Mehmet Haluk Aksel",slug:"mehmet-haluk-aksel"},{id:"188026",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Kadir",middleName:"Gokhan",surname:"Guler",fullName:"Kadir Guler",slug:"kadir-guler"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"74303",title:"Port Wine: Production and Ageing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94900",slug:"port-wine-production-and-ageing",body:'
1. Introduction
Port wine is a traditional fortified wine produced in the Douro Demarcated Region (Northeast of Portugal in the Douro Valley, Figure 1) under very specific conditions. There are several Port wine styles being related to the winemaking and ageing process and also to the ageing time, which enhances uniqueness to the wines and recognition throughout the world. The Douro Demarcated Region is located within the Douro River basin, surrounded by mountains, having a total area of approximately 250,000 hectares. This region has singular climate and soil characteristics for the production of selected grape varieties for the Port winemaking that contributes to the distinctive characteristics of Port wines and guarantee that these wines are irreproducible elsewhere. This area is divided into three naturally distinct sub-regions (Figure 1) concerning the climatic as well as socio-economic factors, “Baixo Corgo” (Lower Corgo), “Cima Corgo” (Upper Corgo), and “Douro Superior” (Upper Douro) [1].
Figure 1.
Location of the Douro Demarcated Region in the northeast of Portugal and of the three sub-regions: “Baixo Corgo”, “Cima Corgo” and “Douro Superior” according to [1].
Different grape varieties are used in the production of Port wine, being usually produced by their blend. There is evidence that the grape varieties determines the wine character, even after the extended ageing process. The grape varieties that may be cultivated in the Douro Demarcated Region are regulated by Decree-Law n°104/85, 10th of April, 1985 [2]. Accordingly, Port wine is produced only from the authorised grape varieties, being the principal red grape varieties recommended for Port wine production “Touriga Nacional”, “Mourisco Tinto”, “Bastardo”, “Tinta Roriz”, “Tinta Cão”, “Tinta Amarela”, “Tinta Barroca”, “Touriga Franca” and “Tinta Francisca”, since these grape varieties produce wines with stable colour, fruity aroma and sugar content, characteristics required to produce good quality Port wines. The white grape varieties used for White Port wine production are “Malvasia Fina”, “Viosinho”, “Donzelinho Branco”, “Gouveio”, “Rabigato”, and “Códega” [3].
In the Port wine vinification process, the alcoholic fermentation is stopped according to the desired residual sugar content by the addition of a wine spirit known as “aguardente vínica” (with an alcohol content of about 77% (v/v)), to an alcohol content up to 18–22% (v/v) of the final product. Therefore, Port wine is a naturally sweet fortified wine since the natural sugar from the grapes is not completely transformed into alcohol. After the vinification process, Port wine is usually stored and aged in wood barrels of different sizes, from 2 years to many decades in accordance with the intended Port wine style. The Port wine ageing process can take place either in the Douro Valley or in Vila Nova de Gaia (Porto), in order to qualify for a Certificate of Origin from the “Instituto dos Vinhos do Douro e Porto” (IVDP).
2. Port wine production and styles
Port wine is subjected to an extensive set of legislation and regulations. According to the Decree-Law n°173/2009 of 3rd of August [4], the IVDP, located in Oporto city, has the responsibility of promoting and perform the quality control of Port wine, as well as the amount of Port wine that can be produced annually, regulating all the production process, and the protection of the denominations of origin Douro and Port and the geographical indication of the Douro Region. The panel of expert tasters of IVDP is responsible for the certification and approval of wines and wine spirits, as well as the granting of the guarantee seal [5].
In the Port wine vinification process, the alcoholic fermentation is stopped, between 6% and 9% (v/v) alcohol content, according to the Port wine style and sweetness desired. Therefore, the wine is runoff from the skins, and it is fortified with a wine spirit containing 77% (v/v) of ethanol to raise the alcohol concentration to 18–22% (v/v). The average proportions of wine spirit added are 115 L for each 435 L of fermenting wine. The wine spirit allowed to be used in Port wine production required rigorous quality standards regulated by the laboratories and panel of tasters of IVDP. The sensory characteristics evaluated by the panel are turbidity, colour, aroma, and taste. The analytical parameters (ethyl carbamate, total higher alcohols, acetaldehyde (ethanal), ethyl acetate, methanol, 2-butanol, 1-butanol, allylic acid, cyanidric acid, calcium, copper, iron, alcohol content, total acidity, and density) must be below of the allowed limits described in Regulation n° 84/2010 [6]. Contrasting with most other fortifying spirits, the wine spirit used in Port wine production is not highly rectified; therefore, it contains many flavourants, especially higher alcohols, and aldehydes and this fortification process results in a high concentration of acetaldehyde in these initial wines.
Port wine can be extra dry, dry, semi-dry, sweet or very sweet, according to the levels of unfermented sugars remaining (Table 1) that is dependent on the time of wine spirit addition to stop the alcoholic fermentation [1].
Sweetness
Specific gravity (g/cm3, 20°C)
°Baumé (ºBé)
Sugar content (g/L)
Extra dry
<0.9980
0.0
<40
Dry
0.9980–1.0079
0.0–1.3
40–65
Semi-dry
1.0080–1.0179
1.4–2.7
65–85
Sweet
1.0180–1.0339
2.8–5.0
85–130
Very sweet
>1.0340
> 5.0
>130
Table 1.
Port wine classification according to their sugar content.
There are four main different styles of Port wine, designated as Tawny, Ruby, White and Rosé (Figure 2). Port wine intended for Tawny style are obtained from different wines in different stages of ageing. During the ageing in the wood barrels, the red colour of the wines gradually develops into tawny, medium tawny or light tawny, with an aroma of dried fruits and wood [1]. In this style, there are some special categories like Tawny Reserve, Tawny with Indication of Age (10, 20, 30 and 40 years) and “Colheita”. This last category is an exception, as these wines are from a single vintage [7]. All these wines are ready to drink when they are bottled [1]. Port wines that belong to Ruby style are wines that the evolution of their deep red colour is limited and the fruity character is maintained [1]. Within this Port style, special categories can be found like Crusted, Reserve, Late Bottled Vintage (LBV) and Vintage [7]. Crusted Ports are high quality, very full-bodied, deep coloured wines, obtained by blending wines from numerous vintages, aged for a minimum of 2 years in wood barrels and then bottled and aged during further 3 years. The year in which the wine was bottled must be indicated on the bottle label [1, 7]. LBV is a special single harvest and it is bottled after 4 to 6 years from the harvest, with the previous ageing in vats (wood or stainless steel) and has a deep ruby red colour, extremely full body and rich in the mouth. To be recognised as Vintage, the wines must present an outstanding quality and with a very full bodied and have a deep colour. Vintage and LBV are good for storing since they age well in the bottle [1]. The types of Port wines made from red grape varieties vary in colour from deep purple to light gold, with transitional hues like tawny, golden tawny, golden and light gold. White Port wines differ according to shorter or longer periods of ageing and different degrees of sweetness. The colour of White Port wines varies from pale yellow, straw to golden white. However, when aged in wood barrels for many years, white Port wines develop, through natural oxidation, a golden hue that is very similar to that of a very old Tawny Port wine made from red grapes [1]. The special categories inside this style are similar to those of Tawny Port wines [7]. White Port wine is a Port wine style with increasing market expression. Nowadays it represents 33% of the total Port wine sales with a higher market value (+6.2%) when compared to Tawny Port wine, and nearly 80% of the production is exported [1]. Rosé Port wine is a recent Port wine style, first released in the market in 2008 by Croft, part of the Taylor Fladgate Partnership. It is technically a Ruby Port but fermented in a similar way to a Rosé wine, with limited grape skin maceration, thus producing the pink colour. Croft came up with Rosé Port as a way to introduce the pleasures of Port wine to a younger market. The colour of this type of Port wine may go from light ruby to pale salmon. This style is commonly described as a light and fresh style of Port wine that is very fruity and enjoyable [1]. Different ageing processes leads to numerous Port wines quality categories, presenting different colours (from white to deep purple), sweetness (sweet to dry) and a wide range of flavours. The Port wines styles and categories are summarised in Figure 2.
Figure 2.
Port wines styles and categories according to [1, 7].
3. Port wine ageing process
The ageing process is an important period for this wine and includes storage, ageing in wood barrels or vat tanks and/or bottle ageing. When aged in old wood barrels their size depends on the Port wine style. Wine intended for Ruby and Vintage Port wine production will be aged in large wood barrels and that intended for Tawnies will be aged in small ones. The Tawny Port wine undergoes an oxidative ageing process, while Ruby and Vintage Port have a much less oxidative ageing termed reductive ageing process [1, 7].
Ruby, Reserve and LBV Port wines usually age in large wood barrels for two, three years or even six years (LBV) and have a deep red youthful colour and intense fruity flavours, evocative of cherry and blackberry. Tawny Port wines (10, 20, 30 and 40 years old) age for longer periods in small wood barrels and show nuttiness and aroma of butterscotch. White Port wines usually age for two or three years in large wood barrels. Traditionally, White Port wines are fermented with skin contact like Red Port wines; in this case, the wines are aged in conditions that results in its oxidation. Nevertheless, the trend is for a shorter maceration period, to obtain White Port wines with a pale colour and fresh aromas [1]. Like Red Port wines, most White Port wines are fortified when half of the grape sugar concentration has been fermented. Semi-dry and dry White Port wines are fortified later, or when alcoholic fermentation is finished [8].
The fortification process gives a high concentration of acetaldehyde to the wines. Acetaldehyde is probably responsible for the colour stability by favouring the production of anthocyanin-tannin polymers (discussed below) [9, 10]. The high sugar concentration retained tends to mask the bitterness of small flavanols, but not their astringency [8, 11]. Young Port wines are generally sweet, intensely red with a high concentration in tannins and with a fruity aroma. The colour, aroma and flavour of young Port wines are due to compounds from the grape, from the alcoholic fermentation and from the wine spirit used for the fortification. These wines need to age to develop the complex sensory attributes typically associated with the several Port wine styles. Port wines can be aged for a minimum of three years to a decade or more in old wood barrels to develop their character; normally it is aged in an old wood barrel, ranging from 525 or 600 L capacity up to 200,000 L. The type and length of the ageing process, as well as the capacity of the ageing barrel, and the oxygenation during racking, influenced the Port wine style that will be developed depending mainly on the wine style planned. Therefore, wines destined for Ruby and Vintage Port wines will be usually aged in large wood barrels, while those intended for the production of Tawny Port wines will be aged in small wood barrels (Figure 2). Racking is a very important operation during Port wine ageing and may be performed periodically. Slight fortification after each racking operation to adjust the alcoholic content up to 22% (v/v), compensating the volume lost via evaporation from the wood barrels [8].
The value of aged Tawny Port wine is linked to the characteristic aroma compounds developed during the ageing process in small wood barrels that allow the admission of oxygen. This oxidative ageing is influenced by factors such as oxygen levels, temperature, and pH. The high quality Tawny Port wines generally have an ‘indication of age (10, 20, 30, or over 40 years old)’ on the bottle, and are a blend of wines aged in wood barrels from different years. The age indicated on the label corresponds to a wine that has the sensory characteristics recognised by the IVDP of a wine aged in wood with 10, 20, 30, or over 40 years, obtained by blending wines with different ages. Tawny Port wines produced from a single vintage are referred to as ‘Colheita’ Port wines, aged in wood barrels for a minimum of 7 years [1].
Ruby Port wines have red colour, full-bodied structure and often still quite fruity in character when the wines are ready to drink. Ruby Port wines are aged between 3 to 5 years before blending and bottling in old large wood barrels known as “balseiros” of larger capacity, between 10.000 and 100.000 L, and do not usually have any wood-aged characteristics. The flavour modifies from an intensely fruity, even spirity character when the wines are very young to a rich fruity ruby wine after 3 to 5 years ageing in wood. They are used to age full-bodies and fruity wines such as Ruby, LBV and Vintage Port wine. These wines age more slowly than those aged in smaller wood barrels, retaining their structure and fresh fruity aromas that are the main characteristics of these wines. Some special Ruby Port wines (the so called Vintage Port wines) have a considerable bottle ageing process, giving lighter red wines, with often a very fruity character, despite having aged for two decades or more. Vintage Port wines are aged in wood barrels for two or three years, followed by a considerable ageing time in a bottle in the so called reductive ageing (10 to 50 years or more before consumption), and so it develops a different character from those wines aged exclusively in wood barrels. These wines remain fruity and with a red colour. Consequently, Vintage Port wines develop much of its distinctive bouquet from a long process of reductive ageing in bottle.
After the initial period in wood, LBV wines are aged in dark glass bottles in cool dark cellars with controlled temperature, ventilation and relative humidity. The vintage year is always indicated on the label [1].
White Port wine is made in the same way as red Port wines. However, there is a tendency to reduce the skin contact time, and even to ferment clarified grape juice at a lower temperature (18–20°C), to obtain wines with fruity aromas. The wines are aged in small size old wood barrels for a minimum of three years before its commercialisation depending on the desired White Port wine colour type.
3.1 Chemical changes and sensory development during Port wine ageing
3.1.1 Colour development
The colour of red and white Port wines is one of the main quality parameters of the different Port wines styles. For Port wines made from red grape varieties, the initial wine colour is mainly due to the anthocyanins extracted from grape skins during vinification. Nevertheless, in a young Port wine, the percentage of colour due to the so called polymeric pigments is already 23 to 30% indicating that changes in the compounds responsible for the colour have already started during the short alcoholic fermentation and wine spirit addition to stop the alcoholic fermentation. The red Port wine colour increases up to 80% during the first months of ageing depending on the concentration of free acetaldehyde present in the young wine. After 46 weeks of ageing, the polymeric pigments can make up 78 and 98% of the wine colour [12]. The colour evolution during ageing is explained by the involvement of anthocyanins in different equilibria in solution and their simultaneous transformation through various concurring chemical reactions to a range of other pigments, many of them still unknown (Figure 3). These changes are dependent on the wine composition like anthocyanin, flavonol and tannin concentrations, different processing parameters like temperature, oxygen level, pH and the presence of other compounds either produced during alcoholic fermentation, added during processing or formed during the ageing process. On the other hand, no studies have been reported about the colour changes occurring during White Port wine ageing.
Figure 3.
Colour evolution during ageing by the involvement of anthocyanins in different equilibria and their simultaneous transformation through various concurring chemical reactions to a range of other pigments (references are listed in Table 2).
Anthocyanins in aqueous solution, depending on the pH, occur in different forms present in equilibria [13, 14, 15]. At pH < 2, the red flavylium cation is the main structure present (I in Figure 3). With increasing pH, for values between 3 and 6, after hydration of the flavylium cation, the colourless hemiketal (II) structure is formed, this last being in equilibrium with the pale yellow cis-chalcone (III) through tautomerisation. This chalcone isomer is also in equilibrium with the trans-chalcone isomer (IV). With the pH increase, the flavylium cation is deprotonated to the corresponding violet neutral quinoidal bases (V and VI) that at higher pH yields the blue anionic quinoidal bases after further deprotonation (VII and VIII, Figure 3) [15]. When sulphur dioxide (SO2) is present, there is observed reversible bleaching of anthocyanins that occurs due to the formation of the colourless anthocyanin-4-bisulphite adducts [16] (IX).
Considering all these equilibriums, at wine pH (3–4) these pigments would be expected to be present mainly in their non-coloured hemiketal form (II). However, the flavylium cation (I) is the main form present in young red wines. This is the result of its stabilisation by different copigmentation mechanisms such as self-association and interaction with other wine components [17, 18, 19, 20]. In the copigmentation process, anthocyanins and other colourless organic compounds, such as flavonoids, amino acids, organic acids, polysaccharides, anthocyanins, or metallic ions, form molecular or complex associations [21]. The copigmentation is based in two effects [22]: (1) the formation of the π–π complex which causes changes in the spectral properties of the molecules in the flavylium ion, increasing the absorption intensity (hyperchromic effect) and its wavelength (bathochromic shift); and (2) the stabilisation of the flavylium form by the π complex displaces the equilibrium in such way that the red colour increases. This association also gives protection for the water nucleophilic attack in the 2 position of the flavylium cation [23] and for other species such as peroxides and sulphur dioxide in the 4 position [24, 25], so that the balance is displaced from hydrated forms towards the red flavylium cations. If the copigment is other anthocyanin, a self-association is formed (X); in the case of copigments with free electron pairs, an intermolecular copigmentation takes place (XI) finally, in the most complex case, the copigmentation can be carried out by a part of the structure itself (usually one of the aromatic acyl group substituents) (Figure 3).
During wine ageing, the concentration of monomeric anthocyanins starts to decrease leading to the formation of new anthocyanin derived pigments with different colour features and greater colour expression at high pH, important for the long-term colour stability of aged red wines [21]. The formation of most of the anthocyanin-derived pigments occurs in the first months of ageing, as the oxidative conditions in oak barrels favour their formation [26, 27]. Copigmentation has been hypothesised as the first mechanism involved in the formation of polymeric anthocyanin-derived pigments in red wines during ageing [19]. Numerous pigments have been characterised in wines and wine-like model solutions, and can be classified into three groups with respect to their formation pathways: 1) Direct condensation between anthocyanins and flavonols; 2) Condensation between anthocyanins and flavonols mediated by aldehydes, mainly acetaldehyde; and 3) Pyroanthocyanins (Figure 3). Although some of these pigments have only been detected in very small quantities in red wines, they have unique spectroscopic features that may, in some way, contribute together to the overall colour of aged red wines. In the first case, free anthocyanins can condense directly with flavan-3-ols and oligomeric proanthocyanins generating tannin-anthocyanins condensation products (T-A+, XII) or anthocyanin-tannin condensation products (A+-T, XIII) [8, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33]. The T-A+ formation begins with the acid cleavage of the interflavanic bond of a procyanidin, giving a carbocation T+ which reacts with the hydrated form of the anthocyanin (II). This mechanism leads to a colourless compound (T-AOH) which easily dehydrates to the coloured flavylium form T-A+ [34]. In the formation of A+-T pigments, nucleophilic addition of the flavanol takes place onto the flavylium form of the anthocyanin, yielding a colourless compound with the anthocyanin in flavene form. This flavene can be oxidised, resulting in a coloured flavylium A+-T pigment (XIII) or in a colourless compound A(-O-)T with a type-A bond (XIV) [31] (Figure 3). As described for the monomeric anthocyanins, these pigments can also occur in a dynamic equilibrium among some molecular forms, mainly the quinoidal base, the flavylium cation and the hemiketal or carbinol pseudobase [30]. Both T-A+ pigments and colourless A(-O-)T have been detected in wines [35]. Dimeric anthocyanins (XVI) consisting of one unit under flavylium cation and the other one under hydrated hemiketal form (A+-AOH) were also characterised by mass spectrometry in wine like solutions [36] (Figure 3).
The A+-T adducts can generate yellow-orange xanthylium pigments (XV) by further structural rearrangements. After the dehydration, a new heterocyclic pyran ring is formed and the xanthylium structure is generated [17, 37, 38, 39, 40] (Figure 3). However, xanthylium pigments are also proposed to be formed directly from oligomeric flavan-3-ols [41, 42].
On the other hand, the acetaldehyde-mediated polymerisation between either only flavanols or with anthocyanins is the most well documented reaction in the literature [31, 37, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51]. Acetaldehyde is the main aldehyde (90%) present in wines as a result of yeast metabolism during the first stages of alcoholic fermentation, being also produced throughout the wine ageing process from ethanol oxidation [52]. In fortified wines like Port wines, this compound and other aldehydes (propionaldehyde, 2-methylbutyraldehyde, isovaleraldehyde, methylglyoxal, benzaldehyde) are present in higher amounts due to the addition of wine spirit (40–260 mg/L of acetaldehyde) to stop the alcoholic fermentation [53]. Ethyl-linked products, including ethyl-linked flavanols [54, 55] and ethyl-linked anthocyanin-flavanol pigments (XVII) [55] have been detected in wines (Figure 2). The formation of ethyl-linked anthocyanin oligomers (A+-Et-AOH, XVIII) was also shown to occur both in model solution and in wine [56]. The ethyl-linked 8,8-malvidin-3-glucoside dimer was characterised by NMR under biflavylium cation forms [56]. However, physicochemical studies carried out on this pigment showed that the dimer under monoflavylium cation is the most abundant form at wine pH [57].
Another important group of anthocyanin derived pigments formed during ageing, also found in red Port wines, are the pyranoanthocyanins (XIX) (Figure 3). Pyranoanthocyanins are a group of anthocyanin-derived pigments [58, 59], which were first discovered in red wine by Cameira-dos-Santos et al. [60]. Pyranoanthocyanins are structurally characterised by the presence of a fourth ring between C-4 and the 5-hydroxyl group of an anthocyanin moiety, differing from each other on the type of group or molecule linked to the C-10 of the new ring [58, 61, 62]. The pyranic ring in pyranoanthocyanins provides protection against the nucleophilic attack from water or bisulphite, increasing their stability [63], making these compounds exceptionally stable pigments towards sulphite bleaching and pH variations. Both anthocyanin-flavanol derived pigments, direct ones and ethyl-linked ones, show less stability during ageing than pyranoanthocyanins. Through the reaction of anthocyanins with acetaldehyde [61, 63], pyruvic acid [58, 64], cinnamic acids [65, 66], acetoacetic acid [64], and procyanidins in the presence of acetaldehyde [67], several different classes of these pigments have been identified in the past decade such as vitisins [58, 59, 61, 68, 69], hydroxyphenyl-pyranoanthocyanins (pinotins) [59, 64, 70, 71, 72], methylpyranoanthocyanins [59, 73], vinylflavanol-pyranoanthocyanins [59], portisins [58, 59, 61, 66, 67, 74, 75], and more recently a new family of pyranoanthocyanin dimers [28, 73, 76, 77] (Table 2).
Pyranoanthocyanins identified in wines and precursors.
Pyruvic acid leads to the major pyranoanthocyanins determined in wines, i.e. carboxy-pyranoanthocyanins (R = COOH), sometimes referred to as vitisin A [58, 59, 61, 68, 69]. In red Port wines, it is the main pigment found during ageing. Due to its particular vinification process, the concentration of vitisin A is very high: 51.2 mg/L for Touriga Nacional Port wines, for example [78]. Indeed, wine fortification after alcoholic fermentation allows greater availability of pyruvic acid [79], which leads to reaching the highest contents shortly after fermentation and during the first year of ageing, followed by a slow decline [80]. After one year of ageing in barrels, the contents decrease by about 15–25% and about 70% after two years, whereas it is not so much important during bottle ageing (9–18%). Romero and Bakker [81] have demonstrated that the addition of pyruvic acid to finished Port wines from four different grape varieties resulted in an increase of malvidin-pyruvic acid adducts. It was also found that the concentration of anthocyanin-pyruvic acid adducts in wines was directly related to the original grape anthocyanin profile; the higher the initial anthocyanin precursor forms, the higher the concentration of corresponding adducts [81, 82, 83]. Morata et al. [84] have reported that the yeast strain used in the alcoholic fermentation (inoculated or not) also affects the production of malvidin-3-glucoside-pyruvate, existing a direct relation between the concentration of the pigment and the production of pyruvic acid by the yeast.
Moreover, the content of SO2 in must can also influence the production of malvidin-3-glucoside-pyruvate, since SO2 regulates the concentration of pyruvic acid through the formation of a weak bisulphite addition compound [85].
Romero and Bakker [68] have reported that malvidin-derived pyruvic acids adduct in model solutions provided approximately 11-fold (at pH 3) and 14-fold (at pH 2) more colour than grape anthocyanins.
Flavanol pyranoanthocyanins are formed by the cycloaddition between anthocyanins and 8-vinylflavanol adducts initially derived from the cleavage of ethyl-linked flavanol oligomers [46] or pigments [86, 87]. In red Port wines, pyranoanthocyanin-procyanidin dimers were identified in higher concentrations than the corresponding pyranoanthocyanin-catechins, representing up to 80% of the total pyranomalvidin-flavanols. This postulate is concordant with the fact that procyanidin dimers are more abundant than catechin monomers in grapes and wines from the Douro region [88, 89]. Furthermore, their concentrations decreased in older wines for both malvidin-3-glucoside derived-pigments (10.59 mg/L in 3 year aged wines, 9.16 mg/L in 4 year aged wines and 7.86 mg/L in 6 year aged wines) and associated coumaroyl pigments (6.62, 5.51 and 3.33 mg/L in 3, 4 and 6 year aged wines, respectively).
A second generation of pyranoanthocyanins can be formed by the reaction between a vitisin A and other metabolites. For example, oxovitisins (XX) are neutral yellowish pyranone structures involving the nucleophilic attack of water at the C-10 position of vitisin A [90].
In 2003 Mateus et al. [74] reported a new group of pyranoanthocyanins-vinylpyranoanthocyanins-which were named portisins (XXI), because of their occurrence in aged red Port wine [61, 67, 74, 75], Figure 3. The structure of these compounds consists of a pyranoanthocyanin moiety linked through a vinyl bridge to a flavanol or phenol unit. Their pathway of formation involves the carboxypyranoanthocyanins and vinylphenolic compounds. The first of these compounds reported in the literature arise from reaction of 8-vinylflavanol with carbon C-10 of the carboxypyranoanthocyanins, followed by loss of a formic acid group yielding the vinyl bridge. Portisins have been shown to have very high colouring capacity, much higher than that of their anthocyanin or pyruvic acid adduct counterparts [91, 92, 93]. Later, other portisins (B type) were detected in aged Port wines. In these, the flavanol moiety is replaced by a phenolic moiety with different hydroxylation and methoxylation patterns [61, 67, 74, 75]. These compounds were reported to result from the reaction of carboxypyranoanthocyanins with vinylphenols and cinnamic acids, following a mechanism similar to that of vinylflavanols and involving a further decarboxylation. However, the colour features of these portisins are different from those of the portisins discussed above because they have a λmax hypsochromically shifted from that of vinylpyranoanthocyanin-catechins, and are only slightly affected by the substitution pattern of the new phenolic ring (between 533 and 540 nm at aqueous pH 1) [91].
The condensation between A-type vitisins and methylpyroanthocyanins results in the formation of pyranoanthocyanin dimers (XXII), Figure 3. These turquoise blue pigments were found in a 9 year aged Port wine [73].
3.1.2 Aroma composition and sensory development
The volatile compounds present in Port wines have their origin on the grapes used, are produced during the alcoholic fermentation and being also added as part of the wine spirit used for Port wine production that contains trace volatile compounds such as esters (ethyl hexanoate, ethyl octanoate, ethyl decanoate) and terpenes (α-terpineol, linalool) that can affect the quality of the Port wines, contributing to a fruity, balsamic and spicy aroma [94]. In addition, wine spirits are rich in aldehydes such as acetaldehyde, propionaldehyde, isovaleraldehyde, isobutyraldehyde, and benzaldehyde [94]. The volatile profile of young Port wines is significantly different from that of aged Tawny Port wines or bottle-aged Port wines. Producers blend wines from several vintages and vineyards to produce wines with a consistent character. The final aroma character of the Port wine is to a considerable extent determined by the processes that take place during the oxidative ageing process of these wines, such as oxidation, carbohydrate degradation, formation and hydrolysis of esters, formation of acetals and to a lesser extent extraction of components from wood [11]. More than 200 volatile components have been detected in Port wines, 141 of which have been entirely or partially identified, however, the sensory importance of the various groups of volatile compounds does not entirely explain the sensory properties of Ruby or Tawny Port wines [95]. For the Ruby Port wine sensory profile, the attributes are ‘Ruby’, ‘Persistence’, ‘Red fruits’, ‘Fruity flavour’, ‘Astringency’ and ‘Floral’ were dominant, whereas in the White Port wine attributes like ‘Honey’, ‘Sweet taste’, ‘Alcoholic sensation’, ‘Balance’, ‘Acid taste’ and ‘Moscatel’ are the ones that better characterise these wines, Tawny Port wines are characterised by the attributes ‘Dried fruits flavour’, ‘Dried fruits’, ‘Spices’, ‘Wood’ and ‘Sweet/Honey’ [96, 97]. The Pink Port wines sensory attributes are characterised by the attributes ‘Red fruit aroma’, ‘Body’, ‘Fruit aroma’, ‘Fruity flavour’, ‘Spicy sensation’ and ‘Persistence’ [98].
Norisoprenoids have been found to contribute significantly to the aroma of young and aged Port wines [76, 99, 100, 101]. In a one year aged Port wine produced from Touriga Franca and Touriga Nacional grape varieties the norisoprenoid, 2,6,6-trimethylcyclohex-2-ene-1,4-dione, described as having sweet honey aroma, was identified by Rogerson et al. [102]. In a young Port wine produced from Tinto Cão and Tinta Barroca grape varieties, Rogerson et al. [103] identified the 1,3-dimethoxybenzene and 2-ene-1,4-dione. Falqué-Lopez et al. [104] characterised a one year aged Touriga Nacional monovarietal Port wine as having ‘plum brandy’, ‘mulberry’, ‘cherry’, ‘wild fruits’ and ‘dry raisin’ aromas and Guedes de Pinho et al. [105] identified linalool and linalyl acetate as being the responsible for the bergamot descriptor.
Ferreira et al. [100] have studied the influence of several factors on the levels of norisoprenoid in Port wines such as dissolved oxygen levels, free sulphur dioxide concentration, pH, and time/temperature of ageing. These authors observed that temperature and pH had a major influence on norisoprenoids levels and oxygen saturation reduced these compounds.
The concentration of several norisoprenoids increases during ageing, as for example β-ionone and β-damascenone in Vintage Port wines, and vitispirane, 2,2,6-trimethylcyclohexanone (TCH) and 1,1,6-trimethyl-1,2-dihydronaphthalene (TDN) in Tawny Port wines [99]. Ferreira and Pinho [99] showed that the occurrence of β-damascenone, β-ionone, TCH, TDN, and vitispirane was distinct in young or aged Port wines. It was observed that in wood barrel ageing TDN, vitispirane, and TCH increased, however, the concentration of β-ionone and β-damascenone decreased. Freitas et al. [106] described that TCH was responsible for the “rock-rose-like” aroma. According to several authors, in Port wines due to the short fermentation time precursors of norisoprenoids such as carotenoids, β-carotene, lutein, neoxanthin and violaxanthin can be present [104, 107, 108]. Carotenoids are the precursor of norisoprenoids and in Port wine carotenoids persist after the vinification process [108]. Grape varieties used for Port wine production are rich in certain carotenoids and viticultural practices, such as bunch shading [108, 109] and grapevine water status [110] can influence the concentration of carotenoids in the grape berries.
Acetals, derived from glycerol and acetaldehyde, also appear to be involved in the flavour of aged Tawny Port wines [111]. The levels of aldehydes and methyl ketones increase during the oxidative ageing of Port wines. The major aliphatic aldehyde is acetaldehyde with a clear trend of increasing with the time of storage in wood barrels. Glycerol is present in wines in large amounts, in particular with concentration from 4 to 8 g/L in Port wines and therefore the formation of acetal can be high. At wine pH, four isomers are formed by condensation of glycerol and acetaldehyde: cis- and trans-5-hydroxy-2-methyl-1,3-dioxane and cis- and trans-4-hydroxymethyl-2-methyl-1,3-dioxolane. These four acetals have been studied in more detail in order to understand their impact on wine aroma and if these substances can be used as indicators of Port wines age with oxidative ageing conditions. These four isomers are found in Port wine at high concentrations. Nevertheless, this reaction is strongly dependent on free sulphur dioxide levels. When there is no free sulphur dioxide, the level of four isomers increases with the extent of ageing. On the other hand, when sulphur dioxide combines with acetaldehyde, the acetals cannot be formed because of the formation of the acetaldehyde-bisulphite adduct. The concentrations of the four acetals increases consistently with age due to the constant increase of acetaldehyde content and the nonexistence of free sulphur dioxide during Port wine storage. The acetal with the highest intensity aroma described as sweet and Port-like is trans-5-hydroxy-2- methyl-1,3-dioxane and the aroma threshold limit of the total concentration of the four acetals was determined as 100 mg/L [111]. Many acetals have been isolated from Tawny Port wines, but their contribution to the oxidised character of the wine is unclear [8].
Port wines with extensive wood-ageing have higher concentrations of diethyl and other succinate esters that contribute to the Port wine bouquet. Oak lactones (β-methyl-γ-octalactone isomers) and other oxygen-containing heterocycles have also been isolated. Some of the latter are furan derivatives, such as dihydro-2-(3H)-furanone and may contribute to a sugary oxidised bouquet [8]. Esters of 2-phenylethanol may contribute to the fruity, sweet bouquet of Port wines, and diacetyl can contribute to its caramel odour [99]. Some aldehydes and ketones are associated with the oxidative aged Port wines, conferring “rancio” odour to wines [112, 113].
However, in wood barrel aged Port wine the 3-hydroxy-4,5-dimethyl-2(5H)-furanone (sotolon) seems to be the most significant volatile compound [112, 113]. Some works suggested that sotolon contributes to the characteristic barrel aged aroma of Port wines [114], being the fundamental molecule to understand the “perceived age” of Port wines. The levels of sotolon were measured in “Colheita” and Tawny categories and were shown that it increases with ageing time being present in a range of concentration of some dozen μg/L in a young wine, to about 100 μg/L in wines with 10 years ageing, and to about 1000 μg/L in Port wines older than 50 years [112, 113, 114]. Albeit being a compound with an apparently important role in Port wine aged aroma, the mechanism of sotolon formation in wine is not yet fully understood. However, different pathways have been proposed, such as aldol condensation between α-ketobutyric acid and acetaldehyde [115, 116, 117] (Pathway 1 – Figure 4) and the reaction between ethanol and ascorbic acid [118] (Pathway 2 – Figure 4). The formation of sotolon in Port wines is dependent on the temperature and oxygen levels [112, 113], which are crucial parameters during the oxidative ageing of Tawny Port wines. The sensory threshold limit of sotolon was determined as 19 μg/L, which is above the amount present in Port wines older than 10 years [112, 113].
Figure 4.
Pathway 1: Reaction between α-ketobutyric acid (1) and acetaldehyde (2); pathway 2: Reaction between ascorbic acid (3) and ethanol (3). These reactions can lead to the formation of sotolon (8) according to [115, 116, 117, 118].
Young Port wines show higher levels of volatile sulphur compounds than aged Port wines [119]. Sulphur compounds, such as 2-mercaptoethanol, 2-(methylthio) ethanol, ethyl 3-(methylthio) propionate, 3-(methylthio)-1-propanol, cis-(odourless), and trans-2-methyltetrahydrothiophen-3-ol, 3-(ethylthio)-1-propanol, 4-(methylthio)-1-butanol, dimethyl sulfone, benzothiazole, 3-(methylthio)-1-propionic acid and N-3-(methylthiopropyl) acetamide are not present or are present in lower concentrations in aged Tawny Port wines when compared to young Tawny Port wines [119].
The changes observed in the volatile composition of Port wines during the oxidative ageing results in a complex, oxidised character defined as nutty, nuts, raisins and crisp apples with a slightly oaky note’ giving an impression of dryness. According to Falqué et al. [104] and Ferreira et al. [120] floral, bergamot-like, violet or jasmine notes are present in young Port wines that are changed during the ageing process in wood barrels. Freitas et al. [106] and Ferreira et al. [121] have described the flavours developed during ageing of Port wines as woody, burnt, dry fruit, nutty, and spicy.
4. Conclusions
Port wine is one of the most famous and old fortified wine in the world, produced in the Douro Demarcated Region (Portugal), a region with a singular “terroir”. It is a traditional product with more than 250 years old and commercialised all around the world for many centuries. However, more knowledge is still needed in order to understand and control its composition and its evolution during the wine ageing process. Port wine presents a complex physicochemical matrix that results from complex and concurrent chemical reactions that occur during the ageing process significantly changing its sensory profile. Different Port wine styles are obtained using different ageing processes, related to different oxygen levels, temperature and sulphur dioxide variations. The two main Port wine styles are the Ruby and Tawny Port wines, with the first style being obtained by a reductive ageing process resulting in a ruby colour and fruity aroma, while Tawnies Port wine styles shows a brown colour and an intense dry fruit aroma. The colour of the different Port wines styles is one of their main quality parameters. For the Port wines produced with red grapes, colour changes are related to the changes in the anthocyanins composition during the ageing process. The colour attributes of the Port wines made with white grapes is still largely unknown. Sotolon plays an important role in aged Port wines aroma obtained by oxidative ageing, due to its low olfactory threshold and pleasant and potent aroma. Sotolon levels increase during Port wine oxidative ageing. The intense government legislation and specific production rules protect this important product produced in a world protected region (Unesco) in order to reduce adulterations or even imitations. However, more studies are still needed to deepen our knowledge in order to understand and control the reactions involved in Port wine ageing process that contribute to its uniqueness.
Acknowledgments
We appreciate the financial support provided to the Research Unit in Vila Real (UIDB/00616/2020 and UIDP/00616/2020) by FCT and COMPETE and JM acknowledges the financial support provided by the FCT grant PD/BD/135331/2017.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"Port wine, Douro Demarcated Region, ageing process, colour, aroma",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/74303.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/74303.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74303",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74303",totalDownloads:132,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"August 10th 2020",dateReviewed:"November 4th 2020",datePrePublished:"December 3rd 2020",datePublished:"February 10th 2021",dateFinished:"December 3rd 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Port wine is a traditional and worldwide renowned fortified wine produced in the Douro Demarcated Region (DDR) Northeast of Portugal by specific and traditional winemaking practices. The final quality and uniqueness of the different Port wine styles are highly dependent on the ageing process, namely time, temperature and oxygen levels that will ultimately dictate the type and extension of the chemical changes that occur during this process. These chemical changes occurring during the Port wine ageing process results in significant changes in colour and aroma according to the different ageing conditions employed for the different Port wine styles. This chapter intends to give a broad and generic overview of the known and potential chemical changes occurring during ageing of Port wine that are responsible for the changes in the sensory profile observed during the ageing process. Also, the known chromatic and aromatic characteristics of the different Port wine styles and the specific ageing processes, reductive or oxidative, are reviewed.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/74303",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/74303",signatures:"Juliana Milheiro, Fernanda Cosme, Luís Filipe-Ribeiro and Fernando M. Nunes",book:{id:"9668",title:"Chemistry and Biochemistry of Winemaking, Wine Stabilization and Aging",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Chemistry and Biochemistry of Winemaking, Wine Stabilization and Aging",slug:"chemistry-and-biochemistry-of-winemaking-wine-stabilization-and-aging",publishedDate:"February 10th 2021",bookSignature:"Fernanda Cosme, Fernando M. Nunes and Luís Filipe-Ribeiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9668.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"186819",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"Cosme",slug:"fernanda-cosme",fullName:"Fernanda Cosme"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"186819",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"Cosme",fullName:"Fernanda Cosme",slug:"fernanda-cosme",email:"fcosme@utad.pt",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283748",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Luís",middleName:null,surname:"Filipe-Ribeiro",fullName:"Luís Filipe-Ribeiro",slug:"luis-filipe-ribeiro",email:"fmota@utad.pt",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283750",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"M. Nunes",fullName:"Fernando M. Nunes",slug:"fernando-m.-nunes",email:"fnunes@utad.pt",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"338390",title:"Dr.",name:"Juliana",middleName:null,surname:"Milheiro",fullName:"Juliana Milheiro",slug:"juliana-milheiro",email:"juliana.milheiro@hotmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Port wine production and styles",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Port wine ageing process",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Chemical changes and sensory development during Port wine ageing",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"Table 2.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"3.1.2 Aroma composition and sensory development",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'IVDP, Instituto dos Vinhos do Douro e Porto [Internet]. 2020. Available from: http://www.ivdp.pt/'},{id:"B2",body:'Decree-Law n°104/85, 10th of April. Ministério da Agricultura. Diário da República, 1ª série, no. 83'},{id:"B3",body:'Portaria n° 195/1985 of 10th April. Ministério da Agricultura, do desenvolvimento rural e das pescas. Diário da República, 1° série-B, no. 91'},{id:"B4",body:'Decree-Law n°173/2009 of 3rd of August. Ministério da Agricultura, do desenvolvimento rural e das pescas. Diário da República, 1ª série, no. 148'},{id:"B5",body:'Moreira N, Guedes de Pinho P. Port Wine. In: Jackson RS, editor. Advances in Food and Nutrition Research. Vol. 63. Academic Press, 2011. p. 119-146. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-384927-4.00005-1'},{id:"B6",body:'Regulation n° 84/2010 of 8th of February. Diário da República, 2ª série, no. 26'},{id:"B7",body:'Regulation n° 242/2010 of 15th March. Instituto dos Vinhos do Douro e do Porto, I. P. Diário da República, 2ª série, no. 51'},{id:"B8",body:'Jackson RS. Wine Science, Principles, Practice, Perception. 4th ed. Academic Press; 2014. 776 p. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-381468-5.00011-7'},{id:"B9",body:'Saucier C, Lopes P, Mirabel M, Guerra C, Glories Y. Tannin-anthocyanin interactions: influence on wine colour. In: Waterhouse AL, Kennedy JA, editors. Red Wine Colour: Revealing the Mysteries. ACS Symposium Series 886; 2004. p. 265-273. DOI: 10.1021/bk-2004-0886.ch016'},{id:"B10",body:'Timberlake CF, Bridle P, Interactions between anthocyanins, phenolic compounds and acetaldehyde and their significance in red wines. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture. 1976; 27: 97-105'},{id:"B11",body:'Clarke RJ, Bakker J. Wine Flavour Chemistry. 1st ed. Blackwell Publishers; 2004. 336 p'},{id:"B12",body:'Bakker J, Timberlake CF, The mechanism of colour changes in ageing port wine. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture. 1986; 37: 288-292'},{id:"B13",body:'Brouillard R, Lang J, The hemiacetal-cis-chalcone equilibrium of malvin, a natural anthocyanin. Canadian Journal of Chemistry.1990; 68: 755-761'},{id:"B14",body:'Santos H, Turner DL, Lima JC, Figueiredo P, Pina FS, Macanita AL, Elucidation of the multiple equilibria of malvin in aqueous-solution by onedimensional and 2-dimensional NMR. Phytochemistry. 1993; 33:1227-1232'},{id:"B15",body:'Brouillard R, Delaporte B, Chemistry of Anthocyanin Pigments. 2. Kinetic and thermodynamic study of proton transfer, hydration, and tautomeric reactions of malvidin 3-glucoside. Journal of the American Chemical Society.1977; 99: 8461-8468'},{id:"B16",body:'Berke B, Chèze C, Vercauteren J, Deffieux G, Bisulfite addition to anthocyanins: Revisited structures of colorless adducts. Tetrahedron Letters. 1998; 39:5771-5774. doi: 10.1016/S0040-4039(98)01205-2'},{id:"B17",body:'Liao H, Cai Y, Haslam E, Polyphenol Interactions. Anthocyanins: Co-Pigmentation and Colour Changes in Red Wines. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture.1992; 59 (3): 299-305'},{id:"B18",body:'Trouillas P, Sancho-García JC, De Freitas V, Gierschner J, Otyepka M, Dangles O, Stabilizing and modulating color by copigmentation: insights from theory and experiment. Chemical Reviews. 2016; 116: 4937-4982'},{id:"B19",body:'Brouillard R, Dangles O, Anthocyanin molecular interactions: The first step in the formation of new pigments during wine aging?. Food Chemistry. 1994; 51 (4): 365-371'},{id:"B20",body:'Gonzalez-Manzano S, Duenas M, Rivas-Gonzalo J C, Escribano-Bailon MT, Santos-Buelga C, Studies on the copigmentation between anthocyanins and flavan-3-ols and their influence in the colour expression of red wine. Food Chemistry. 2009; 114 (2): 649-656'},{id:"B21",body:'Boulton R, The copigmentation of anthocyanins and its role in the color of red wine: A critical review. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture. 2001; 52 (2): 67-87'},{id:"B22",body:'Dangles O, Brouillard R, Polyphenol interactions. The copigmentation case: Thermodynamic data from temperature variation and relaxation kinetics. Medium effect. Canadian Journal of Chemistry. 1992; 70 (8): 2174-2189'},{id:"B23",body:'Matsufuji H, Otsuki T, Takeda T, Chino M, Takeda M, Identification of reaction products of acylated anthocyanins from red radish with peroxylradicals. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2003; 51(10): 3157-3161'},{id:"B24",body:'García-Viguera C, Bridle P, Influence of structure on colour stability of anthocyanins and flavylium salts with ascorbic acid. Food Chemistry. 1999; 64(1): 21-26'},{id:"B25",body:'Mazza G, Brouillard R, Recent developments in the stabilization of anthocyanins in food products. Food Chemistry. 1987; 25(3): 207-225'},{id:"B26",body:'Atanasova V, Fulcrand H, Cheynier V, Moutounet M, Effect of oxygenation on polyphenol changes occuring in the course of wine-making. Analytica Chimica Acta. 2002, 458:15-27'},{id:"B27",body:'Alcalde-Eon C, EscribanoT, Santos-Buelga C, Rivas-Gonzalo JC, Changes in the detailed pigment composition of red wine during maturity and ageing: A comprehensive study. Analytica Chimica Acta. 2006, 563(1):238-254'},{id:"B28",body:'Nave F, Teixeira N, Mateus N, De Freitas V, The fate of flavanol–anthocyanin adducts in wines: Study of their putative reaction patterns in the presence of acetaldehyde. Food Chemistry. 2010, 121: 1129-1138'},{id:"B29",body:'Salas E, Le Guernevé C, Fulcrand H, Poncet-Legrand C, Cheynier V, Structure determination and colour properties of a new directly linked flavanol-anthocyanin dimer. Tetrahedron Letters. 2004, 45: 8725-8729'},{id:"B30",body:'Remy S, Fulcrand H, Labarbe B, Cheynier V, Moutounet M, First confirmation in red wine of products resulting from direct anthocyanin-tannin reactions. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 2000; 80: 745-751'},{id:"B31",body:'Salas E, Fulcrand H, Meudec E, Cheynier V, Reactions of anthocyanins and tannins in model solutions. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2003, 51: 7951-7961'},{id:"B32",body:'Salas E, Atanasova V, Poncet-Legrand C, Meudec E, Mazauric JP, Cheynier V, Demonstration of the occurrence of flavanol-anthocyanin adducts in wine and in model solutions. Analytica Chimica Acta. 2004; 513(1): 325-332. DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2003.11.084'},{id:"B33",body:'He F, Pan Q-P, Shi Y, Duan C-Q , Chemical synthesis of proanthocyanidins in vitro and their reactions in aging wines. Molecules. 2008; 13: 3007-3032'},{id:"B34",body:'Macz-Pop GA, Gonzalez-Paramas AM, Perez-Alonso JJ, Rivas-Gonzalo JC, New flavanol-anthocyanin condensed pigments and anthocyanin composition in guatemalan beans (Phaseolus spp.). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 2006; 54: 536-542'},{id:"B35",body:'Morata A, Gómez-Cordovés MC, Calderón F, Suárez JA, Effects of pH, temperature and SO2 on the formation of pyranoanthocyanins during red wine fermentation with two species of Saccharomyces. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 2006; 106: 123-129'},{id:"B36",body:'Lu Y, Foo LY, Unusual anthocyanin reaction with acetone leading to pyranoanthocyanin formation. Tetrahedron Letters, 2001; 42: 1371-1373'},{id:"B37",body:'Santos-Buelga C, Francia-Aricha EM, De Pascual-Teresa S, Rivas-Gonzalo JC, Contribution to the identification of the pigments responsible for the browning of anthocyaninflavanol solutions. European Food Research and Technology, 1999; 209: 411-415'},{id:"B38",body:'Baranowski ES, Nagel CW, Kinetics of malvidin-3-glucoside condensation in wine model systems. Journal of Food Science, 1983; 48: 419-429'},{id:"B39",body:'Somers TC, The phenolic nature of wine pigments. Phytochemistry, 1971; 10: 2175-2186'},{id:"B40",body:'Dueñas M, Fulcrand H, Cheynier V, Formation of anthocyanin-flavanol adducts in model solutions. Analytica Chimica Acta, 2006; 563:15-25'},{id:"B41",body:'Fulcrand H, Cheynier V, Oszmiansky J, Moutounet M, An oxidised tartaric acid residue as a new bridge potentially competing with acetaldehyde in flavan-3-ol condensation. Phytochemistry, 1997; 46: 223-227'},{id:"B42",body:'Jurd L, Somers TC, The formation of xanthylium salts from proanthocyanidins. Phytochemistry, 1970; 9: 419-427'},{id:"B43",body:'Rivas-Gonzalo J C, Bravo-Haro S, Santosbuelga C, Detection of compounds formed through the reaction of malvidin-3-monoglucoside and catechin in the presence of acetaldehyde. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 1995; 43: 1444-1449'},{id:"B44",body:'Francia-Aricha E M, Guerra M T, Rivas-Gonzalo J C, Santos-Buelga C, New anthocyanin pigments formed after condensation with flavanols. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 1997; 45: 2262-2266'},{id:"B45",body:'Es-Safi N, Fulcrand H, Cheynier V, Moutounet M, Competition between (+)-catechin and (−)-epicatechin in acetaldehyde-induced polymerization of flavanols. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 1999; 47:2088-2095'},{id:"B46",body:'Es-Safi N, Fulcrand H, Cheynier V, Moutounet M, Studies on the acetaldehyde induced condensation of (−)-epicatechin and malvidin 3-O-glucoside in a model solution system. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 1999; 47:2096-2102'},{id:"B47",body:'Escribano-Bailon T, Alvarez-Garcia M, Rivas-Gonzalo J.C, Heredia FJ, Santos-Buelga C, Color and stability of pigments derived from the acetaldehyde-mediated condensation between malvidin-3-O-glucoside and (+)-catechin. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 2001; 49: 1213-1217'},{id:"B48",body:'Remy-Tanneau S, Guerneve C L, Meudec E, Cheynier V, Characterization of a colorless anthocyanin-flavan-3-ol dimer containing both carbon-carbon and ether interflavanoid linkages by NMR and mass spectrometries. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 2003; 51: 3592-3597'},{id:"B49",body:'Pissarra J, Mateus N, Rivas-Gonzalo J C, Santos-Buelga C, De Freitas V, Reaction between malvidin 3-glucoside and (+)-catechin in model solutions containing different aldehydes. Journal of Food Science, 2003; 68: 476-481'},{id:"B50",body:'Pissarra J, Lourenço S, González-Paramás AM, Mateus N, Santos-Buelga C, Silva AS, De Freitas V. Structural characterization of new malvidin-3-glucoside-catechin aryl/alkyl pigments. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 2004; 52:5519-5526'},{id:"B51",body:'Saucier C, Guerra C, Pianet I, Laguerres M, Glories Y, (+)-Catechin-acetaldehyde condensation products in relation to wine-ageing. Phytochemistry, 1997; 46:229-234'},{id:"B52",body:'Liu SQ , Pilone GJ, An overview of formation and roles of acetaldehyde in winemaking with emphasis on microbiological implications. International Journal of Food Science & Technology, 2000; 35(1):49-61'},{id:"B53",body:'Pissarra JI, Lourenço S, Machado JM, Mateus N, Guimaraens D, de FreitasV, Contribution and importance of wine spirit to the port wine final quality - initial approach. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 2005; 85: 1091-1097'},{id:"B54",body:'Saucier C, Little D, Glories Y, First evidence of acetaldehyde-flavanol condensation products in red wine. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 1997; 48: 370-373'},{id:"B55",body:'Cheynier V, Fulcrand H, Sarni P, Moutounet M, Application des techniques analytiques à l\'étude des composés phénoliques et de leurs réactions au cours de la vinification. Analusis, 1997; 25: M14-M21'},{id:"B56",body:'Atanasova V, Fulcrand H, Le Guerneve C, Cheynier V, Moutounet M, Structure of a new dimeric acetaldehyde malvidin 3-glucoside condensation product. Tetrahedron Letters, 2002; 43: 6151-6153'},{id:"B57",body:'Atanosova V, Fulcrand H, Le Guernevé C, Dangles O, Cheynier V, Polyphenol Communications. Marrakech, 2002; Vol. 2, p 417'},{id:"B58",body:'Fulcrand H, Benabdeljalil C, Rigaud J, Cheynier V, Moutounet M, A new class of wine pigments generated by reaction between pyruvic acid and grape anthocyanins. Phytochemistry, 1998; 47: 1401-1407'},{id:"B59",body:'de Freitas V, Mateus N, Formation of pyranoanthocyanins in red wines: a new and diverse class of anthocyanin derivatives. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 2011; 401:1463-1473'},{id:"B60",body:'Cameira-dos-Santos PJ, Brillouet JM, Cheynier V, Moutounet M, Detection and partial characterisation of new anthocyanin derived pigments in wine. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 1996; 70:204-208'},{id:"B61",body:'Bakker J, Timbarlake CF, The isolation and characterisation of new colour stable anthocyanins occurring in some red wines. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 1997; 45: 35-43. DOI: doi.org/10.1021/jf960252c'},{id:"B62",body:'Benabdeljalil C, Cheynier V, Fulcrand H, Hakiki A, Mosaddak M, Moutounet M, Evidence of new pigments resulting from reaction between anthocyanins and yeast metabolites. Sciences des Aliments, 2000; 20: 203-220'},{id:"B63",body:'He J, Santos-Buelga C, Silva AMS, Mateus N, Freitas V, Isolation and structural characterization of new anthocyanin-derived yellow pigments in aged red wines. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 2006; 54(25): 9598-9603. DOI: 10.1021/jf062325q'},{id:"B64",body:'Fulcrand H, Santos P-JC, Sarni-Manchado P, Cheynier V, Favre-Bonvin J, Structure of new anthocyanin-derived wine pigments. Journal of the Chemical Society, Perkin Transactions 1. 1996; 7: 735-739'},{id:"B65",body:'Schwarz M, Wabnitz TC, Winterhalter P, Pathway leading to the formation of anthocyanin vinylphenol adducts and related pigments in red wines. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2003; 51(12): 3682-3687. DOI: 10.1021/jf0340963'},{id:"B66",body:'Rentzsch M, Schwarz M, Winterhalter P, Hermosin-Gutierrez I, Formation of hydroxyphenyl-pyranoanthocyanins in Grenache wines: Precursor levels and evolution during aging. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2007; 55(12): 4883-4888. DOI: 10.1021/jf0702491'},{id:"B67",body:'Mateus N, Oliveira J, Santos-Buelga C, Silva AMS, Freitas, V, NMR structure characterization of a new vinylpyranoanthocyanin-catechin pigment (a portisin). Tetrahedron Letters. 2004; 45(17): 3455-3457. DOI: doi.org/10.1016/j.tetlet.2004.03.007'},{id:"B68",body:'Romero C, Bakker J, Interactions between grape anthocyanins and pyruvic acid, with effect of pH and acid concentration on anthocyanin composition and color in model solutions. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 1999; 47: 3130-3139'},{id:"B69",body:'Bakker J, Bridle P, Honda T, Kuwano H, Saito N, Terahara N, Timberlake CF, Identification of an anthocyanin occurring in some red wines. Phytochemistry, 1997; 44: 1375-1382'},{id:"B70",body:'Mateus N, Pascual-Teresa S, Rivas-Gonzalo JC, Santos-Buelga C, Freitas, V, Structural diversity of anthocyanin-derived pigments in port wines. Food Chemistry. 2002; 76: 335-342. DOI: 10.1016/S0308-8146(01)00281-3'},{id:"B71",body:'Schwarz M, Jerz G, Winterhalter P, Isolation and structure of pinotin A, a new anthocyanin derivative from pinotage wine. Vitis. 2003; 42(2): 105-106'},{id:"B72",body:'Hakånsson AE, Pardon K, Hayasaka Y, De Sa M, Herderich M, Structures and colour properties of new red wine pigments. Tetrahedron Letters, 2003; 44: 4887-4891'},{id:"B73",body:'Oliveira J, Azevedo J, Silva MAS, Teixeira N, Cruz L, Mateus N, de Freitas VJ Pyranoanthocyanin dimers: a new family of turquoise blue anthocyanin-derived pigments found in port wine. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2010; 58: 5154-5159'},{id:"B74",body:'Mateus N, Silva AMS, Rivas-Gonzalo JC, Santos-Buelga C, Freitas V, A new class of blue anthocyanin-derived pigments isolated from red wines. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2003; 51(7): 1919-1923. DOI: doi.org/10.1021/jf020943a'},{id:"B75",body:'Mateus N, Oliveira J, Pissarra J, González-Paramás AM, Rivas-Gonzalo JC, Santos-Buelga C, Silva AMS, Freitas V, A new vinylpyranoanthocyanin pigment occurring in aged red wine. Food Chemistry. 2006; 97(4); 689-695. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.05.051'},{id:"B76",body:'Oliveira J, Santos-Buelga C, Silva AMS, Freitas V, Mateus N, Chromatic and structural features of blue anthocyanin-derived pigments present in Port wine. Analytica Chimica Acta. 2006; 563: 2-9. DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2005.11.027'},{id:"B77",body:'Chassaing S, Isorez G, Kueny-Stotz M, Brouillard R, En route to color-stable pyranoflavylium pigments-a systematic study of the reaction between 5-hydroxy-4-methylflavylium salts and aldehydes. Tetrahedron Letters, 2008; 49: 6999-7004'},{id:"B78",body:'Mateus N, Silva A M S, Vercauteren J, de Freitas V, Occurrence of anthocyanin-derived pigments in red wines. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 2001; 49: 4836-4840'},{id:"B79",body:'Whiting GC, Coggins PA, Organic acid metabolism in cider and perry fermentations. III. Keto-acids in cider-apple juices and ciders. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 1960; 11:705-709'},{id:"B80",body:'Mateus N, Freitas V, Evolution and Stability of Anthocyanin-Derived Pigments during Port Wine Aging. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2001; 49: 5217-5222. DOI: 10.1021/jf0106547'},{id:"B81",body:'Romero C, Bakker J, Anthocyanin and colour evolution during maturation of four port wines: effect of pyruvic acid addition. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 2000; 81: 252-260. DOI: 10.1002/1097-0010(20010115)81:2<252: AID-JSFA810>3.0.CO;2-5'},{id:"B82",body:'Romero C, Bakker J, Effect of storage temperature and pyruvate on kinetics of anthocyanin degradation, Vitisin A derivative formation, and colour characteristics of model solutions. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 2000; 48: 2135-2141. DOI: 10.1021/jf990998l'},{id:"B83",body:'Monagas M, Núñez V, Bartolomé B, Gómez-Cordovés C, Anthocyanin-derived pigments in Graciano, Tempranillo, and Cabernet Sauvignon wines produced in Spain. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 2003; 54: 163-169'},{id:"B84",body:'Morata A, Gómez-Cordovés MC, Colomo B, Súarez JA, Pyruvic acid and acetaldehyde production by different strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae with vitisin A and B formation in red wines. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 2003; 51:7402-7409'},{id:"B85",body:'Asenstorfer RE, Markides AJ, Iland PG, Jones GP, Formation of vitisin A during red wine vinification and maturation. Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research, 2003; 9:40-46'},{id:"B86",body:'Mateus N, Silva MAS, Santos-Buelga C, Rivas-Gonzalo JC, De Freitas V, Identification of anthocyanin-flavanol pigments in red wines by NMR and mass spectrometry. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 2002; 50: 2110-2116'},{id:"B87",body:'Cruz L, Teixeira N, Silva MAS, Mateus N, Borges J, De Freitas V, Role of vinylcatechin in the formation of pyranomalvidin-3-glucoside-(+)-catechin. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 2008; 56: 10980-10987'},{id:"B88",body:'De Freitas V A P, Glories Y, Monique A, Developmental Changes of Procyanidins in Grapes of Red Vitis vinifera Varieties and Their Composition in Respective Wines. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 2000; 51: 397-403'},{id:"B89",body:'Mateus N, Marques S, Gonçalves AC, Machado J M, De Freitas V, Proanthocyanidin composition of red Vitis vinifera varieties from the Douro Valley during ripening: influence of cultivation altitude. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 2001; 52: 115-121'},{id:"B90",body:'He J, Oliveira J, Silva AM, Mateus N, Freitas V, Oxovitisins: a new class of neutral pyranone-anthocyanin derivatives in red wines. Journal of Agricultural and Food chemistry. 2010; 58(15): 8814-8819. DOI: 10.1021/jf101408q'},{id:"B91",body:'Oliveira J, de Freitas V, Silva MAS, Mateus N, Reaction between hydroxycinnamic acids and anthocyanin-pyruvic acid adducts yielding new portisins. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 2007; 55: 6349. DOI: 10.1021/jf070968f'},{id:"B92",body:'Mateus N, Proença S, Ribeiro P, Machado J M, de Freitas V, Grape and wine polyphenolic composition of red Vitis vinifera varieties concerning vineyard altitude. Ciencia y Tecnología Alimentaria, 2001; 3: 102-110'},{id:"B93",body:'Mateus N, Oliveira J, Haettich-Motta M, de Freitas V, New family of bluish pyranoanthocyanins. Journal of Biomedicine and Biotechnology, 2004; 5: 299'},{id:"B94",body:'Rogerson FSS, Freitas VAP, Fortification spirit, a contributor to the aroma complexity of port. Journal of Food Science. 2002; 67: 1564-1569. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.2002.tb10323.x'},{id:"B95",body:'Williams AA, Lewis MJ, May HV, The Volatile Flavour Components of Commercial Port Wines. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 1983; 34: 311-319. DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.2740340316'},{id:"B96",body:'Vilela A, Monteiro B, Correia E, Sensory profile of Port wines: Categorical Principal Component Analysis, an approach for sensory data treatment. Ciência e Técnica Vitivinícola. 2015; 30:1-8'},{id:"B97",body:'Vilela A, Ferreira R, Nunes F, Correia E, Creation and Acceptability of a Fragrance with a Characteristic Tawny Port Wine-Like Aroma. Foods, 2020; 9, 1244; doi:10.3390/foods9091244'},{id:"B98",body:'Monteiro B, Vilela A, Correia E, Sensory profile of pink port wines: Development of a flavour lexicon. Flavour and Fragrance Journal. 2014; 29: 50-58'},{id:"B99",body:'Ferreira ACS, Pinho PG, Nor-isoprenoids profile during port wine ageing—influence of some technological parameters. Analytica Chimica Acta. 2004; 513: 169-176. DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2003.12.027'},{id:"B100",body:'Ferreira ACS, Monteiro J, Oliveira C, Pinho PG, Study of major aromatic compounds in port wines from carotenoid degradation. Food Chemistry. 2008; 110: 83-87. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.01.069'},{id:"B101",body:'Mendes-Pinto MM, Carotenoid breakdown products the—norisoprenoids—in wine aroma. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics. 2009, 483(2): 236-245. DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2009.01.008'},{id:"B102",body:'Rogerson FSS, Castro H, Fortunato N, Azevedo Z, Macedo A, Freitas VAP, Chemicals with sweet aroma descriptors found in Portuguese wines from the Douro region: 2,6,6-trimethylcyclohex-2-2,6,6-trimethylcyclohex-2-ene-1,4-dione and diacetyl. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2001; 49: 263-269. DOI: 10.1021/jf000948c'},{id:"B103",body:'Rogerson FSS, Azevedo Z, Fortunato N, Freitas VAP, 1,3-Dimethoxybenzene, a newly identified component of port wine. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 2002; 82: 1287-1292. DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.1182'},{id:"B104",body:'Falqué E, Ferreira AC, Hogg T, Guedes-Pinho P, Determination of aromatic descriptors of Touriga Nacional wines by sensory descriptive analysis. Flavour and Fragrance Journal. 2004, 19(4): 298-302. DOI: 10.1002/ffj.1355'},{id:"B105",body:'Guedes de Pinho P, Falqué E, Castro M, Silva HO, Machado B, Ferreira AS, Further insights into the floral character of Touriga Nacional wines. Journal of Food Science. 2007, 72(6): S396-S401. DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2007.00405.x'},{id:"B106",body:'Freitas VAP, Ramalho PS, Azevedo Z, Macedo A, Identification of some volatile descriptors of the rock-rose like aroma of fortified red wines from Douro Demarcated Region. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 1999, 47: 4327-4331. DOI: 10.1021/jf9901035'},{id:"B107",body:'Guedes de Pinho P, Ferreira ACS, Mendes-Pinto M, Benitez JG, Hogg TA, Determination of carotenoid profiles in grapes, musts, and fortified wines from Douro varieties of Vitis vinifera. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2001, 49(11): 5484-5488. DOI: 10.1021/jf010515p'},{id:"B108",body:'Mendes-Pinto MM, Ferreira ACS, Caris-Veyrot C, Pinho PG, Carotenoid, chrorophyll and chlorophyll-derived compounds in grapes and port wines. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2005; 53: 10034-10041. DOI: 10.1021/jf0503513'},{id:"B109",body:'Oliveira C, Ferreira AC, Costa P, Guerra J, Pinho PG, Effect of some viticultural parameters on the grape carotenoid profile. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2004; 52: 4178-4184. DOI: 10.1021/jf0498766'},{id:"B110",body:'Oliveira C, Ferreira ACS, Pinto MM, Hogg T, Alves F, Pinho PG, Carotenoid compounds found in grapes and their relationship to plant water status. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2003; 51: 5967-5971. DOI: 10.1021/jf034275k'},{id:"B111",body:'Ferreira ACS, Barbe J-C, Bertrand A, Heterocyclic acetals from glycerol and acetaldehyde in port wines: Evolution with aging. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2002, 50: 2560-2564. DOI: 10.1021/jf011391j'},{id:"B112",body:'Ferreira ACS, Hogg T, Guedes de Pinho P, Identification of key odorants related to the typical aroma of oxidation-spoiled white wines. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2003; 51: 1377-1381. DOI: 10.1021/jf025847o'},{id:"B113",body:'Ferreira ACS, Barbe JC, Bertrand A, 3-Hydroxy-4,5-dimethyl-2(5H)-furanone: A Key Odorant of the Typical Aroma of Oxidative Aged Port Wine. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2003, 51: 4356-4363. DOI: 10.1021/jf0342932'},{id:"B114",body:'Martins RC, Monforte AR, Ferreira AS, Port wine oxidation management: A multiparametric kinetic approach. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2013; 61(22): 5371-5379. DOI: 10.1021/jf4005109'},{id:"B115",body:'Guichard E, Pham TT, Etievant P, Quantitative-determination of sotolon in wines by high-performance liquid-chromatography. Chromatographia. 1993, 37(9-10): 539-542. DOI: 10.1007/BF02275793'},{id:"B116",body:'Pham TT, Guichard E, Schlich P, Charpentier C, Optimal Conditions for the Formation of Sotolon from alpha-Ketobutyric Acid in the French “Vin Jaune”. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 1995, 43(10): 2616-2619. DOI: 10.1021/jf00058a012'},{id:"B117",body:'Pons A, Lavigne V, Landais Y, Darriet P, Dubourdieu D, Identification of a Sotolon Pathway in Dry White Wines. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2010, 58: 7273-7279. DOI: 10.1021/jf100150q'},{id:"B118",body:'Konig T, Gutsche B, Hartl M, Hubscher R, Schreier P, Schwab W. (3- Hydroxy-4,5-dimethyl-2(5H)-furanone (Sotolon) causing an off-flavor: Elucidation of its formation pathways during storage of citrus soft drinks. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 1999, 47(8): 3288-3291. DOI: 10.1021/jf981244u'},{id:"B119",body:'Ferreira ACS, Rodrigues P, Hogg T, Pinho PG, Influence of Some Technological Parameters on the Formation of Dimethyl Sulfide, 2-Mercaptoethanol, Methionol, and Dimethyl Sulfone in Port Wines. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2003, 51: 727-732. DOI: 10.1021/jf025934g'},{id:"B120",body:'Ferreira ACS, Falqué E, Castro M, Silva HO, Machado B, Pinho PG, Identification of key odorants related with high quality Touriga Nacional wine. Developments in Food Science. 2006, 43: 217-220. DOI: 10.1016/S0167-4501(06)80052-X'},{id:"B121",body:'Ferreira ACS, Avila I, Pinho PG. Sensorial impact of sotolon as the “perceived age” of tawny port wines. In: Frey C, Rouseff R, editors. Natural Flavors and Fragrances. Vol. 908. ACS Symposium Series; 2005. p. 141-159. DOI: 10.1021/bk-2005-0908.ch010'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Juliana Milheiro",address:null,affiliation:'
Chemistry Research Centre - Vila Real, (CQ-VR), Food and Wine Chemistry Laboratory, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal
Chemistry Research Centre - Vila Real, (CQ-VR), Food and Wine Chemistry Laboratory, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal
'},{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Fernando M. Nunes",address:"fnunes@utad.pt",affiliation:'
Chemistry Research Centre - Vila Real, (CQ-VR), Food and Wine Chemistry Laboratory, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"9668",title:"Chemistry and Biochemistry of Winemaking, Wine Stabilization and Aging",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Chemistry and Biochemistry of Winemaking, Wine Stabilization and Aging",slug:"chemistry-and-biochemistry-of-winemaking-wine-stabilization-and-aging",publishedDate:"February 10th 2021",bookSignature:"Fernanda Cosme, Fernando M. Nunes and Luís Filipe-Ribeiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9668.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"186819",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"Cosme",slug:"fernanda-cosme",fullName:"Fernanda Cosme"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"194035",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Lepers-Andrzejewski",email:"sandra.lepers@vanilledetahiti.pf",fullName:"Sandra Lepers-Andrzejewski",slug:"sandra-lepers-andrzejewski",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Tahitian Vanilla (Vanilla ×tahitensis): A Vanilla Species with Unique Features",slug:"tahitian-vanilla-vanilla-tahitensis-a-vanilla-species-with-unique-features",abstract:"This chapter reviews the main findings on Tahitian vanilla (Vanilla ×tahitensis) over the last 10 years. It brings new insights into the hybrid origin of V. ×tahitensis and its diversification in French Polynesia. It details then the different analytical methods used to characterize the flavour properties and the aroma impact compounds of Tahitian vanilla, with a special emphasis on how they can be used to differentiate Tahitian vanilla from other vanillas. Finally, the effect of the curing process on the chemical composition and the sensory properties is discussed. These results highlight the need to include some of the key volatile compounds into a more adapted quality control, in order to describe the characteristic sensory properties of Tahitian vanilla but also those from other origins.",signatures:"Christel Brunschwig, François-Xavier Collard, Sandra Lepers-\nAndrzejewski and Phila Raharivelomanana",authors:[{id:"193993",title:"Dr.",name:"Christel",surname:"Brunschwig",fullName:"Christel Brunschwig",slug:"christel-brunschwig",email:"christel.brunschwig@gmail.com"},{id:"194035",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",surname:"Lepers-Andrzejewski",fullName:"Sandra Lepers-Andrzejewski",slug:"sandra-lepers-andrzejewski",email:"sandra.lepers@vanilledetahiti.pf"},{id:"194036",title:"Dr.",name:"Francois-Xavier",surname:"Collard",fullName:"Francois-Xavier Collard",slug:"francois-xavier-collard",email:"f7collard@yahoo.fr"},{id:"194037",title:"Prof.",name:"Phila",surname:"Raharivelomanana",fullName:"Phila Raharivelomanana",slug:"phila-raharivelomanana",email:"phila.bianchini@upf.pf"}],book:{title:"Active Ingredients from Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",slug:"active-ingredients-from-aromatic-and-medicinal-plants",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"193091",title:"Dr.",name:"Mthokozisi",surname:"Simelane",slug:"mthokozisi-simelane",fullName:"Mthokozisi Simelane",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of KwaZulu-Natal",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"193168",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Nashwa",surname:"Morsy",slug:"nashwa-morsy",fullName:"Nashwa Morsy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Cairo University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"193472",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",surname:"Lozano",slug:"eduardo-lozano",fullName:"Eduardo Lozano",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Juárez del Estado de Durango",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"193805",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita De Cássia",surname:"Avellaneda Guimarães",slug:"rita-de-cassia-avellaneda-guimaraes",fullName:"Rita De Cássia Avellaneda Guimarães",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"195504",title:"Ms.",name:"Nontokozo",surname:"Msomi",slug:"nontokozo-msomi",fullName:"Nontokozo Msomi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"195948",title:"MSc.",name:"Nayara",surname:"Vieira De Lima",slug:"nayara-vieira-de-lima",fullName:"Nayara Vieira De Lima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"195949",title:"MSc.",name:"Daniela",surname:"Granja Arakaki",slug:"daniela-granja-arakaki",fullName:"Daniela Granja Arakaki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"195950",title:"MSc.",name:"Paula Fabiana",surname:"Saldanha Tschinkel",slug:"paula-fabiana-saldanha-tschinkel",fullName:"Paula Fabiana Saldanha Tschinkel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"195951",title:"MSc.",name:"Anderson",surname:"Fernandes Da Silva",slug:"anderson-fernandes-da-silva",fullName:"Anderson Fernandes Da Silva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"195952",title:"Dr.",name:"Priscila Aiko",surname:"Hiane",slug:"priscila-aiko-hiane",fullName:"Priscila Aiko Hiane",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"WIS-cost",title:"What Does It Cost?",intro:"
Open Access publishing helps remove barriers and allows everyone to access valuable information, but article and book processing charges also exclude talented authors and editors who can’t afford to pay. The goal of our Women in Science program is to charge zero APCs, so none of our authors or editors have to pay for publication.
",metaTitle:"What Does It Cost?",metaDescription:"Open Access publishing helps remove barriers and allows everyone to access valuable information, but article and book processing charges also exclude talented authors and editors who can’t afford to pay. The goal of our Women in Science program is to charge zero APCs, so none of our authors or editors have to pay for publication.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
We are currently in the process of collecting sponsorship. If you have any ideas or would like to help sponsor this ambitious program, we’d love to hear from you. Contact us at info@intechopen.com.
\\n\\n
All of our IntechOpen sponsors are in good company! The research in past IntechOpen books and chapters have been funded by:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
European Commission
\\n\\t
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
\\n\\t
Wellcome Trust
\\n\\t
National Institute of Health (NIH)
\\n\\t
National Science Foundation (NSF)
\\n\\t
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
We are currently in the process of collecting sponsorship. If you have any ideas or would like to help sponsor this ambitious program, we’d love to hear from you. Contact us at info@intechopen.com.
\n\n
All of our IntechOpen sponsors are in good company! The research in past IntechOpen books and chapters have been funded by:
\n\n
\n\t
European Commission
\n\t
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
\n\t
Wellcome Trust
\n\t
National Institute of Health (NIH)
\n\t
National Science Foundation (NSF)
\n\t
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
\n\t
Research Councils United Kingdom (RCUK)
\n\t
Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT)
\n\t
Chinese Academy of Sciences
\n\t
Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC)
\n\t
German Research Foundation (DFG)
\n\t
Max Planck Institute
\n\t
Austrian Science Fund (FWF)
\n\t
Australian Research Council (ARC)
\n
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5766},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5227},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1717},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10367},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15789}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118188},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"0",sort:"ebgfFaeGuveeFgfcChcyvfu"},books:[],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:26},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8098",title:"Resources of Water",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d251652996624d932ef7b8ed62cf7cfc",slug:"resources-of-water",bookSignature:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran, Muhammad Salik Javaid, Aftab Sadiq",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8098.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"167917",title:"Dr.",name:"Prathna",middleName:null,surname:"Thanjavur Chandrasekaran",slug:"prathna-thanjavur-chandrasekaran",fullName:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8415",title:"Extremophilic Microbes and Metabolites",subtitle:"Diversity, Bioprospecting and Biotechnological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"93e0321bc93b89ff73730157738f8f97",slug:"extremophilic-microbes-and-metabolites-diversity-bioprospecting-and-biotechnological-applications",bookSignature:"Afef Najjari, Ameur Cherif, Haïtham Sghaier and Hadda Imene Ouzari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8415.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196823",title:"Dr.",name:"Afef",middleName:null,surname:"Najjari",slug:"afef-najjari",fullName:"Afef Najjari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9731",title:"Oxidoreductase",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"852e6f862c85fc3adecdbaf822e64e6e",slug:"oxidoreductase",bookSignature:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9731.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"224662",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmoud Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Mansour",slug:"mahmoud-ahmed-mansour",fullName:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1132",title:"Health Care",slug:"medicine-public-health-health-care",parent:{title:"Public Health",slug:"medicine-public-health"},numberOfBooks:16,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:249,numberOfWosCitations:36,numberOfCrossrefCitations:52,numberOfDimensionsCitations:89,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"medicine-public-health-health-care",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"9047",title:"Nursing",subtitle:"New Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1500bf539d1400c51b941e95f3a1f0f9",slug:"nursing-new-perspectives",bookSignature:"Serpil Çelik Durmuş",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9047.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"189558",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Serpil",middleName:null,surname:"Çelik Durmuş",slug:"serpil-celik-durmus",fullName:"Serpil Çelik Durmuş"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6951",title:"Personalized Medicine, in Relation to Redox State, Diet and Lifestyle",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2940f812b4520a28d958f5c23c606f02",slug:"personalized-medicine-in-relation-to-redox-state-diet-and-lifestyle",bookSignature:"Faik Atroshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6951.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"65639",title:"Dr.",name:"Faik",middleName:null,surname:"Atroshi",slug:"faik-atroshi",fullName:"Faik Atroshi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"3",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Authored by"}},{type:"book",id:"8270",title:"Maternal and Child Health Matters Around the World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"970e2fb7930d29a8d805900b86da459f",slug:"maternal-and-child-health-matters-around-the-world",bookSignature:"Masoud Mohammadnezhad and Nafisa Huq",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"257189",title:"Dr.",name:"Masoud",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadnezhad",slug:"masoud-mohammadnezhad",fullName:"Masoud Mohammadnezhad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8036",title:"Healthcare Access",subtitle:"Regional Overviews",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"84f870b3d688da8dd09779ef7507b850",slug:"healthcare-access-regional-overviews",bookSignature:"Umar Bacha, Urška Rozman and Sonja Šostar Turk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8036.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"244265",title:"Dr.",name:"Umar",middleName:null,surname:"Bacha",slug:"umar-bacha",fullName:"Umar Bacha"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8607",title:"Evaluation of Health Services",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dbea1d7a6cd5428a713f35c234f5583b",slug:"evaluation-of-health-services",bookSignature:"Sandeep Reddy and Aida Isabel Tavares",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8607.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"230704",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sandeep",middleName:null,surname:"Reddy",slug:"sandeep-reddy",fullName:"Sandeep Reddy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7846",title:"Universal Health Coverage",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03f74e6a4e925b7368b87e813bc29e1f",slug:"universal-health-coverage",bookSignature:"Aida Isabel Tavares",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7846.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196819",title:"Prof.",name:"Aida Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Tavares",slug:"aida-isabel-tavares",fullName:"Aida Isabel Tavares"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8583",title:"Psychology of Health",subtitle:"Biopsychosocial Approach",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d355e49f356bbd1ee90c228c0eef2d86",slug:"psychology-of-health-biopsychosocial-approach",bookSignature:"Simon George Taukeni",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8583.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"202046",title:"Dr.",name:"Simon George",middleName:null,surname:"Taukeni",slug:"simon-george-taukeni",fullName:"Simon George Taukeni"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7939",title:"Smoking",subtitle:"Prevention, Cessation and Health Effects",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2f432ec1f53e4a20071a2ec2678daa4c",slug:"smoking-prevention-cessation-and-health-effects",bookSignature:"Li Ping Wong and Victor Hoe",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7939.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"197959",title:"Dr.",name:"Li Ping",middleName:null,surname:"Wong",slug:"li-ping-wong",fullName:"Li Ping Wong"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7909",title:"Palliative Care",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"da90fe956f441df4a9455d9abd02d28b",slug:"palliative-care",bookSignature:"Mukadder Mollaoğlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7909.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"43900",title:"Prof.",name:"Mukadder",middleName:null,surname:"Mollaoğlu",slug:"mukadder-mollaoglu",fullName:"Mukadder Mollaoğlu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7447",title:"Vignettes in Patient Safety",subtitle:"Volume 4",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88d9ec0c55c5e7e973a35eafa413ded2",slug:"vignettes-in-patient-safety-volume-4",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki and Michael S. Firstenberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7447.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6654",title:"Weight Loss",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a7b1748cdbd8e86c1cac93238b57242e",slug:"weight-loss",bookSignature:"Ignacio Jáuregui Lobera",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6654.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"55769",title:"Prof.",name:"Ignacio",middleName:null,surname:"Jáuregui Lobera",slug:"ignacio-jauregui-lobera",fullName:"Ignacio Jáuregui Lobera"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5929",title:"Clinical Trials in Vulnerable Populations",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2214220e9dc00491251c8fdc23d3847a",slug:"clinical-trials-in-vulnerable-populations",bookSignature:"Milica Prostran",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5929.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"43919",title:"Prof.",name:"Milica",middleName:null,surname:"Prostran",slug:"milica-prostran",fullName:"Milica Prostran"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:16,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"35208",doi:"10.5772/38238",title:"Evidence Based Information Prescription (IPs) in Developing Countries",slug:"evidence-based-information-prescription-ips-in-developing-countries-",totalDownloads:1367,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"evidence-based-medicine-closer-to-patients-or-scientists-",title:"Evidence Based Medicine",fullTitle:"Evidence Based Medicine - Closer to Patients or Scientists?"},signatures:"Vahideh Zarea Gavgani",authors:[{id:"116172",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahideh",middleName:"Zarea",surname:"Gavgani",slug:"vahideh-gavgani",fullName:"Vahideh Gavgani"}]},{id:"35205",doi:"10.5772/38081",title:"Twenty Lessons to Incorporate EBM Concept and Practices into Medical Education",slug:"evidence-based-postgraduate-medical-education-and-teachers-training",totalDownloads:1232,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"evidence-based-medicine-closer-to-patients-or-scientists-",title:"Evidence Based Medicine",fullTitle:"Evidence Based Medicine - Closer to Patients or Scientists?"},signatures:"Madhur Dev Bhattarai",authors:[{id:"115484",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhur",middleName:"Dev",surname:"Bhattarai",slug:"madhur-bhattarai",fullName:"Madhur Bhattarai"}]},{id:"56593",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70188",title:"Training Programs for Improving Communication about Medical Research and Clinical Trials: A Systematic Review",slug:"training-programs-for-improving-communication-about-medical-research-and-clinical-trials-a-systemati",totalDownloads:386,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"clinical-trials-in-vulnerable-populations",title:"Clinical Trials in Vulnerable Populations",fullTitle:"Clinical Trials in Vulnerable Populations"},signatures:"Aurora Occa and Susan E. Morgan",authors:[{id:"204637",title:"Prof.",name:"Susan",middleName:null,surname:"Morgan",slug:"susan-morgan",fullName:"Susan Morgan"},{id:"204638",title:"Ms.",name:"Aurora",middleName:null,surname:"Occa",slug:"aurora-occa",fullName:"Aurora Occa"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66183",title:"Introductory Chapter: Bio-Psychosocial Model of Health",slug:"introductory-chapter-bio-psychosocial-model-of-health",totalDownloads:1756,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"psychology-of-health-biopsychosocial-approach",title:"Psychology of Health",fullTitle:"Psychology of Health - Biopsychosocial Approach"},signatures:"Simon George Taukeni",authors:[{id:"202046",title:"Dr.",name:"Simon George",middleName:null,surname:"Taukeni",slug:"simon-george-taukeni",fullName:"Simon George Taukeni"}]},{id:"67470",title:"Healthcare Coverage and Affordability in Nigeria: An Alternative Model to Equitable Healthcare Delivery",slug:"healthcare-coverage-and-affordability-in-nigeria-an-alternative-model-to-equitable-healthcare-delive",totalDownloads:1369,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"universal-health-coverage",title:"Universal Health Coverage",fullTitle:"Universal Health Coverage"},signatures:"Alex E. Asakitikpi",authors:[{id:"290324",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Asakitikpi",slug:"alex-asakitikpi",fullName:"Alex Asakitikpi"}]},{id:"54225",title:"Patient-Centred Care in Maternity Services",slug:"patient-centred-care-in-maternity-services",totalDownloads:1125,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"patient-centered-medicine",title:"Patient Centered Medicine",fullTitle:"Patient Centered Medicine"},signatures:"Claire de Labrusse, Anne Sylvie Ramelet, Tracy Humphrey and Sara\nMacLennan",authors:[{id:"191347",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Claire",middleName:null,surname:"De Labrusse",slug:"claire-de-labrusse",fullName:"Claire De Labrusse"},{id:"206437",title:"Prof.",name:"Anne-Sylvie",middleName:null,surname:"Ramelet",slug:"anne-sylvie-ramelet",fullName:"Anne-Sylvie Ramelet"}]},{id:"65572",title:"Dangers of Peripheral Intravenous Catheterization: The Forgotten Tourniquet and Other Patient Safety Considerations",slug:"dangers-of-peripheral-intravenous-catheterization-the-forgotten-tourniquet-and-other-patient-safety-",totalDownloads:1333,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"vignettes-in-patient-safety-volume-4",title:"Vignettes in Patient Safety",fullTitle:"Vignettes in Patient Safety - Volume 4"},signatures:"Parampreet Kaur, Claire Rickard, Gregory S. Domer and Kevin R. Glover",authors:[{id:"265790",title:"Dr.",name:"Parampreet",middleName:null,surname:"Kaur",slug:"parampreet-kaur",fullName:"Parampreet Kaur"}]},{id:"56557",title:"Access to Clinical Trials Closer to Home Using Tele-health",slug:"access-to-clinical-trials-closer-to-home-using-tele-health",totalDownloads:480,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"clinical-trials-in-vulnerable-populations",title:"Clinical Trials in Vulnerable Populations",fullTitle:"Clinical Trials in Vulnerable Populations"},signatures:"Sabe Sabesan and John Zalcberg",authors:[{id:"204367",title:"Prof.",name:"Sabe",middleName:null,surname:"Sabesan",slug:"sabe-sabesan",fullName:"Sabe Sabesan"}]},{id:"54200",title:"Assessment of Clinical Nursing Competencies: Literature Review",slug:"assessment-of-clinical-nursing-competencies-literature-review",totalDownloads:3052,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"teaching-and-learning-in-nursing",title:"Teaching and Learning in Nursing",fullTitle:"Teaching and Learning in Nursing"},signatures:"Nataša Mlinar Reljić, Mateja Lorber, Dominika Vrbnjak, Brian\nSharvin and Maja Strauss",authors:[{id:"195121",title:"Ms.",name:"Dominika",middleName:null,surname:"Vrbnjak",slug:"dominika-vrbnjak",fullName:"Dominika Vrbnjak"},{id:"195207",title:"Dr.",name:"Lorber",middleName:null,surname:"Mateja",slug:"lorber-mateja",fullName:"Lorber Mateja"},{id:"195315",title:"BSc.",name:"Maja",middleName:null,surname:"Strauss",slug:"maja-strauss",fullName:"Maja Strauss"},{id:"195804",title:"Ms.",name:"Nataša",middleName:null,surname:"Mlinar Reljić",slug:"natasa-mlinar-reljic",fullName:"Nataša Mlinar Reljić"},{id:"195973",title:"Dr.",name:"Brian",middleName:null,surname:"Sharvin",slug:"brian-sharvin",fullName:"Brian Sharvin"}]},{id:"54781",title:"Fractal to Non-Fractal Morphological Transitions in Stochastic Growth Processes",slug:"fractal-to-non-fractal-morphological-transitions-in-stochastic-growth-processes",totalDownloads:889,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"fractal-analysis-applications-in-health-sciences-and-social-sciences",title:"Fractal Analysis",fullTitle:"Fractal Analysis - Applications in Health Sciences and Social Sciences"},signatures:"José Roberto Nicolás-Carlock, Víctor Dossetti and José Luis Carrillo-\nEstrada",authors:[{id:"198986",title:"Prof.",name:"José Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Carrillo-Estrada",slug:"jose-luis-carrillo-estrada",fullName:"José Luis Carrillo-Estrada"},{id:"199076",title:"Dr.",name:"José Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Nicolás-Carlock",slug:"jose-roberto-nicolas-carlock",fullName:"José Roberto Nicolás-Carlock"},{id:"199077",title:"Dr.",name:"Victor",middleName:null,surname:"Dossetti",slug:"victor-dossetti",fullName:"Victor Dossetti"}]},{id:"54635",title:"Fractal Analysis of Cardiovascular Signals Empowering the Bioengineering Knowledge",slug:"fractal-analysis-of-cardiovascular-signals-empowering-the-bioengineering-knowledge",totalDownloads:812,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"fractal-analysis-applications-in-health-sciences-and-social-sciences",title:"Fractal Analysis",fullTitle:"Fractal Analysis - Applications in Health Sciences and Social Sciences"},signatures:"Ricardo L. Armentano, Walter Legnani and Leandro J. Cymberknop",authors:[{id:"199059",title:"Dr.",name:"Walter",middleName:"Edgardo",surname:"Legnani",slug:"walter-legnani",fullName:"Walter Legnani"},{id:"199066",title:"Dr.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Armentano",slug:"ricardo-armentano",fullName:"Ricardo Armentano"},{id:"199068",title:"Dr.",name:"Leandro",middleName:null,surname:"Cymberknop",slug:"leandro-cymberknop",fullName:"Leandro Cymberknop"}]},{id:"66677",title:"Fundamentals of Medical Radiation Safety: Focus on Reducing Short-Term and Long-Term Harmful Exposures",slug:"fundamentals-of-medical-radiation-safety-focus-on-reducing-short-term-and-long-term-harmful-exposure",totalDownloads:624,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"vignettes-in-patient-safety-volume-4",title:"Vignettes in Patient Safety",fullTitle:"Vignettes in Patient Safety - Volume 4"},signatures:"Alex Alers, Philip Salen, Vikas Yellapu, Manish Garg, Charles Bendas, Nicholas Cardiges, Gregory Domer, Timothy Oskin, Jay Fisher and Stanislaw P. Stawicki",authors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}]},{id:"69876",title:"Leadership Styles in Nursing",slug:"leadership-styles-in-nursing",totalDownloads:560,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"nursing-new-perspectives",title:"Nursing",fullTitle:"Nursing - New Perspectives"},signatures:"Serpil Çelik Durmuş and Kamile Kırca",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"medicine-public-health-health-care",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/194035/sandra-lepers-andrzejewski",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"194035",slug:"sandra-lepers-andrzejewski"},fullPath:"/profiles/194035/sandra-lepers-andrzejewski",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()