Most commonly amines used in acid gas treatment [4].
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5937",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Obstetrics",title:"Obstetrics",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Obstetrics is the field that deals with the well-being of the pregnant women as well as the labor and delivery of a healthy baby. Obstetricians work closely as neonatologists who deal with the care of the newborn baby to reduce chances of morbidity and mortality. The objective of obstetrics is to deal with diagnosis and treatment of pregnancy, antenatal care, and prevention of complication, collaborating with midwives to monitor pregnant women in labor, facilitating delivery and performing assisted procedures if needed as episiotomy, forceps delivery, vacuum extraction, and Cesarean section if indicated.",isbn:"978-953-51-3704-7",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3703-0",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-3998-0",doi:"10.5772/66054",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"obstetrics",numberOfPages:200,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"092197b1191815505a23e7dd1c9edde6",bookSignature:"Hassan Salah Abduljabbar",publishedDate:"December 20th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5937.jpg",numberOfDownloads:17181,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:7,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:12,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 2nd 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 23rd 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 21st 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 21st 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 21st 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"68175",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",middleName:"S",surname:"Abduljabbar",slug:"hassan-abduljabbar",fullName:"Hassan Abduljabbar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/68175/images/system/68175.png",biography:"Hassan S. Abduljabbar, MD, FRCSC, American Board Diplomate, is a professor at the College of Medicine, King Abdulaziz\nUniversity, Saudi Arabia. He is also the president of the Saudi Society of Obstetrics and Gynecology and the Federation of Arab\nGynecology Obstetric Societies (FAGOS). He is a referee for\nmany international scientific journals. He is also an examiner for\ngraduate degrees as well as for the Saudi and Arab board exams.\nDr. Abduljabbar has published more than fifty articles and edited three books.",institutionString:"Dr. Erfan & Bagedo General Hospital",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:{name:"King Abdulaziz University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1067",title:"Maternal-Fetal Medicine",slug:"maternal-fetal-medicine"}],chapters:[{id:"56988",title:"Normal Pregnancy Diagnosis Using Software of Ultrasonography Decision Support System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70154",slug:"normal-pregnancy-diagnosis-using-software-of-ultrasonography-decision-support-system",totalDownloads:1391,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Decision support system will help physicians in analyzing more accurate diagnosis, which can be made faster and easier with this time-saving system, and reduce tardiness in making referrals. Benefits with this system are as follows: (1) services can be provided across all places, regardless the distance and (2) it is ready to be used anytime; day and night, 24 h, 7 days a week, and throughout the year. The research design is the quasi-experimental post-test only without control; in stage I: Analysis and Design System, in stage II: Prototype, and in stage III: Application. The Verifying is needed by a specialist in Obstetrics for the Analysis and System Design as a way to perform conformity assessment with specific benchmarks as a diversification process. Routine examination, which involves: (1) input data, in general, which includes patient data such as symptoms and signs, (2) physiological and pathological description, (3) differential diagnosis or problems, (4) up to the problem itself as well as further suggestions. Decision support system is made to be used by physicians, and it contains the pattern of input-process-outcome and its display, so it can be used for the manufacturing of the software. This will be helpful for primary care physicians to avoid late referrals.",signatures:"Boy Subirosa Sabarguna, Farian Sakinah and Muhammad Reyhan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56988",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56988",authors:[{id:"200387",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Boy Subirosa",surname:"Sabarguna",slug:"boy-subirosa-sabarguna",fullName:"Boy Subirosa Sabarguna"}],corrections:null},{id:"56351",title:"Differential Diagnosis of Monotonous Fetal Heart Rate",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69988",slug:"differential-diagnosis-of-monotonous-fetal-heart-rate",totalDownloads:1329,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The aim was to explore the possibility to forecast a risk of hypoxic lesions in a monotonous fetal heart rate via ECG measurements by the methods of time and frequency analysis. The study involved 50 healthy pregnant women with singleton pregnancy at 37-41 weeks of gestation along with 17 pregnant women in the same period of gestation who had a monotonous fetal heart rate registered of various origin. The registration of fetal heart rates was performed using fetal monitor “Monica AN24” (“Monica Healthcare Ltd”, United Kingdom), transabdominal, using ECG electrodes. The software package “Monica DK” has been used to retrieve the “beat-to-beat” data. Analysis of experimental data was carried out on the basis of LABVIEW® software (National Instruments®, USA). The analysis of time parameters for fetal hypoxia showed a sharp decline in the spread function and a sharp increase in the concentration function. Spectral analysis showed a significant decrease in the ratio of high- to low-frequency components of the spectrum. In the analysis of fetal ECG, the ST segment depression was noted, which is also indicative of fetal hypoxia.",signatures:"Alexander Karpov, Anna Simakova, Oksana Frolova, Gregory\nShiferson and Igor Yemelianov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56351",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56351",authors:[{id:"201936",title:"Mr.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Karpov",slug:"alexander-karpov",fullName:"Alexander Karpov"}],corrections:null},{id:"57672",title:"Ectopic Pregnancy: Diagnosis, Prevention and Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71999",slug:"ectopic-pregnancy-diagnosis-prevention-and-management",totalDownloads:2700,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"An ectopic pregnancy (EP) falls within the area of the gynecological emergency and/or reproductive management of women, which is the implantation of fertilized ovum outside the endometrial cavity. The etiology of EP concentrated mainly on factor causes delayed transport of the fertilized ovum through the fallopian tube (favors implantation in tubal mucosa), thus giving rise to EP. This chapter describes the causes, diagnosis, prevention and the guidelines to improve the management of women who may have an EP, a major gynecological emergency that is a cause of morbidity or even mortality of women in first trimester. Three types of EP are diagnosed: tubal, cervical and ovarian; tubal is the main type. Identification of the signs and symptoms of acute and chronic EP in women, involving classical clinical trials or other symptoms common to early pregnancy, as well as evaluating the most important congenital and acquired factors related with EP, were discussed. Explanation of the most accurate methods used to diagnose the pregnancy including serum beta hCG and progesterone levels, medical history, ultrasonography, pregnancy tests and laparoscopy was also clarified. The evaluation of the most effective management tools of EP, including methotrexate administration and surgery (laparotomy and laparoscopy), was obviously explained.",signatures:"Talal Anwer Abdulkareem and Sajeda Mahdi Eidan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57672",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57672",authors:[{id:"201127",title:"Prof.",name:"Talal",surname:"Abdulkareem",slug:"talal-abdulkareem",fullName:"Talal Abdulkareem"}],corrections:null},{id:"58089",title:"Molecular Study for Diagnosis of Ureaplasma parvum in Women with Recurrent Miscarriage",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71998",slug:"molecular-study-for-diagnosis-of-ureaplasma-parvum-in-women-with-recurrent-miscarriage",totalDownloads:1205,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The objects of study is concerted to investigate the occurrence of Ureaplasma parvum in women with recurrent abortion and to determine the distribution of U. parvum serovars (1, 3, 6, 14) in women with recurrent abortion by conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique. In total, 130 samples included vaginal bleeding, vaginal swab, and urine, were collected from women with recurrent abortion and 40 samples included vaginal swab and urine from control women without recurrent abortion. Through the study, two types of media were used, Ureaplasma broth (IH Broth) and Ureaplasma agar (IH Agar). The positive isolates for Ureaplasma spp. were investigated by conventional PCR technique for identification of U. parvum and subtyping to their serovars (1, 3, 6, 14). The results revealed the U. parvum was identified in 29.6% from patient group and 11% from the control group. U. parvum isolates were further subtyped by using PCR, the results showed the serovar 3 was the most frequent isolate in proportion (42.8%), whereas serovar 1 (28.5%), serovar 6 (14.2%), and serovar 14 (14.2%) in patient group but in the control group only serovar 1 was isolated in rate (11%). These results evidently indicate that U. parvum may be an important etiologic agent for recurrent abortion.",signatures:"Ghofran Al-khafaji",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58089",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58089",authors:[{id:"213794",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghofran",surname:"Alkhafaji",slug:"ghofran-alkhafaji",fullName:"Ghofran Alkhafaji"}],corrections:null},{id:"56677",title:"Ovarian Cancer and Pregnancy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70155",slug:"ovarian-cancer-and-pregnancy",totalDownloads:1686,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The annual incidence rate of cancer is estimated to be more than 11,000 patients in the U.K. in the age group of 15–40 years, which corresponds to 4% of all cancer patients. The diagnosis of cancer is followed by devastating consequences for the patients and their families in this age group. Although the treatment of cancer is of crucial significance, it should also examine the impact of the disease on fertility at the time of the diagnosis and the damages caused from the surgical treatment, chemotherapy, or radiotherapy. The gynecological cancer, especially the diagnosis of ovarian cancer, the prevention, and treatment, as well as the fertility preservation in young women, represent the gold standard for all gynecologists. The crucial disadvantage remains the difficulty in primary diagnosis of ovarian cancer and the coexistence with pregnancy, focusing on the fertility preservation and maintaining pregnancy. In the absence of large perspective randomized trials and cohort studies, the therapeutic mapping and optimal management of these patients are difficult. In order to establish detailed guidelines, it is necessary to ensure surgical mapping depending on the cancer staging and the quality of life of the patients.",signatures:"Chrisostomos Sofoudis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56677",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56677",authors:[{id:"173802",title:"Dr.",name:"Chrisostomos",surname:"Sofoudis",slug:"chrisostomos-sofoudis",fullName:"Chrisostomos Sofoudis"}],corrections:null},{id:"57389",title:"Pharmacological Opportunities for Prevention of Preeclampsia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70164",slug:"pharmacological-opportunities-for-prevention-of-preeclampsia",totalDownloads:1366,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Preeclampsia (PE) is a disorder that occurs during pregnancy, it has an estimated worldwide prevalence of 5–8%, being one of the leading causes of maternal and perinatal morbidity and mortality. Currently, different diagnostic criteria exist, however, due to its complexity; the clinical presentation that makes up this syndrome could make its presence unclear. The pathophysiology of PE has been recently postulated and divided into three processes: inadequate uterine remodeling, placental dysfunction and maternal endothelial dysfunction. Despite the advances in the treatment of PE, the outcome of the medical interventions has failed to decrease the morbidity and mortality of this disease. The main reason might be the multifactorial origin of pathogenic processes that lead to the development of PE. That is why treatment is focused on the prevention of PE in patients that might present the risk before developing it late in pregnancy. The knowledge of the pathophysiological factors that trigger the processes that culminate in the presentation of PE, is key for prevention of this disease. However, the origin of these processes is poorly understood. It may be attributed to the ethical considerations that come with the study of these population of patients compared with the study of non-pregnant women.",signatures:"Leonel García Benavides, Diego Hernández Molina, Jessica L.\nBarajas Vega, Sylvia E. Totsuka Sutton, Fernando Grover Paéz,\nFrancisco J. Hernández Mora, Ernesto J. Ramírez Lizardo, Sara Pascoe Gonzalez, David Cardona Müller and Ernesto G. Cardona\nMuñoz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57389",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57389",authors:[{id:"40981",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",surname:"Grover Páez",slug:"fernando-grover-paez",fullName:"Fernando Grover Páez"},{id:"184051",title:"Dr.",name:"Ernesto German",surname:"Cardona-Muñoz",slug:"ernesto-german-cardona-munoz",fullName:"Ernesto German Cardona-Muñoz"},{id:"200821",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Leonel",surname:"Garcia Benavides",slug:"leonel-garcia-benavides",fullName:"Leonel Garcia Benavides"},{id:"201949",title:"Dr.",name:"Diego",surname:"Hernández Molina",slug:"diego-hernandez-molina",fullName:"Diego Hernández Molina"},{id:"201950",title:"Dr.",name:"Ernesto Javier",surname:"Ramirez Lizardo",slug:"ernesto-javier-ramirez-lizardo",fullName:"Ernesto Javier Ramirez Lizardo"},{id:"201951",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",surname:"Hernández Mora",slug:"francisco-javier-hernandez-mora",fullName:"Francisco Javier Hernández Mora"},{id:"201987",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",surname:"Pascoe Gonzalez",slug:"sara-pascoe-gonzalez",fullName:"Sara Pascoe Gonzalez"},{id:"201988",title:"Dr.",name:"Sylvia Elena",surname:"Totsuka Sutto",slug:"sylvia-elena-totsuka-sutto",fullName:"Sylvia Elena Totsuka Sutto"},{id:"201995",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Cardona Mûller",slug:"david-cardona-muller",fullName:"David Cardona Mûller"},{id:"202647",title:"BSc.",name:"Jessica Lucia",surname:"Barajas Vega",slug:"jessica-lucia-barajas-vega",fullName:"Jessica Lucia Barajas Vega"}],corrections:null},{id:"56365",title:"Massive Postpartum Hemorrhage: Protocol and Red Code",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69968",slug:"massive-postpartum-hemorrhage-protocol-and-red-code",totalDownloads:2488,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) is the leading cause of maternal death. In developing countries, approximately 8% of maternal death is caused by PPH. Protocols should provide a standardized approach to evaluate and monitor the patients. A standard protocol must be recognized by the institution and must be accepted and known by all team members. Additionally, it is important to have a massive obstetric hemorrhage protocol (red code) for those patients with an important bleeding who require blood products available as soon as possible. In the red code activation protocol there are several key points to consider: the management algorithm must be known and accepted by all team members, a clear and effective communication between the team must be established and all the participants must know the role they play. Massive obstetric hemorrhage has a multidisciplinary implication: obstetricians, anesthesiologists, pediatricians, midwife, nurses, auxiliary staff, and laboratory blood bank staff. The active participation of the multidisciplinary team in simulations before the protocols implementation facilitates the evaluation of critical points and subsequent changes before their final application, the assessment of the adequacy of circuits and infrastructure, as well as a better protocols compliance.",signatures:"Jaume Miñano Masip, Laura Almeida Toledano, Sílvia Ferrero\nMartínez and María Dolores Gómez Roig",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56365",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56365",authors:[{id:"202446",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Maria Dolores",surname:"Gómez Roig",slug:"maria-dolores-gomez-roig",fullName:"Maria Dolores Gómez Roig"},{id:"202447",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaume",surname:"Miñano Masip",slug:"jaume-minano-masip",fullName:"Jaume Miñano Masip"},{id:"202448",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",surname:"Almeida",slug:"laura-almeida",fullName:"Laura Almeida"},{id:"202449",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvia",surname:"Ferrero",slug:"silvia-ferrero",fullName:"Silvia Ferrero"}],corrections:null},{id:"57643",title:"Uterine Fibroids and Pregnancy: A Review of the Challenges",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71761",slug:"uterine-fibroids-and-pregnancy-a-review-of-the-challenges",totalDownloads:1698,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Uterine fibroids are quite common in women of the reproductive age group and as such commonly encountered in pregnancy. Though majority of these cases are asymptomatic, some are prone to developing complications and may end up having adverse outcomes in pregnancy. Management of these women with uterine fibroids presents its own challenges, especially in low-resource setting as in sub-Saharan Africa, where the condition is rife. Adequate management of these women, be it pregnant or nonpregnant, improves their quality of life.",signatures:"Dagogo Semenitari Abam and Terhemen Kasso",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57643",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57643",authors:[{id:"171756",title:"Dr.",name:"Abam",surname:"Dagogo",slug:"abam-dagogo",fullName:"Abam Dagogo"},{id:"227954",title:"Dr.",name:"Terhemen",surname:"Kasso",slug:"terhemen-kasso",fullName:"Terhemen Kasso"}],corrections:null},{id:"56985",title:"Pelvic Floor Support",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70153",slug:"pelvic-floor-support",totalDownloads:3325,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Pelvic floor muscle can be weakened by pregnancy and birth trauma and this contributes to sagging of pelvic floor, and may lead to pelvic floor disorder (PFD). There are various forms of pelvic floor support available in modern medicine, each has its own therapeutic logic behind its use. The noninvasive mechanical device bowel aid provides conservative support to supplement current obstetric management to improve outcome of management of pregnancy related problem like hemorrhoid and anal fissure. With optimization of the conservative pelvic floor support during pregnancy, it is very promising to prevent PFD in later life of the women.",signatures:"Yu Chye Wah and Chew Heng Hai",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56985",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56985",authors:[{id:"202862",title:"Dr.",name:"Chye Wah",surname:"Yu",slug:"chye-wah-yu",fullName:"Chye Wah Yu"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10721",title:"Preeclampsia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eb38592b7a656d02dd6b28c34e43de32",slug:"preeclampsia",bookSignature:"Hassan Abduljabbar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10721.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68175",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Abduljabbar",slug:"hassan-abduljabbar",fullName:"Hassan Abduljabbar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"814",title:"Steroids",subtitle:"Basic Science",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"74304f5d822f8f45d4b48a0e00ebd375",slug:"steroids-basic-science",bookSignature:"Hassan Abduljabbar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/814.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68175",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Abduljabbar",slug:"hassan-abduljabbar",fullName:"Hassan Abduljabbar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2013",title:"Steroids",subtitle:"Clinical Aspect",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"31dfd32a77f71bc348d7922af48b8e62",slug:"steroids-clinical-aspect",bookSignature:"Hassan Abduljabbar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2013.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68175",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Abduljabbar",slug:"hassan-abduljabbar",fullName:"Hassan Abduljabbar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10485",title:"Fibroids",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"64ad14b1aba83e47fb100fa63e21533e",slug:"fibroids",bookSignature:"Hassan Abduljabbar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10485.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68175",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Abduljabbar",slug:"hassan-abduljabbar",fullName:"Hassan Abduljabbar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7969",title:"Leiomyoma",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"659a9fef0f90168b2184c86af85d3a42",slug:"leiomyoma",bookSignature:"Hassan Abduljabbar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7969.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68175",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Abduljabbar",slug:"hassan-abduljabbar",fullName:"Hassan Abduljabbar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7132",title:"Complications of Pregnancy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d2bdac8e99a71feab10bd0b9e1063bb9",slug:"complications-of-pregnancy",bookSignature:"Hassan Abduljabbar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7132.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68175",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Abduljabbar",slug:"hassan-abduljabbar",fullName:"Hassan Abduljabbar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"776",title:"Preterm Birth",subtitle:"Mother and Child",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4e5369103770cdbf61058ad75e2e63bb",slug:"preterm-birth-mother-and-child",bookSignature:"John C. 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He earned his PhD with distinction from Graz University of Technology, Austria and secured Gold Medal in his Masters from Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan. He has published over 50 research articles in reputed journals and conferences. His research activities encompass the area of Semantic Web, Social Web, Sentiment Analysis, Digital Libraries, eLearning, and Information Integration. He is editor/reviewer/session chair of many journals and conferences. He is supervising/co-supervising number of PhD students in Austria, Pakistan, and Malaysia, and is involved in number of international research projects."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5752",title:"Celiac Disease and Non-Celiac Gluten Sensitivity",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"47dfc5b8378b01d915127fa3c1169a90",slug:"celiac-disease-and-non-celiac-gluten-sensitivity",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5752.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"983",title:"Pancreatitis",subtitle:"Treatment and Complications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"062521454256bb4a388ce6fd638dbf1a",slug:"pancreatitis-treatment-and-complications",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo 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Helminthiasis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2002f4cb6e246a51ed8688e076db4d",slug:"human-helminthiasis",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5388.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5122",title:"Colorectal Cancer",subtitle:"From Pathogenesis to Treatment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5ab8ff026cf9fbd8e3b0097d7f11fe2c",slug:"colorectal-cancer-from-pathogenesis-to-treatment",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5122.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6740",title:"Advances in Pancreatic Cancer",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"500360b038bf8561a30993b0ccb6de91",slug:"advances-in-pancreatic-cancer",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6740.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"57510",title:"Solvents for Carbon Dioxide Capture",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71443",slug:"solvents-for-carbon-dioxide-capture",body:'Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is one of the pathways for anthropogenic CO2 emission mitigation. Among the wide portfolio of CCS technologies, physical and chemical absorption are considered the most close-to-market approaches to be applied at industrial scale, mainly focused on their implementation in energy production from fossil fuels [1]. Physical absorption is based on the CO2 solubility into the solution without chemical reaction which is based on Henry’s law and hence high CO2 partial pressures and low-temperatures are highly recommended for its application. Chemical absorption is based on the reaction between CO2 and specific compounds—solvents—that lead to form a weak bond between CO2 and the solvent. Chemical absorption occurs indeed at low CO2 partial pressure. Low-temperature is also recommended for this mechanism. Numerous solvents have been developed since the first chemical absorption process was patented in the early 1930s. However, the implementation of CO2 absorption at industrial processes such as cement production, iron and steel manufacturing and fossil-fuel power plants requires novel solvent formulations that can address the main constrains limiting its deployment: the huge volume of treated gas, the low CO2 concentration in the flue gas and the presence of trace components such as NOx, SO2 and particulate matter which degrade the solvents [2, 3]. This chapter summarizes both conventional and newly developed solvents mainly focused on CO2 capture processes based on physical and chemical absorption. A deep revision of the solvents reported from the literature was made including primary, secondary, tertiary amines and non-amine-based solvents. Novel solvents such as sterically hindered amines and blends were discussed further. In respect to physical solvents, authors report the conventional solvents used by licensed processes such us Rectisol™, Selexol™, Sulfinol™ and Purisol™. Special attention will be paid in ionic liquids and novel biphasic configurations and their use as CO2 capture solvents.
The amine-based chemical absorption process has been used for CO2 and H2S removal—acid gas removal—from gas-treating plants since 1950s [4] and are considered to be by far the most developed CO2 capture process. CO2 is absorbed typically using amines to form a soluble carbonate salt. The absorber operates below 60°C and ambient pressure (step 1 in Figure 1) [4].
Simplified diagram of a conventional acid gas removal process using chemical absorption adapted from Ref. [
This reaction is reversible and the CO2 can be released by heating the solution with the carbonate salt in a separate stripping column. The CO2 stripping occurs at 120°C and pressures ranging between 1.8 and 3 bar [6], as illustrated in the step 2 in Figure 1.
Nowadays, amine-based chemical absorption came up as a potential technology that can be applied to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in industrial processes such us fossil fuels power plants, cement production and iron and steel manufacturing. Post-combustion is the nearest close-to-market and industrially developed carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology.
Specifically, the alkanolamines are volatile, cheap and safe to handle compounds and are commonly classified by the degree of substitution on the central nitrogen; a single substitution denoting a primary amine; a double substitution, a secondary amine; and a triple substitution, a tertiary amine. Each of the above-mentioned alkanolamines has at least one hydroxyl group and one amino group. In general, the hydroxyl group serves to reduce vapor pressure and increases the solubility in water, while the amine group provides the necessary alkalinity in aqueous solutions to promote the reaction with acid gases. Therefore, the molecular structures of primary and secondary amines are the non-fully substituted alkanolamines and they have hydrogen atoms at the non-substituted valent sites on the central nitrogen, whereas the tertiary amines are fully substituted on the central nitrogen. This structural characteristic plays an important role in the acid gas removal capabilities of the various treating solvents [7]. Table 1 shows the most widely used amines for the treatment of acid gases, which will be described in detail.
Most commonly amines used in acid gas treatment [4].
Gray, C atom; white, H atom; red, O atom; dark blue, N atom.
The performance of solvents for CO2 absorption can be evaluated from several specific properties. In particular, the CO2 absorption capacity, namely CO2 loading, is defined as the amount of CO2 that can be absorbed per mole of solvent (mole CO2/mole solvent). The maximum CO2 absorption capacity can be deducted from the CO2 solubility represented by vapour-liquid equilibrium (VLE) curves of each solvent, depending on the CO2 partial pressure in the bulk gas and the absorption temperature [4]. The cyclic capacity, defined as the difference of the CO2 loading between the rich solvent and the lean solvent, is also used for easily comparison. In terms of CO2 chemical reactivity, the absorption kinetics is expressed as the rate of the CO2 absorbed from the bulk gas to the bulk liquid that means mole CO2 per second. Finally, the solvent resistance to be degrade in presence of O2, NOx and SO2 and also under elevated temperature is compared by the solvent losses under specific operating conditions.
Primary alkanolamines such as monoethanolamine (MEA) and diglycolamine (DGA), provide high chemical reactivity, favored kinetics, medium-to-low absorption capacity and acceptable stability. Monoethanolamine (MEA), the first-generation and the most well-known amine-based absorbent, is highlighted by its high chemical reactivity with CO2 and low cost. These properties can reduce the absorber height and ensure a feasible operation. Although MEA-based scrubbing technology is suitable for acid gas removal and, in particular, post-combustion capture from fossil-fired plants flue gas, it suffers from several issues during operation, including high energy requirements for stripping: high enthalpy of reaction, low absorption capacity, oxidative and thermal degradation and piping corrosion [8]. Hence, efforts have focused on the development of attractive solvents to achieve high absorption/desorption capacities, energy-efficient performance and oxidative and thermal stability. Furthermore, DGA presents similar properties to MEA in many aspects, except that its low vapor pressure allows its use at higher concentrations, typically between 40 and 60%wt. in aqueous solution.
Secondary alkanolamines such as diethanolamine (DEA) and diisopropanolamine (DIPA), which have a hydrogen atom directly bonded to the nitrogen, shows intermediate properties compared to primary amines and they are considered as an alternative to MEA. DEA is more resistant to degrade and shows lower corrosion strength than MEA, whereas DIPA has lower energy requirement for solvent regeneration than MEA.
Finally, tertiary amines such as triethanolamine (TEA) or methyldiethanolamine (MDEA), that are characterized by having a high equivalent weight, which causes a low absorption capacity, low reactivity and high stability.
There are three main differences in the performance of primary and secondary amines as they are compared to tertiary amines for the CO2 separation process. Primary and secondary amines are very reactive; they form carbamate by direct reaction with CO2 by Zwitterion mechanism. Therefore, these amines showed limited thermodynamic capacity to absorb CO2 due to the stable carbamates formation along the absorption process. On the other hand, tertiary amines can only form a bicarbonate ion and protonated amine by the base-catalyzed hydration of CO2 due to their lack of the necessary N─H bond [9, 10]. Hydration is slower than the direct reaction by carbamate formation and, hence, tertiary amines show low CO2 absorption rates [9].
In general, the main issues that amine-based chemical absorption has to address to be applied as industrial scale for carbon dioxide emission mitigation are listed below:
High energy consumption during the solvent regeneration.
Corrosion requires the use of both inhibitors and resistant materials in their application.
Scale up from actual (800 t/day) to required (8000 t/day) CO2 capacity.
Degradation in the presence of O2, SOx and other impurities such as particles, HCl, HF and Hg.
Sterically hindered amines are considered a type of amines which can improve CO2 absorption rates in comparison with the common primary and second amines, usually amino alcohols. A sterically hindered amine is formed by a primary or secondary amine in which the amino group is attached to a tertiary carbon atom in the first case or a secondary or tertiary carbon atom in the second (Figure 2).
Molecular structure of primary amines on the left (MEA) and a sterically hindered amine on the right (AMP). Note that gray balls represent C atoms; white balls represent H atoms; red/dark gray balls represent O atoms; dark blue/black balls represent N atoms [
These amines are characterized by forming carbamates of intermediate-to-low stability, introducing a bulky substituent adjacent to the amino group to lower the stability of the carbamate formed by CO2-amine reaction. This weaker bond leads to high free-amine concentration in solution, so the energy consumption to release CO2 is lower that the common primary and second amines. According to Nicole Hüser et al. [11], a decrease up to 15% can be achieved using hindered amines.
The general reaction scheme of the CO2-primary or secondary amine (AmH) and the CO2-sterically hindered amine(AmCOO−) is shown in Figure 3. Regarding the primary or secondary reaction scheme, the symbol B represents a base that should be another amine molecule that requires to form the carbamate anion. In this case, two amine molecules are needed to absorb one CO2 molecule, as it is extracted from the overall reaction.
General reaction scheme of the CO2-amines system [
The system CO2-sterically hindered amine requires only one amine molecule to capture one molecule of CO2. Based on this assumption, the maximum CO2 loading using sterically hindered amines is higher than for unhindered, primary or secondary amines.
The use of this type of amines leads to reduce the energy requirement for the amine-based solvent regeneration up to 20% compared to conventional MEA-based scrubbing, due to the formation weak bonds [11]. Several sterically hindered amines are shown in Table 2.
Examples of sterically hindered amines [12].
Gray, C atom; white, H atom; red, O atom; dark blue, N atom.
Non-amine-based solvents are called to those chemical solvents which do not integrate an amine group in their structure molecular. The most relevant solvent proposed as an alternative to the conventional amine-based solvents is the sodium carbonate (Na2CO3). About 30% p/p sodium carbonate slurry is used to provide a basic environment in which CO2 is absorbed as bicarbonate followed by sodium bicarbonate formation [13]. The NaHCO3 precipitation enhances the bicarbonate formation and, hence, the CO2 capture capacity of the solvent is improved.
Sodium carbonate has shown a high performance in CO2 separation from flue gas in comparison with the MEA benchmark. It produces a high CO2 loading capacity (0.73 mole CO2/ mole CO32ˉ) and a reboiler duty of 3.2 MJ/kg CO2 rather than 0.5 mole CO2/mole MEA and 3.5–4.2 MJ/kg CO2 in case MEA is used as a solvent. Furthermore, this chemical solvent can absorb CO2 in presence of pollutants such as SO2 which can enable the cyclic capacity of amine-based solvents for CO2 absorption [13, 14]. Despite those advantages, sodium carbonate can absorb CO2 at low absorption rates, which lead to higher absorption column height. It assumes that sodium carbonate requires the use of promotors such as primary amines to enhance its CO2 absorption rates [15, 16, 17, 18]. The advantages and disadvantages to use sodium carbonate as an absorption solvent in a CO2 separation process are shown in Table 3.
Advantages | Disadvantage |
---|---|
• Multi-pollutant capture system | • Slow absorption rate. The solvent should be promoted with increasing rate additiveti |
• Use of a non-hazardous and non-volatile solvent | • Solid and slurry management |
• Lower fouling and corrosion issues than amine compounds | • High pollutant removal |
Advantages and disadvantages of CCS based on chemical absorption using Na2CO3 [14].
The potassium carbonate (K2CO3) is other non-amine-based solvents that can be used as a promoter the CO2 capture with amine-based solvent or other class of amine, like a sterically hindered amine [12].
As it was indicated in previous section, the high energy penalty related to amines regeneration and solvent degradation are the most significant issues hindering a large deployment of this technology. Solvent regeneration is a high-intensive energy process. Moreover, the stripper operating conditions and the solvent used to absorb CO2 consume a high amount of energy. In this sense, amine blends could offer potential improvements in CO2 chemical absorption to reduce the regular reboiler duty and the common solvent circulation rates [14, 19].
However, in view of taking advantage these main benefits, except its low reactivity, the addition of a small amount tertiary amines (MDEA, TEA) in primary or secondary amines aqueous solutions (MEA, DEA) to form a solvent blend enhances the overall behavior of the solvent in terms of lower energy requirements for solvent regeneration and higher resistance to solvent degradation [20, 21]. For this reason, different researchers are studying novel solvent formulations and blends, involving fast kinetic solvents such as MEA with other slow kinetic solvents like TEA, 2-amino-2-methyl-1-propanol (AMP), benzylamine (BZA) and MDEA [22, 23].
A huge number of solvent have been proposed for CO2 chemical absorption applied to carbon capture. The first amine was combined with faster kinetic amines was N-methyldiethanolamine (MDEA). Amines such a methanolamine (MEA), diethanolamine (DEA) and piperazine (PZ) have used as promoters for MDEA blends. It is also possible to increase the reaction rate of fast solvents by combining them with an even faster solvent. For example, MEA is a fast solvent but it is almost 50 times slower than PZ. The CO2 absorption rate of MEA can be significantly improved by adding small amounts of PZ as a promoter [24]. This blend improved the individual CO2 absorption rate. Potassium carbonate promoted with PZ is also considered a promising solvent [25], along with the PZ and 2-amino-2-methyl-1-propanol (AMP) blends [26]. A summary of the most promising amines blends are given below (Table 4).
Solvent | Abbreviation | Reference |
---|---|---|
Piperazine and potassium carbonate | PZ+ K2CO3 | [25] |
2-amino-2-methyl-1-propanol and piperazine | AMP+ PZ | [26] |
2-amino-2-methyl-1-propanol and 1,2-ethanediamine | AMP+ EDA | [27] |
3-methylamino propylamine and dimethyl-monoethanolamine | MAPA + DMMEA | [28] |
A summary of most relevant solvent blends reported from the literature [14].
Some advantages of blending these amines are listed below [29]:
Improved thermodynamic efficiency.
Reduction in issues relating to degradation and operation of the solvent caused by corrosion.
Flexibility in the range of amines available to tailor and optimize the composition of the solvent to achieve the highest absorption efficiency.
High absorption rates observed in single amine solvents can often be maintained in blends of the individual components.
Energy requirement for solvent regeneration can be reduced.
A novel generation of solvents comes recently up as an alternative for traditional amine-based solvents, namely ionic liquids (ILs). These compounds are organic salts with elevated boiling points and thus low vapor pressure, which can selectively absorb acid gases such as CO2 and SO2, involving relatively low regeneration energy requirements [3]. Recently this topic was reviewed extensively by Zhang et al. [30]
ILs are typically formed with the combination of a large organic cation, that is, imidazolium, pyridinium or phosphonium cation with either an inorganic anion such as Cl−, BF4− and PF6−, or an organic anion, that is, RCO2− and CF3SO3− [31]. Special functional groups are also being under consideration for ILs formulations [30]. In general for conventional ILs, anions have more impact on the solvent performance during the absorption process, being the influence of cations considerably lower. Although ILs provide higher CO2 solubility and selectivity for CCS applications, some authors stated the use of functionalized IL are required in order to make ILs competitive in comparison with amine-based chemical absorption option [30].
Conventional ILs interact with CO2 as a physical solvent. They enhance the CO2 solubility following a Henry’s law behavior. Functionalized ILs contain an amino group to improve the CO2 absorption capacity and the kinetics by means of Zwitterion mechanisms as it occurs with primary and secondary amines. Nowadays, researchers are focusing on the development of ILs as a promising CCS approach based on their exceptional properties as a solvent for CO2 capture. In this respect, the key property provided by ILs derived from their extremely high capacity to be synthetized in a large number of configurations. The tuneable solvent characteristic of ILs allows them to offer unique molecular structures specifically designed for each application, in particular for low CO2 concentrated flue gas treatment [30, 32, 33]. Other properties such as their low vapor pressure must be also taking into account due to its impact on the environment. ILs are non-volatile compounds and therefore the presence of ILs in the cleaned exhaust gas after CO2 separation step is negligible. In this sense, solvent losses associated to ILs are assumed to be completely avoided in a CO2 capture process based on these emerging solvents. This property is also related to low energy requirements during the solvent regeneration. Several studies reported up to 15% of reduction of the specific energy consumption of MEA functionalized ILs compared to conventional MEA-based scrubbing [33, 34].
Despite their potential for carbon capture, there are some disadvantages that constrain their competitiveness of ILs compared to conventional solvents. ILs show relatively high viscosity, limiting their mass transfer capacities. Indeed, they become excessively viscous once CO2 is absorbed, producing solvent pumping issues as well as mass transfer and operational difficulties during the overall CO2 capture process. According to Luo and Wang [32], the increase of the viscosity after the CO2 absorption is due to the formation of strong and dense hydrogen-bonded networks between the compounds formed by the Zwitterion and dication mechanisms. Authors proposed to promote ILs by the use of non-amine functionalized ILS to avoid the formation of hydrogen bonds [35, 36]. Other proposals such as introducing ether oxygen atoms into the ILs structure and adding particular molecular solvents to provide IL-based solvents were found in the literature. For instance, the use of organic amines instead of water decrease also the viscosity without reducing the CO2 absorption capacity [30]. Finally, it is necessary to point out that they are also relatively expensive in comparison with common amine-based solvents [37]. Other aspect that should be further investigated in order to address the main knowledge gaps are indicated below:
Determination of transport properties, physical properties, absorption kinetics of the best performance ILs.
Efforts on developing new combinations of IL using membranes.
Development of simulation tools that can predict the chemistry of the interactions in multi-components systems.
The evaluation of the toxicity and environmental impact derived from the use of IL and its derivatives.
Investigations on the task-specific IL and the mechanisms involved in CO2-IL interactions in order to improve the feasibility of its use as a potential CO2 separation approach.
As it was mentioned previously, numerous ILs formulae have been developed for last 20 years. Pure ILs configurations, typically referred as room-temperature ionic liquid (RTILs), retain CO2 by physisorption mechanism showing an unfeasible CO2 absorption performance in comparison with conventional amine-based solvents. The next generation of ILs was defined from the combination of conventional ILs with a functionalized amine group, preferable. Based on this configuration, amine-functionalized IL, also called task-specific IL, reacts with CO2 by chemisorption showing further improvements on the CO2 capture process derived from physisorption-based ILs. The development of this type of ILs enhanced the performance of IL in both biogas/natural gas treatment and CCS. Table 5 summarizes the best performance IL reported from the literature.
IL | Abbreviation | Field | Ref. | μ* (cP) | CO2** load. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1-butylpyridinium tetrafluoroborate | [Bpy] [BF4] | Post-combustion | [34] | 150 | <0.05*** |
Tryhexyl(tetradecyl)-phosphonium imidazole | [P66614] | Post-combustion | [35] | 223–1077 | 0.3–0.91 |
1-butyl-3-methyl-imidazolium hexafluorophosphate | [bmim][PF6] | Post-combustion | [38] | — | 0.75 |
(Trifluoromethyl sulfonyl)imide-based IL | [Tf2N] | Biogas/natural gas upgrading | [39] | — | 0.66–0.84 |
1-butyl-3-methyl-imidazolium acetate | [bmim][Ac] | Biogas/natural gas upgrading | [39] | — | — |
Allyl-pyridinium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide | [Apy] [Tf2N] | Pre-combustion | [40] | 17.7–28 | — |
Summary of the best performance IL applied as solvents for CO2 separation.
Viscosity measurements below 300 K.
Pressure over 1 MPa.
Ambient pressure.
The basic of the minimum energy requirement for CO2 release from ILs consist of the weak interaction between both species. In general, some studies indicated that CO2-IL interaction strongly depend on van der Waals forces in case small and symmetric molecular structures are provided, whereas electrostatic interactions dominates as large and asymmetric molecular structures are used. Besides the acid-base interaction also plays a key role as a mechanism for CO2-IL interaction. It should be noted that some authors state the relevant impact that the structure of IL has on the CO2 solubility. The amount of free space provided by means, that is, the length chain, the presence of species such as F− increase the CO2 capacity of IL. The higher free volume available, the higher CO2 solubility of the IL [30].
Most recent applications of IL involve the use of membranes for CO2 separation. Research on this field demonstrate the combination of IL with membrane significantly reduces the viscosity during the CO2 absorption process and also ensures further improvements of the gas separation performance in terms of CO2 permeability and selectivity [30]. The supported IL membranes (SILM), the poly(ionic liquid)-ionic liquid composite membranes, the combination of facilitated transport membranes with IL and the incorporation of task-specific IL into mixed matrix membranes have shown a high potential as a CO2 separation approach. Based on the literature, two main mechanisms are identified for IL-based membranes, namely solution-diffusion and facilitated transport mechanism [30]. The new pathway discovered regarding IL and its use as a CO2 separation approach requires further investigation.
New generation solvents proposed are focused on energetic consumption reduction in order to make CO2 chemical absorption a cost-competitive technology to be deployment at CCS industrial scale. It is well-known that most of the energy consumption takes place in the regeneration step of the CO2 capture process. Two main research lines about new generation solvents will be discussed in this section, namely water-free solvents and biphasic solvents.
Despite the benefits of using water as a diluent in order to reduce the corrosion and viscosity issues along the CO2 chemical absorption plant, its presence in solvent formulation increases the energy requirements in the regeneration stage. In this sense, several novel water-free solvents are being formulated such as non-aqueous organic amine blends, aminosilicones or amines with superbase [41].
Aminosilicones are one of the most relevant solvents currently under investigation. Besides the absence of water in its formulation, the hybrid nature of this type of solvents (physisorbing and chemisorbing) provides a potential improvement in CO2 capture due to the possibilities that its chemical nature offers.
Perry et al. developed GAP-0 and GAP-1 aminosilicones formulated as a CO2-philic siloxane backbone and a CO2 reactive amino group (Figure 4) [42, 43]. The absorption capacity of these compounds is higher than the theoretical of the selected amino group due to the physisorption phenomenon that occurs in this type of blends. However, the possibility of solid formation and the increase of viscosity during the absorption process make necessary to use cosolvents in order to avoid the above-mentioned issues.
GAP-0 (on the left) and GAP-1 aminosilicones (on the right). Note that gray balls represent C atoms; white balls represent H atoms; red/dark gray balls represent O atoms; dark blue/black balls represent N atoms; black small balls represent Si atoms.
This type of solvents has been studied by some research groups including, for example, Kim et al. In this work, sterically hindered amines 2-[(1,1-dimethylethyl)amino]ethanol (TBAE) and 1-[(1,1-dimethylethyl)amino]-2-propanol (TBAP) were tested using organic compounds as solvents such as methanol and ethylene glycol [44, 45, 46, 47]. The efficiency of this type of solvents is also revealed by Mani et al. In this work, AMP mixed with different alkanolamines (DEA, MDEA, MMEA and DIPA) and using organic solvents were analyzed [48, 49]. The tests concluded that, among other considerations, the absorption efficiency at equilibrium ranged 73–96% (Table 6).
Entry | Amine | Solvent | Amine conc. (wt%) | Loading capacity (wt%) | Average absorpt. efficiency and desorpt. temp (°C) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
65 | 80 | |||||
1 | AMP/DEA | DEGMME | 18.3 | 31.7 | 73.1 | 91.6 |
2 | AMP/MDEA | EG/methanol | 20.7 | 28.7 | — | 93.5 |
3 | AMP/MMEA | EG/methanol | 16.9 | 43.4 | 76.7 | 95.9 |
4 | AMP/MMEA | EG/ethanol | 16.8 | 40.7 | — | 92.6 |
5 | AMP/DIPA | EG/ethanol | 22.6 | 27.3 | — | 93.1 |
CO2 loading capacity at 20°C and absorption efficiency by different amines at increasing desorption temperatures. The overall amine concentration is 2.0 mol dm−3.
Adapted from Ref. [49].
Amines with superbase promoters might allow an increase in the CO2 capture efficiency. This type of solvents combines a primary amine and a strong non-nucleophilic base which enhances the proton transfer from the primary amino group, facilitating the carbamate formation (Figure 5). CO2 capture efficiency and the kinetic behavior of a primary amine using a superbase promoter could be increased over 30%. In addition, several solvents are able to work even at high temperatures (over 50°C), which make them useful in high temperature process. Nevertheless, these blends present similar issues than aminosilicones. The possibility of solid formation and the increase of viscosity during the absorption process make necessary to use organic cosolvents such as dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO), especially with nucleophilic polyamines [50, 51].
Reaction of CO2-primary amines in the presence of a strong non-nucleophilic base. Note that gray balls represent C atoms; black big balls represent dimethyl groups; white balls represent H atoms; red/dark gray balls represent O atoms; dark blue/black balls represent N atoms.
In the last decades, it has been assumed that biphasic mixes generation during CO2 amine-based capture processes becomes an operation issue in terms of liquid circulation and homogeneity of the solvents, especially in the regeneration step. However, recent studies support the new idea that a decrease in the energy requirements using biphasic solvents would be possible. This argument is based on the optimization of the solvent volume treated in regeneration step, stripping only the CO2-rich phase [52].
In recent years, polyamine compounds and blends have been studied in order to improve the CO2 absorption capacity in CCS technologies. A higher amount of amine functional groups, using water as a dissolvent, provides the polyamines higher absorption rates, but in spite of that fact, regeneration penalties and solvent circulation costs due to the high viscosity of this kind of compounds made unfeasible its application in pilot plants. Triethylenetetramine (TETA) using ethanol as dissolvent was tested by Zheng et al. [53]. In this work, solid generation occurs after the CO2 reaction with TETA. Solid phase generated and separated, containing a total of 81.8% of the captured CO2, allows a lower cost regeneration process due to the fact that liquid phase can be recycled back to the absorption process without energy consumption. The precipitate formed after CO2 absorption can be regenerated heating to 90°C and returning to liquid phase TETA. This new solvent represents an alternative to the usual polyamine-water solvents although the high vapor pressure of ethanol must be considered in order minimize evaporation losses.
Recent studies showed that some types of blended amines have the property of forming two different liquid phases after reaction with CO2 in capture process. This capacity of the solvent, provides the possibility of perform selective regeneration process, being only the rich amine treated inside the regeneration reboiler. 3-(methylamino)propylamine (MAPA) and 2-(diethylamino)ethanol (DEEA) blend was studied by Bruder and Svendsen showing a promising behavior in the CO2 capture process compared with habitual solvents currently used for this proposal as, for example, 30 wt.% MEA [54].
Lipophilic-amine-based thermomorphic biphasic solvents have shown potential advantages in CO2 capture compared to conventional alkanolamines in terms of solvent regeneration and cyclic capacity. The improvements obtained using these types of solvent are based on its thermomorphic behavior. This phenomenon consists of the generation of two liquid phases after heating inside the reboiler. According to Zhang et al. [52], these systems can be regenerated at lower temperatures than the conventional alkanolamine blends. This temperature reduction in regeneration step allows a decrease of the energetic consumption in CO2 capture processes. Amine blends used by Zhang were mostly composed of an absorption activator: A1, dipropylamine (DPA) and a regeneration promoter: N, N-dimethylciclohexylamine (DMCA) and N-ethylpiperidine (EDP) (Table 7).
Type | Absorbent | Absorption | Desorption | Stripping | Temp. (°C) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Absorption rate (g/(Lh)) | Rich loading (g/L) | Cyclic loading I (g/L) | Cyclic loading II (g/L) | |||
Primary solvent | DMCA | 72 | 101 | 71 | 88 | 40–70 |
MDEA | 30 | 59 | 30 | 43 | 40–70 | |
Activator | A1 | 130 | 124 | 86 | 101 | 40–80 |
DPA | 127 | 88 | 65 | 78 | 40–80 | |
MEA (30 wt%) | 127 | 122 | 28 | 47 | 40–80 | |
Blend 3:1 | DMCA + DPA | 89 | 90 | 80 | 86 | 40–75 |
DMCA + A1 | 94 | 117 | 105 | 112 | 40–75 | |
MDEA + MEA | 47 | 62 | 26 | 48 | 40–75 |
Main properties of selected amines in 3 M aqueous solutions. Adapted from ref. [52].
Physical absorption processes are highly recommended to separate CO2 in pre-combustion processes that commonly operate at elevate CO2 partial pressure. Physical solvents are able to selectively capture CO2 in contact with a gas stream without a chemical reaction occurring. As it was indicated in the introduction section, the high partial pressures of CO2 and low-temperatures are desirable to obtain an optimized performance of the physical absorption process in terms of absorption rates and solubility equilibrium of CO2. Then, the rich (CO2 loaded) solvent is regenerated [55].
Focusing on the pre-combustion CO2 capture process itself, seven processes using physical solvents are currently commercially available, which are discussed in the following section.
A summary of the most relevant physical properties of each solvent and the list of advantages and disadvantages can be found at the end of this chapter in Table 8.
Process | Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|---|
Selexol™ | • Non-thermal solvent regeneration • Non-corrosive solvent • Dry gas leaves from the absorber | Most efficient at elevated pressures |
Rectisol™ | • Non-foaming solvent • High chemical and thermal stability • Non-corrosive solvent | • High refrigeration costs • High capital costs • Amalgams formation at low T |
Ipexol-2 ™ | ||
Fluor™ | • High CO2 solubility • Non-thermal regeneration • Simple operation • Non-corrosive solvent | • High solvent circulation rates • Expensive solvent |
Purisol™ | • Non-foaming solvent • High chemical and thermal stability • Non-corrosive solvent • Low volatility | • High compression cost • Most efficient at high-pressure |
Sulfinol™ | • High capacity • Low solvent circulation rate | • Foaming issues • Corrosive solvent • Thermal regeneration |
Morphysorb™ | • High solvent loading capacity • Low energy requirement • Non-corrosive solvent • Low capital and operating costs | • New process |
The Selexol™ process has been widely used and effectively proven in the refinery industry, natural gas sweetening, syngas processing and fertilizer production since the 1960s. Recently, Selexol™ has also been used in IGCC for H2S, COS and CO2 removal.
The Selexol™ process, licensed by Universal Oil Products (UOP), employs a mixture of different dimethyl ethers and polyethylene glycol, represented by the formulae (CH3O(C2H4O)nCH3), with n factor ranging from 3 to 9 [2]. This physical solvent was patented by DOW chemical [56]. Selexol™ provides a selective absorption of H2S, COS, mercaptans and CO2 from a variety of natural and synthesis gas streams. It has shown a high performance under high-pressure, low-temperature and high acid gas process conditions.
In the Selexol™ process, the flue gas must be first dehydrated before being introduced in the absorption column. After that, the dehydrated flue gas enters the absorber at 30 atm and 0–5°C and the acid gas components are selectively absorbed into the solvent along the column. A pre-treatment absorption column can be used to accomplish the sulfur compound removal prior to CO2 separation. The CO2 loaded solvent is then sent to the regeneration process from which the solvent recovers its original capacity by either reducing the pressure or inert gas stripping. The recovered (lean) solvent is recycled back into the absorber, whereas the high purity CO2 exits the regeneration stages to be compressed and stored.
The Rectisol™ process is applied in H2S and CO2 removal from syngas streams, mainly from heavy oil and coal gasification. The CO2 stream obtained can be used in urea, methanol and ammonia production, but it is not applied for the food and beverage industry. It has a high selectivity for H2S, CO2 and COS and can be configured to accomplish the separation of synthesis gas into various components depending on the final product specifications and process objectives.
Rectisol™ is licensed by Lurgi AG, which is an affiliated company of Air Liquide. This technology employs chilled methanol as solvent and can be applied for low and moderate CO2 concentrated gas streams. Due to the high vapor pressure of the solvent, the absorption stage must be carried out at very low-temperatures to reduce solvent losses [57].
In the Rectisol™ process, the raw syngas is cooled before being introduced into the absorption process. The sulfur compounds must be firstly removed using a CO2 loaded solvent. After that, the sulfur exempt syngas contacts with the chilled methanol in the absorber, operating at 50 atm and temperatures in the range of [−100°C, −30°C]. The rich solvent is then sent to the regeneration stage where CO2 is released by flash desorption, reducing the pressure up to 1 bar. The lean solvent is recycled back to the absorber [2, 57].
The Ifpexol™ process introduced in 1991 can be used for natural gas applications. This process is based on two steps as follows: Ifpex-1™ removes condensable hydrocarbons and water and Ifpex-2™ removes acid gas [58]. Ifpexol™ is licensed by Prosernat and uses refrigerated methanol as physical solvent.
The Ifpexol-2™ process for acid gas removal is similar to an amine-based chemical absorption process except for the operating temperatures. The absorber operates below −29°C to minimize methanol losses, and the regenerator operates at about 6 bar. Cooling is required on the regenerator condenser to recover the methanol releasing during the regeneration step. This process usually follows the Ifpexol-1™ process so excessive hydrocarbon absorption is not as great a problem [59].
Fluor™ process is the most suitable physical absorption process to be applied for high CO2 partial pressure syngas streams and has been in use since the late 1950s. Fluor™ is licensed by Fluor Daniel, Inc. and employs propylene carbonate (C4H6O3) as solvent (available as JEFFSOL™ PC solvent), which has a lower vapor pressure than those used by Rectisol™ and Selexol™. The solvent requires neither a low nor no presence of H2S and can be applied in large CO2 removal applications [60, 61].
In the Fluor™ process, physical absorption occurs at moderate to high-pressure, ranging between 30 and 80 bar, and at ambient temperature. The flue gas must be dehydrated before the gas enters into the absorption column to prevent water build-up in the solvent. As indicated before, H2S must also be removed before the CO2 absorption occurs. After CO2 is absorbed, the CO2 loaded solvent is flashed to release CO2 and recovers its original capacity. The lean solvent is recycled back to the absorber, whereas the high purity CO2 exits the regeneration stages to be compressed and stored [62].
The Purisol™ process is particularly suited to treat high-pressure, high CO2 synthesis gas from IGCC systems because of the high selectivity for H2S. This technology is licensed by Lurgi AG and employs N-methyl pyrrolidone.
In the Purisol™ process, H2S removal is not required prior to CO2 absorption occurring. The process can be operated at 50 bar and either at ambient temperature or with refrigeration down to about −15°C. The CO2 desorption is accomplished by stripping with an inert gas [63].
The Sulfinol™ process can remove H2S, CO2, carbonyl sulfide, mercaptans and organic sulfur components from natural and synthesis gas from coal or oil gasifiers and steam reformers. This process accomplishes H2S and CO2 separation in a wide variety of compositions up to around 50%v/v H2S and above 20%v/v CO2. The principle of this process aims at combining the high absorption potential of alkanolamine (chemical absorption) and the low regeneration energy requirement of the physical solvent (physical absorption).
Sulfinol™ is licensed by Shell Oil Company and employs mixtures of diisopropylamine (DIPA) or methyldiethanolamine (MDEA) and tetrahydrothiophene dioxide (SULFOLANE) in different blends. The physical solvent used (DIPA or MDEA) has a higher absorption capacity and a low energy requirement for regeneration, thus increasing the carrying capacity due to lower solvent recycled requirements. The absorber is operated at 40°C and a pressure around 60–70 bar. The rich solvent is then sent to the stripping column where CO2 is released at temperatures over 110°C and vacuum pressure. It should be noted that addition of anti-foam is needed in the absorber and solvent degrades due to the presence of oxygen and stripper temperatures [64].
The Morphysorb™ process is applied for selective removal of H2S, CO2, COS, CS2, mercaptans and other components from coal/oil gasification syngas at IGCC facilities. This process is particularly effective for high-pressure and high acid gas applications and offers substantial savings in investment and operating cost compared to the competitive physical solvent-based processes. The operational cost is 30–40% lower than that for Selexol™ Process [65, 66].
This technology is developed by Krupp Uhde GmbH in cooperation with the Institute of Gas Technology (GTI), and employs N-formyl morpholine (NFM) and N-acetyl morpholine (NAM) mixtures as solvent (manufactured by
Physical and chemical CO2 absorption are mature technologies that can be applied to CO2 emission mitigation at large scale, mainly focused on fossil-fuel power plants, cement production and steel manufacturing. This chapter summarizes the cutting-edge of the knowledge about absorbents developed for this proposal. The most relevant aspect of conventional physical and chemical solvents applied to CO2 capture was summarized and their physical properties, absorption mechanisms and kinetics were further discussed. Based on the current state-of-art in the field of CO2 absorption, the novel solvents and blends were also reported and new applications such as ionic liquids have been deeply discussed along the manuscript from the specific literature available on this topic.
This work was carried out with the financial support of the Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness of the Spanish Government (OXYSOLVENT Pro.; ref: CTM-2014-58573-R) co-financed by the European Development Research Fund (EDRF) from European Union.
Today, software is extensively used by all of us for commercial and noncommercial purposes and it is controlled by various entities. The total energy consumption by ICT is between 5 and 9% and is going to increase annually by 6–9%. (Figure 1) [23]. In India, the exiting ICT facilities have the energy performance index ranging between 230 and 310 kWh/m2/year. The greenhouse gas emissions by ICT is estimated to be 2.8% in total global emissions, but as usage of ICT can also reduce the emission rate by 15%. This calculation is on consumers who use ICT devices. But energy consumption levels can be further reduced from the current levels if we apply green software development lifecycle. The existing Software Development Life Cycle process framework is not adequate when concerned with energy consumption. This is mainly due to the lack of awareness in the Green Based Software Development life cycle process. The existing Green based software development model namely Green Reference Model is focuses on the three phases of the process called development, usage, and end of life. But the GREENSOFT model does not provide Green-based approach in entire Software Development Life Cycle phases which is a major setback of GREENSOFT model.
\nICT electricity consumption.
The existing model for Green software engineering does not consider the Requirement, Design, Coding, Testing and Implementation phases of SDLC. In order to achieve green software engineering the entire software development process is to become Green.
\nSustainability has become a very essential factor to consider doing business in recent times. If that business has fails to maintain sustainable development it receives significant public criticism and they may lose the market [1].
\nThe usage of computing power is to develop the more sustainable world [2]. The answer for the ecological crisis can be solved by knowledge acquisition. The development of feedback information should be concerned with model makers and system analysts. Environmental Informatics (EI) [2] is the combination of information systems of problem-oriented knowledge from the fields of management and environmental science and computer science. EI is emerged for the requirement of domain-specificity. The computer scientists have the challenge of designing the information processing system for using the environmental data.
\nThe Computational Sustainability (CompSust) [2] is closely associated with the Institute for Computational Sustainability (ICS) with funding starting from 2008 by the U.S. National Science Foundation. CompSust is developed by ICS as “inter disciplinary field to balance the needs (environment, economical and societal) of sustainable development using computer and information science, operations research, applied mathematics, and statistics. The Brundtland definition for CompSust community refers to address the need of basic human.” “Balancing” might address the issue to some extend with no reference of deeply normative issues which are connected to distributive justice. Thus, an algorithm can resolve normative issues, which is yet to be developed for greening ICT.
\nGreening ICT in industry application can run in design phase, classification of ICT systems development phase, execution of software systems phase and complex installation phase and in software development of the Life cycle of ICT systems [3] there are a lot of changes to save energy. The energy can be saved efficiently by using computing resources and avoiding recurring work such as recompiling. Based on World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) [2], “sustainable development” could be defined as sustainable system use of a system to fulfill its function (F) for a time (L).
\nThe goal of sustainability is to provide a common elucidation of the word “sustainability” without actually relating it to any specific context [2]. To perform this, they will first conclude the sustainability definitions which described as a broadly used term for the ability of something for long lasting time. Some other definitions for Sustainability are as follows.
Define sustainability as follows “the ability to be overseen at a steady level without depleting environmental assets.”
The Brundtland report from the United Nations (UN) defines sustainable development as the ability to “meet the present needs without compromising the future generation abilities for their own needs.”
Environmental sustainability ensures that the environment is the ability to refill itself at a quicker rate than it is damaged by human actions. For instance, the use of recycled material for IT hardware production helps to conserve natural resources.
Sustainable software engineering [4] motive is to create reliable, lifelong software that meets the needs of user’s requirement and also tried to reducing ecological impacts; its aim is to generate better software so there is no need to compromise future generations’ opportunities.
\nGreen and sustainable software engineering [5] is the skill of creating green and sustainable software in relation to the process of green and sustainable software engineering. The skill of describing and making software products in a way, the positive and negative effects on sustainable developments of the Software Development Life Cycle process constantly assessed. The assessed details are maintained as records and may be utilized for a software product process optimization [25].
\nThe objective of software engineering for sustainability [6] (SE4S) is tried to create a tools and technique in order to reach the conception of software sustainability.
\nBased on [24], purpose of green and sustainable software engineering [24] is the improvement of software engineering. During the entire life cycle of software system which targets the direct and indirect consumption of natural resources and energy and the aim is to track, access, everlasting measure and optimize these realities.
\nSSE [7] aims to develop consistent, lifelong software that satisfies the needs of customers and also tried to reduce the negative impact on the financial, humanity and the ecological system [9]. The software engineering sustainability process tries to balance the business and technical advancement in the environment. IT (Information technology) has played a very important role to tackle issues of ecology and various types’ ecological issues. However, these can be measured separately. The first consideration is to IT which could be used to mitigate ecological issues [26]. Green IT is defined as “the study and practice of design, developing, using, and disposing of computers and peripherals, and servers effectively without affecting the environment” [8]. Greening through IT [10], conversely is the center of attention on how IT may create a wider range of additional - civilization sectors for further sustainable IT application field. In a wide sense, computers are everywhere and consist of both specialized and generic systems. This report focuses on computers that constitute significant loads in buildings and specifically investigates energy-efficiency opportunities in five broad computer form factors: desktops, notebooks, small-scale servers, thin clients, and workstations. While the number of tablets in homes is increasing, the energy use of these products is relatively low, and the saving opportunity–is minimal due to existing battery charger regulations and market pressure for achieving the high efficiency in enhancing the battery life [11] which can have main impacts on economic and the social at the worldwide, which makes ecological and power issues of software worldwide concerns too. According to the Annual Energy Outlook 2017 published by the US Energy Information Administration (EIA), energy consumption is expected to increase by no more than 5% between 2016 and 2040, with the sector of electric power being the largest primary energy consumer. On the contrary, projections of energy production vary widely due to the production growth dependency on technology, resource, and market. Energy related CO2 emissions decline in most Annual Energy Outlook scenario [12]. These categories give a sampling of the different types of technology that are being built with the purpose of enabling greening through IT. The IT segment itself is said to be accountable for 2% of global Carbon dioxide emissions [12], and the global impacts of ecology in this aspect includes high amount of energy utilization [14] and utilization of a different variety of other materials [15], making of wastes like e- and hazardous waste. The ES (Expandability Score) score of greater than 690 is considered a high expandability computer and would be subject to the standards for workstations rather than the desktop standards.
\nThe main ecological concerns of trade are the crisis of global energy. According to World Energy Outlook 2010, “the age of cheap oil is over” [16], describing increasing power prices and for the past 30 years, while per capita electricity consumption in the United States has increased by nearly 50%, California’s electricity use per capita has been nearly flat, Continued progress in cost-effective building and appliance standards and ongoing. Due to the fast increasing IT demand,, energy utilization of IT is also a needed for investigation [17] The Long-Term Energy Efficiency Strategic Plan calls on the Commission to develop a phased and accelerated “top-down” approach to more stringent codes and standards. It also calls for expanding the scope of appliance standards to plug loads; process. Computers contribute significantly to energy consumption in the commercial sector, particularly in office buildings and schools. In fact, the U.S. Energy Information Administration’s analysis of miscellaneous loads suggests that 70% of commercial notebook and desktop energy consumption occurred in these types of buildings in 2011 [4, 18]. These assumptions include the rising IT role in power administration, technological developments.
\nPower factor correction is important to power supply efficiency. The California (investor-owned utilities) IOUs proposed to include testing and minimum standards for power factor at full load to achieve energy savings on both the consumer side of the meter as well as on the utility side. NRDC (Natural Resources Defense Council) further recommended power factor correction at lower load points, including sleep and off, to increase energy savings [26]. It may be propose a minimum power factor requirement at full load for computers with non-federally regulated power supplies to ensure consistency with other power supply standards, including the federal external power supply standards and the 80 PLUS® program. However, requiring minimum power factor at low loads demands additional technical support to demonstrate technical feasibility and cost-effectiveness that was not available at the time of this effort [29].
\nFor the potential energy savings staff have included desktop computers (including integrated desktops and portable all-in-ones), notebooks (including mobile gaming systems, two-in-one notebooks, and mobile workstations), small-scale servers, thin clients (including mobile thin clients), and workstations (including rack-mounted workstations) in the proposed regulations. A thin client is a type of desktop computer that relies on a server or networked virtual machine to provide full functionality, such as data storage and computational power. Staff have excluded other servers, tablets, smartphones, setup boxes, game consoles, handheld video game devices, small computer devices, smart televisions, and industrial computers [26, 29].
\nICT for sustainability (ICT4S) [2] means metamorphic capability of ICT can be used to make our patterns of manufacturing and exhaustion more feasible [26]. At the same time, the history of scientific knowledge has exposed that increased energy performance does not vitally contribute to green development. To create a more sustainable culture in true potential of ICT can be possible with the efforts of politics, industry and consumers.
\nICT4S can be part into:
Sustainment in ICT: accomplishing ICT products, enterprises also economical above their entire existence cycle, basically diminishing the vitality, material streams which summon
Empowering by ICT: The method for ICT primary angle are secured by Green ICT and making authorize, empower, creation and utilization by TRHCI and EI. In the event that there is something particular to ICT4S as a field, it is the basic viewpoint that difficulties each mechanical arrangement by surveying its effect at the societal level.
There are various territories in which programming manageability longings to be connected [21]: framework programming, programming related items, Web based applications, server farms, and so forth. Diverse works are in process, yet the greater part of this worries server farms, which expend extensively best vitality than business office space. As noted in, the core opportunity for energy savings in computers is found in reducing the amount of energy consumed in idle modes; that is, when the computer is on but not being used [27]. Idle modes are the largest opportunity to reduce energy consumption because computers spend roughly half of the time in this “on mode.” In addition, high idle-mode consumption greatly increases the effectiveness of power management settings to reduce overall computer energy consumption. Automatic power management settings are often disabled, which means computers are constantly consuming significant amounts of power when not in use (for example, 50 W in idle mode compared to 2 W in sleep mode).
\nThe software sustainability [30] is the one part of the software engineering sustainability should usually be considered into account from the first software stages of development process. This process is not always feasible, because it is not easy to change how developers work. The core opportunity for energy savings regarding computer monitors is to reduce the amount of energy used in active (on) mode. Reducing the amount of energy used in on mode is the largest energy-saving opportunity because computer monitors spend about 30% of the time in this mode. About 20% of the computer monitors in the market today meet the ENERGY STAR® Version 7.0 standards. The proposed regulations for mainstream computer monitors are slightly more stringent than the ENERGY STAR Version 7.0 specification and about 30% more stringent than ENERGY STAR Version 6.0. About 14% of current models would meet the proposed standards. Most monitors would need to reduce only their power consumption by 3–5 W to comply. This goal can be met by replacing components with efficient light-emitting diode lights, light-emitting diode drivers, and power supplies that are available in the market at prices comparable to the inefficient technologies.
\nSupportable HCI is a sub-field of
Green and sustainable software engineering is the art of progressing green software engineering process therefore it is art of describing and promoting software products in a way [27]. So that the negative and positive impacts on sustainable development that result and or expected to result from the software product over it is whole life cycle are continuously assessed, documented and used for a further optimization of the software products [19].
\nAccording to [21], as identified different definitions sustainability, in general it considered from three different dimensions that are provided by the UN that is social, economic and environmental sustainability.
\n“Green IS and IT” represent to IS and IT products. The author describes what is Green IS and IT. Here, they tried to find out how the software is handled by an organization and how they maintain the emission and practices of disposal of IT spares without affecting the environment, whose objective is to avoid the pollution; Green Information System as inclusive of Green IT comprehensively has to be followed by the developers (people) and in software processes and technologies, and has to be maintained by person or group of person and public goals of program and prospective to influence on the sustainability of software company and communities giving threat for climate transform and other environmental aspects of dreadful conditions (Figure 2).
\nSustainability dimensions.
In a broad sense, computers are everywhere and consist of both specialized and generic systems. This report focuses on computers that constitute significant loads in buildings and specifically investigates energy-efficiency opportunities in five broad computer form factors: desktops, notebooks, small-scale servers, thin clients, and workstations. While the number of tablets in homes is increasing, the energy use of these products is relatively low, and the opportunity for savings is minimal due to existing battery charger regulations and market pressure to achieve high efficiency to enhance battery life. Therefore, this staff report does not include analysis on tablet computers. In homes, the most common form factors are notebooks and desktops. While there are more notebooks than desktops in California, the energy consumption of a desktop is more than double that of a notebook. This energy consumption increases when computer monitor energy use is included, which is necessary for functionality. Table 1 shows estimates of home computer energy consumption with estimates ranging between 2.5 and 4.4% of all home electricity use, not accounting for computer monitor consumption.
\nS. No | \nProduct | \nDescription | \n
---|---|---|
1. | \nDesktop computers | \nGenerally paired with one or more computer monitors, displays, or televisions. Less commonly, the computer is integrated with a screen that is referred to as an “integrated Desktop.” Desktop computers are generally responsible for the power management of these devices and can have power management responsibilities for accessories as well, such as printers. | \n
2. | \nNotebook computers | \nA computer screen is integrated in the unit, and upgrades and configurability are generally limited. Although they can offer similar functionality to a desktop computer, they are somewhat constrained by space and power dissipation. | \n
3. | \nWorkstations, thin clients, and small-scale servers | \nA workstation is a task-oriented computer designed for abnormally constant and high workload and durability. On the opposite side of the spectrum, a thin client contains barebones interface hardware that may rely on separate equipment (generally a server or networked virtual machine) to provide full functionality, such as data storage and computational power. A small-scale server is a desktop computer configured to run as a server. While most modern desktops can be used as servers, small-scale servers generally have atypical hardware features and different operating systems than generic desktop computers. | \n
Estimate of home energy consumption of computers.
Criteria and measurements for supportability of a product items to spoke to in three categories [20] there are
Common quality and measurements.
Directly related criteria and measurements.
Indirectly related criteria measurements.
Based on the first-order effects of ICT supply, Second order effects of ICT use and Third order effects of Systemic effect of ICT respectively. Hardware obsolescence should be a genuine quality property of Green and Sustainable Software, which belongs to the directly related criterion and metrics model part. Indirectly related criterion and metrics for green and sustainable software address second and third order effects induced by software product [27, 28].
\nWe expect that computerized joining has aggravated the innovations of calculation and media communications to a degree that makes their division out of date in this unique situation. The term “Green IT” got comfortable after the production of a Gartner report in 2007 [22] and was later on joined by “Green Computing,” “Green Software,” “Green Software Engineering,” and “Green Information Systems (IS).”
\nThe fundamental distinction between Green in IT and Green by IT [21] is the pretended by the IT and the concentration of the greenness. The electricity consumption of computers, computer monitors, and signage displays varies greatly, even within models of similar sizes and feature sets. To date, no federal or state regulations provide incentives for implementing cost-effective, readily available technologies to improve the performance of less efficient models. The five form factors considered in this report are desktops, notebooks, small-scale servers, workstations, and thin clients.
\nWith help of the above factors we can find green in and by software and hardware (Figure 3). This combination creates the green software and hardware relationship which is Green IT.
\nGreen IS and Green IT.
The most substantial adjustments to the Energy Commission’s draft staff report include dividing desktop computers into four categories with different efficiency levels rather than three categories with a smooth function, adjusting the levels of energy allowances for each category, and modifying the effective dates for the standards. These adjustments could be made while maintaining the magnitude of statewide energy savings. Staff’s proposal is an effort to take international experience, stakeholder input, and data analytics and accomplish feasible and attainable energy savings for California in both long and short term. The proposed regulations are divided into three primary categories: desktops and thin clients, notebooks, and small-scale servers and workstations (Figure 4).
\nGreen software, green hardware and Green IT.
This procedure concentrates on what ought to be considered in each phase of the improvement routine collection, design, implementation, testing, deployment, and maintenance to create maintainable programming. This comes close to considers some of the classical water fall model methodology. In the requirement phase Marketing executive collect the requirement of the user, based on the software requirement condition the designer going to make a mockup design after getting design approval the developer or software engineer develop a coding, the test engineer going to test the software product whether it is working according to the software requirement specification finally the developing application implemented to the end user side.
\nThis research aims at designing; implementing and evaluating new green-based software development life cycle as an alternate to the existing software development life cycle process with the aim of improving the Sustainability in Software Engineering Process.
\nNew green-based SDLC modeling, measurement and evaluation related to Green database design have been identified as the three main approaches commonly used for evaluating the Green Software Engineering system. The primary aim of this research was concentrated on two phases. First, in the requirement phase in SDLC the green and sustainability is maintained with the help of cloud environment settings. Second, in the design phase the green and sustainability is maintained through the database design. The methodology of this study was software paper based data collection sheets, internet search engine and various tools have been studied [31].
\nThe GREENSOFT representation is a conceptual reference model for [20] “Green and Sustainable Software”, Which has the aim to support software developers, administrators, and software users in creating, maintaining and using software in a more sustainable way, the model is shown in Figure 1, it comprises a holistic life cycle model for software products procedure models for different stakeholders and recommendations for actions that support stakeholders in developing, purchasing, supplying and using software in a green and sustainable manner.
\nThe reference model contains a life cycle of software products that is in contrast to conventional life cycle software geared to life cycle thinking related to development, usage and end of life and identify the first-order effect, second order effect, and third order effect. The second part of the GREENSOFT model is called sustainability criteria and metrics it covers common metrics and criteria for the measurement of software quality and it allows taxonomy of parameters for evaluating the sustainability of software products.
\nThe model component procedure model makes it possible to classify procedure models that cover acquisition and development of software, maintenance of IT systems and user support that also related to directly related, indirectly related and common quality metrics [35].
\nThe last component of the Model contains recommendations and tools. These support stakeholders with different specialized skill levels in applying green or sustainable techniques in general when developing, purchasing, administrating, or using software products (Figure 5).
\nGreen and sustainable software model.
In the GREENSOFT model, the software product life cycle integrated ICT stimulated product life cycle that can also be credited with “from cradle-to-grave”. It is intention to enable stakeholders to evaluate impacts on software development according to the three different levels of impacts [34].
\nThe Development stage accounts for impacts [20] on software development that directly results from activities involved in software development as well as indirectly involved activities. Ecological impacts to be measured for example, Electrical Energy that is necessary to power the workstations of software developers and other employees electrical energy and natural resources that are necessary to operate the IT devices (example, Networking Devices, servers, and storages)(second order effects)Social impacts can be working conditions and payment of offshore employees (example developers, typesetters). Third order effects changes in organizations software development approach or life styles.
\nThis phase [20] considered the things of software progress that distributing the software product that also includes the environmental impacts (example printed manuals, transportation used for travels, design used for the retail packing (e.g., plastic, biodegradable material or medium of data used for CD/DVD, and user memory Sticks) now a day’s software product is offered to download a manuals at time considered the download size of the document [31].
\nIt is impacts that result from deploying [20], maintaining and using of the software product that is nothing but software patches installation and giving training for employees to software usage which regarding in less energy consumption or just switch off the computer when they leave their workplace. To offer services by computer program requires the consumption of services offered by other servers like data base management systems or Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP). It also causes additional power consumption. To update of a software, the product size influences records transfer process in the IT based infrastructure which are necessary to deliver updates. It also basis further power and resource utilization to the new software to want up-to-date and more prevailing hardware [13]. This new hardware is typically more power efficient than older hardware but on the other hand production of the new hardware and the disposal of the old hardware causes resources and energy consumption [32].
\nIf the data cannot be changed easily [20], example because it is stored in a proprietary data design, this may have an impact on economic sustainability of an organization. In this phase even the backing size of data format, if the domain transfers from one application platform to new domain platform. So the deactivation of old database format leads to economic and technical sustainability.
\nThe result of this study shows that software application was not environmental friendly in the software development life cycle model. Lack of sustainability is a major flaw in the existing green software model in the following phases such as Requirement, Design, Coding, Testing and Implementation. There are a lot of negative impacts such as high level energy usage, e-hazardous waste, ecological system, financial etc. In this research we proposed a new Green based Software Development Life Cycle in designing; implementing and evaluating phases for a sustainable development to overcome the above factors.
\nAt the middle the designing procedure, the whole Life Cycle of the built programming items must be considered [20]. Develop, purchase, administrate, and use. In development of sustainability review study and preview study, process evaluation, sustainability presentation taken into consider about GREENSOFT model. In purchase of software product similar to the ENERGY STAR(R) that indicates whether a software product is energy efficient or meet certain sustainability requirement in the future. In administrate making software available by installing, configuring, and maintaining it. procedure model should implement a continuous improvement cycle that is energy utilization, should be checked regularly in order to improve these with appropriate measures apart from the data center operation includes networking, desktop PC, installed software resources utilization are need to be monitored in the administrative to procedure for users both the professionals and home users need to maintain the guidelines or checklist related to green and sustainable software [33].
\nProposal and methods address collaborator with various roles [20] General roles review by the GREENSOFT model are: Planner, Customer, Organizer, and User. On the other hand, there may be more functional roles like Software Architect, Web Administrator, Requirements Engineer, or Application Developer. In assumption, these can be classified by the general roles mentioned before. Proposal can be best practice examples, utilization reports, guidelines, schedule, etc. Methods can be software, paper-based data collection sheets. There are plenty of tools available on the Internet. More knowledge base or professional Internet search engine would help to find easier.
\nThe existing models are used to maintain green and sustainable software in the development and process evaluation. The GREENSOFT model has explained three order effects such as, the first-order effect focus on development to end, second order concentrate on sustainability area and last one focus on recommendations and tools for IT users in creating, maintaining a product for the sustainable development. Our approach is to develop Green IT Star model for green environment which focuses on five phases such as design, implementation, and requirement, coding and testing. The aim of this research is to help IT users in developing a green software and green hardware and improving the Sustainability in Software Engineering Process using Green IT Star model and has attained eco-friendly environment in design and requirement phase. The future research work is to achieve the Green software engineering in each Software Development Life Cycle phases on implementation, coding and testing phase.
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The term UAVs broadly encompasses drones, micro-, and nanoair/aerial vehicles. UAVs are largely made up of a main control unit, mounted with one or more fans or propulsion system to lift and push them through the air. Though initially developed and used by the military, UAVs are now used in surveillance, disaster management, firefighting, border-patrol, and courier services. In this chapter, applications of UAVs in agriculture are of particular interest with major focus on their uses in livestock and crop farming. This chapter discusses the different types of UAVs, their application in pest control, crop irrigation, health monitoring, animal mustering, geo-fencing, and other agriculture-related activities. Beyond applications, the advantages and potential benefits of UAVs in agriculture are also presented alongside discussions on business-related challenges and other open challenges that hinder the wide-spread adaptation of UAVs in agriculture.",book:{id:"6864",slug:"autonomous-vehicles",title:"Autonomous Vehicles",fullTitle:"Autonomous Vehicles"},signatures:"Chika Yinka-Banjo and Olasupo Ajayi",authors:null},{id:"66432",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85566",title:"Model of the Optimal Maneuver Route",slug:"model-of-the-optimal-maneuver-route",totalDownloads:902,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"The chapter deals with the mathematical model for planning the optimal movement route, which has been implemented in the Tactical Decision Support System (TDSS). The model processes and evaluates the data contained in the five raster layers, which are tactically relevant for planning the movement route of troops or autonomous vehicles on the battlefield. The basis for calculating the optimal movement route is a ground surface layer, which is then modified by algorithmic and criterion relationships with the layers of hypsometry, weather attack, and the activities of enemy and friendly units. The result of mathematical model calculations is a time-optimized and safe movement route displayed on the topographic basis. The experiments realized have verified the function of the optimal movement route model when neither the reconnaissance group nor the autonomous vehicle was observed by the enemy. The total time of the UGV with the use of the TDSS to cover the route of maneuver was 67 minutes shorter than the real time of the BRAVO group movement with the use of the TDSS and 105 minutes shorter than the real time of the ALFA group without the use of the TDSS. The comparison of responses to the attack shows that the BRAVO group using the Maneuver Control System (MCS CZ) as part of the TDSS has destroyed the attackers faster by 71 seconds than the ALFA group without the use of the TDSS.",book:{id:"7779",slug:"path-planning-for-autonomous-vehicles-ensuring-reliable-driverless-navigation-and-control-maneuver",title:"Path Planning for Autonomous Vehicle",fullTitle:"Path Planning for Autonomous Vehicles - Ensuring Reliable Driverless Navigation and Control Maneuver"},signatures:"Jan Nohel, Petr Stodola and Zdeněk Flasar",authors:[{id:"162332",title:"Prof.",name:"Petr",middleName:null,surname:"Stodola",slug:"petr-stodola",fullName:"Petr Stodola"},{id:"286639",title:"Dr.",name:"Jan",middleName:null,surname:"Nohel",slug:"jan-nohel",fullName:"Jan Nohel"},{id:"287297",title:"Prof.",name:"Zdenek",middleName:null,surname:"Flasar",slug:"zdenek-flasar",fullName:"Zdenek Flasar"}]},{id:"51781",doi:"10.5772/64730",title:"Application of Sampling-Based Motion Planning Algorithms in Autonomous Vehicle Navigation",slug:"application-of-sampling-based-motion-planning-algorithms-in-autonomous-vehicle-navigation",totalDownloads:2376,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"With the development of the autonomous driving technology, the autonomous vehicle has become one of the key issues for supporting our daily life and economical activities. One of the challenging research areas in autonomous vehicle is the development of an intelligent motion planner, which is able to guide the vehicle in dynamic changing environments. In this chapter, a novel sampling-based navigation architecture is introduced, which employs the optimal properties of RRT* planner and the low running time property of low-dispersion sampling-based algorithms. Furthermore, a novel segmentation method is proposed, which divides the sampling domain into valid and tabu segments. The resulted navigation architecture is able to guide the autonomous vehicle in complex situations such as takeover or crowded environments. The performance of the proposed method is tested through simulation in different scenarios and also by comparing the performances of RRT and RRT* algorithms. The proposed method provides near-optimal solutions with smaller trees and in lower running time.",book:{id:"5285",slug:"autonomous-vehicle",title:"Autonomous Vehicle",fullTitle:"Autonomous Vehicle"},signatures:"Weria Khaksar, Khairul Salleh Mohamed Sahari and Tang Sai Hong",authors:[{id:"182534",title:"Dr.",name:"Weria",middleName:null,surname:"Khaksar",slug:"weria-khaksar",fullName:"Weria Khaksar"}]},{id:"70899",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90552",title:"Traditional and New Types of Passive Flow Control Techniques to Pave the Way for High Maneuverability and Low Structural Weight for UAVs and MAVs",slug:"traditional-and-new-types-of-passive-flow-control-techniques-to-pave-the-way-for-high-maneuverabilit",totalDownloads:956,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Prevailing utilization of airfoils in the design of micro air vehicles and wind turbines causes to gain attention in terms of determination of flow characterization on these flight vehicles operating at low Reynolds numbers. Thus, these vehicles require flow control techniques to reduce flow phenomena such as boundary layer separation or laminar separation bubble (LSB) affecting aerodynamic performance negatively. This chapter presents a detailed review of traditional passive control techniques for flight vehicle applications operating at low Reynolds numbers. In addition to the traditional methods, a new concept of the pre-stall controller by means of roughness material, flexibility and partial flexibility is highlighted with experimental and numerical results. Results indicate that passive flow control methods can dramatically increase the aerodynamic performance of the aforementioned vehicles by controlling the LSB occurring in the pre-stall region. The control of the LSB with new concept pre-stall control techniques provides lift increment and drag reduction by utilizing significantly less matter consumption and low energy. In particular, new types of these methods presented for the first time by the chapter’s authors have enormously influenced the progress of separation and LSB, resulting in postponing of the stall and enhancing the aerodynamic performance of wind turbine applications.",book:{id:"6864",slug:"autonomous-vehicles",title:"Autonomous Vehicles",fullTitle:"Autonomous Vehicles"},signatures:"Mustafa Serdar Genç, Kemal Koca, Hacımurat Demir and Halil Hakan Açıkel",authors:null},{id:"50979",doi:"10.5772/64064",title:"Cloud Robotics and Autonomous Vehicles",slug:"cloud-robotics-and-autonomous-vehicles",totalDownloads:2389,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Recently, a good amount of research has been focused on the development of the autonomous vehicles. Autonomous vehicles possess great potential in numerous challenging applications, for example, autonomous armoured fighting vehicles, automated highway systems, etc. To enable the usage of autonomous vehicles in such challenging applications, it is important to ensure the safety, efficiency, reliability and robustness of the system. Most of the existing implementations of the autonomous vehicles operate as standalone systems limited to onboard capabilities (computations, memory, data, etc.), which limit their potential and performance in real-world applications. The advent of the Internet and emerging advances in the cloud infrastructure suggests new methodologies where vehicles are not limited to onboard capabilities. Processing is also performed remotely on cloud to support different operations and to increase the proficiency of decision-making. This chapter surveys the research to date in the evolution of autonomous vehicles, cloud and cloud-enabled autonomous vehicles, with the limitations of existing systems, research challenges and possible future directions. The chapter can help new researchers in the field to understand and evaluate different approaches for the design of the autonomous vehicular systems.",book:{id:"5285",slug:"autonomous-vehicle",title:"Autonomous Vehicle",fullTitle:"Autonomous Vehicle"},signatures:"Khuram Shahzad",authors:[{id:"176926",title:"Mr.",name:"Khuram",middleName:null,surname:"Shahzad",slug:"khuram-shahzad",fullName:"Khuram Shahzad"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"70899",title:"Traditional and New Types of Passive Flow Control Techniques to Pave the Way for High Maneuverability and Low Structural Weight for UAVs and MAVs",slug:"traditional-and-new-types-of-passive-flow-control-techniques-to-pave-the-way-for-high-maneuverabilit",totalDownloads:953,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Prevailing utilization of airfoils in the design of micro air vehicles and wind turbines causes to gain attention in terms of determination of flow characterization on these flight vehicles operating at low Reynolds numbers. Thus, these vehicles require flow control techniques to reduce flow phenomena such as boundary layer separation or laminar separation bubble (LSB) affecting aerodynamic performance negatively. This chapter presents a detailed review of traditional passive control techniques for flight vehicle applications operating at low Reynolds numbers. In addition to the traditional methods, a new concept of the pre-stall controller by means of roughness material, flexibility and partial flexibility is highlighted with experimental and numerical results. Results indicate that passive flow control methods can dramatically increase the aerodynamic performance of the aforementioned vehicles by controlling the LSB occurring in the pre-stall region. The control of the LSB with new concept pre-stall control techniques provides lift increment and drag reduction by utilizing significantly less matter consumption and low energy. In particular, new types of these methods presented for the first time by the chapter’s authors have enormously influenced the progress of separation and LSB, resulting in postponing of the stall and enhancing the aerodynamic performance of wind turbine applications.",book:{id:"6864",slug:"autonomous-vehicles",title:"Autonomous Vehicles",fullTitle:"Autonomous Vehicles"},signatures:"Mustafa Serdar Genç, Kemal Koca, Hacımurat Demir and Halil Hakan Açıkel",authors:null},{id:"70496",title:"Sky-Farmers: Applications of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) in Agriculture",slug:"sky-farmers-applications-of-unmanned-aerial-vehicles-uav-in-agriculture",totalDownloads:1835,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are unpiloted flying robots. The term UAVs broadly encompasses drones, micro-, and nanoair/aerial vehicles. UAVs are largely made up of a main control unit, mounted with one or more fans or propulsion system to lift and push them through the air. Though initially developed and used by the military, UAVs are now used in surveillance, disaster management, firefighting, border-patrol, and courier services. In this chapter, applications of UAVs in agriculture are of particular interest with major focus on their uses in livestock and crop farming. This chapter discusses the different types of UAVs, their application in pest control, crop irrigation, health monitoring, animal mustering, geo-fencing, and other agriculture-related activities. Beyond applications, the advantages and potential benefits of UAVs in agriculture are also presented alongside discussions on business-related challenges and other open challenges that hinder the wide-spread adaptation of UAVs in agriculture.",book:{id:"6864",slug:"autonomous-vehicles",title:"Autonomous Vehicles",fullTitle:"Autonomous Vehicles"},signatures:"Chika Yinka-Banjo and Olasupo Ajayi",authors:null},{id:"63245",title:"Autonomous Underwater Vehicle Guidance, Navigation, and Control",slug:"autonomous-underwater-vehicle-guidance-navigation-and-control",totalDownloads:1255,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"A considerable volume of research has recently blossomed in the literature on autonomous underwater vehicles accepting recent developments in mathematical modeling and system identification; pitch control; information filtering and active sensing, including inductive sensors of ELF emissions and also optical sensor arrays for position, velocity, and orientation detection; grid navigation algorithms; and dynamic obstacle avoidance among others. In light of these modern developments, this article develops and compares integrative guidance, navigation, and control methodologies for the Naval Postgraduate School’s Phoenix, a submerged autonomous vehicle. The measure of merit reveals how well each of several methodologies cope with known and unknown disturbance currents that can be constant or harmonic while maintaining safe passage distance from underwater obstacles, in this case submerged mines.",book:{id:"6864",slug:"autonomous-vehicles",title:"Autonomous Vehicles",fullTitle:"Autonomous Vehicles"},signatures:"Timothy Sands and Kevin Bollino",authors:[{id:"258189",title:"Prof.",name:"Timothy",middleName:null,surname:"Sands",slug:"timothy-sands",fullName:"Timothy Sands"}]},{id:"70382",title:"Lunar Science: Internet for Space Tourism",slug:"lunar-science-internet-for-space-tourism",totalDownloads:670,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The increased interest in space exploration drives the development of novel technologies that are useful in other areas, such as aviation. The use of these technologies gives rise to new challenges and applications. Space tourism is an emerging application due to advances in space exploration technologies. This paper addresses two challenges aimed at ensuring continued internet access in space tourism. The first is designing network architecture to ensure continued internet access for space tourists aboard a space vehicle. The second is using aerial vehicle technology to enhance access to cloud content in areas with poor telecommunication infrastructure. The paper proposes the distributed handover algorithm ensuring that the space vehicle can execute handover from terrestrial wireless networks to aerial platforms and satellites as a last mile connection. It also proposes the concept of aerial diversity ensuring low cost access to cloud content. Performance simulation shows that the use of the distributed handover algorithm enhances channel capacity by 18.4% on average and reduces latency by 11.6% on average. The use of the cloud content access system incorporating aerial diversity enhances the channel capacity of terrestrial wireless networks by up to 85% on average.",book:{id:"6864",slug:"autonomous-vehicles",title:"Autonomous Vehicles",fullTitle:"Autonomous Vehicles"},signatures:"Ayodele Abiola Periola",authors:[{id:"278676",title:"Dr.",name:"Periola",middleName:null,surname:"Ayodele",slug:"periola-ayodele",fullName:"Periola Ayodele"}]},{id:"62626",title:"Virtual Simulation Platform for Training Semi-Autonomous Robotic Vehicles’ Operators",slug:"virtual-simulation-platform-for-training-semi-autonomous-robotic-vehicles-operators",totalDownloads:1150,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter covers the development of a virtual simulation platform for training a semiautonomous robotic vehicle (SARV) operator via an open-source game engine called Unity3D. 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His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. 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She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7139",title:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7139.jpg",slug:"current-approaches-in-orthodontics",publishedDate:"April 10th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Belma Işık Aslan and Fatma Deniz Uzuner",hash:"2c77384eeb748cf05a898d65b9dcb48a",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",editors:[{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. 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Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. 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Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. 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Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"95",type:"subseries",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",keywords:"Circular economy, Contingency planning and response to disasters, Ecosystem services, Integrated urban water management, Nature-based solutions, Sustainable urban development, Urban green spaces",scope:"