Demand and supply side barriers in effective implementation of EPI.
\r\n\t a multi-pronged approach. The pervasive computing paradigm is at a crossroads where never before computing
\r\n\t has been so much embedded within the user. Recent developments in sensor technologies, wireless protocols
\r\n\tintegration, and AI have empowered the citizen towards a smart citizen with a high degree of autonomy and varying
\r\n\tcomputing capabilities from one context to another.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tMoreover, software engineering has evolved too to allow lightweight programming and full-stack coding of those sensors. The network itself is today viewed as a programming platform, thus wearable devices are no more stand-alone and do not operate in a vacuum. This book aims at attracting authors from academia, the industry, research institutions, public and private agencies to provide the findings of their recent achievements in the field, but also visionaries who foresee the future of wearable technologies in the coming decades.
Despite being an established cost effective public health strategy for improving child survival, each year millions of children in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) do not receive the full series of vaccines on their national routine immunization schedule [1, 2]. In Pakistan, over 50% of deaths in post-neonatal children are attributable to pneumonia, diarrhea, or meningitis, which can be prevented through vaccination [3]. The Government of Pakistan initiated the Expanded Program on Immunization (EPI) in 1978, and gradually introduced all requisite antigens, with the recent addition of Rota virus [4]. WHO recommends immunization coverage of 90% at the national level and at least 80% for every district [5]. Pakistan’s immunization indicators have improved since the program’s inception; however, recent data from 2012 to 2013 recorded merely 54% full immunization coverage for children age 12–23 months (Figure 1) [6].
\nTrends in immunization coverage among children age 12–23 months. Pakistan Demographic & Health Survey 2012–2013.
Vaccine-specific coverage starting from BCG coverage at 85% falls to 61% for measles (Figure 1). In addition, there is a large drop out seen from the first two doses of polio (90.2%) and DPT (76.8%) to third doses of the same vaccines (82% and 62.5% respectively). Vaccine coverage drops with birth order; first child coverage is 64% while only 39% of children born in order 6 or more are fully covered. There are significant regional variations with the Islamabad Capital Territory having the highest percentage (74%), followed by the provinces of Punjab (66%) and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (53%); whereas immunization coverage is lowest in Sindh province (29%) and Baluchistan province (16%). There are obvious differences in immunization coverage between children of women with no education (40%) and children of literate mothers (74%). Children from households in the highest wealth quintile are much more likely to be fully immunized (75%) as compared to those in the lowest quintile (23%) [6]. In Punjab, the situation seems to be deteriorating (Figure 2) with the percentage of fully immunized children age 12–23 months dropping to be 56% in 2014 [7], whereas Sindh showed improvement with full immunization coverage increasing to 35% in 2014 [8].
\nVaccination coverage in 2014 for children age 12–23 months in Punjab and Sindh provinces. Multiple Indicator cluster survey 2014.
Another national survey from 2014 to 2015 captured a significant gap in the percentage of fully immunized children between rural (56%) and urban (70%) areas. The provincial differences demonstrate similar disparity. The data for urban/rural differences by province were in Sindh (62/33%), Baluchistan (48/20%), Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (74/54%), and Punjab (75/65%). Punjab had the highest immunization rate (70%) followed by Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (58%) and Sindh (45%). Baluchistan, which is the most deprived area, had the lowest coverage with only 27% of children fully immunized [9].
\nGiven this state of affairs, it is evident that there is a need to take stock, particularly to understand the health system wide enablers as well as the barriers that could influence progress. And thereon develop strategies to either overcome or capitalize on these factors to optimize performance of the EPI program.
\nThis chapter aims at bridging the information gaps about system-level barriers that currently are impeding the optimal delivery of immunization services to the children of Pakistan. We employed the basic tenets of WHO’s health systems strengthening framework i.e. governance, financing, service delivery, human resource, information systems, and essential drugs, supplies and technologies [10], and the Sallis’ socio-ecological model which helps in studying the community’s perceptions and behaviors [11]. Hence, this study explored various pillars of the immunization program in Pakistan from both the service delivery and the demand side perspective. We conducted a detailed literature review to document what has been published already about this topic, identified barriers and levers of EPI implementation, and then developed a set of recommendations. Using MeSH terms and key words (Immunization; Child health; Health system; Pakistan), relevant peer reviewed articles were accessed using PubMed and Google Scholar. Other reports and documents were accessed from the websites of EPI Pakistan and UN agencies. Salient areas emerging from the literature review were cataloged under the building blocks of the health system.
\nThe information gleaned from the peer-reviewed articles, government reports, EPI documents, WHO/UNICEF/GAVI reports and some gray literature, unravels a stagnant or declining immunization status. At the same time, this analysis also shows a multifactorial picture responsible for the current state of affairs of EPI in Pakistan.
\nDevelopment partners have always generously supported the maternal, child and newborn health programs in Pakistan [12]. Although the immunization program mainly depends upon domestic development funds, resources from donors (WHO, UNICEF, GAVI, etc.) have been instrumental too. Pakistan is the biggest recipient of GAVI at present, categorized as a Tier 1 priority country. GAVI financial support to the Pakistan government has been channeled through partner organizations, predominately, WHO and UNICEF [13]. The Government of Pakistan’s own share represents approximately 20% of the total EPI allocations [6]. The Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) and the World Bank also support the program. Moreover, the donors have supported in-service trainings for EPI managers. However, delayed release of funds and inefficiencies in expenditure have been noted as some key issues in the past. Of particular note is the lack of appropriation for transportation and fuel costs. Shortage of funds for repair and maintenance of cold chain equipment and vehicles could jeopardize vaccine efficacy [13].
\nPakistan went through devolution of its services related public sectors including health sector with the 18th amendment in its constitution effective from June 28, 2011. The Federal Ministry of Health (MoH) was dissolved and the overall responsibility for health services policy direction and planning was devolved to the provinces [14]. Inefficiencies and stalled health system’s performance was observed at nearly all of the operational levels for some time after the devolution of 2011 [15]. A lack of clarity in roles and responsibilities of federal and provincial tiers of the government resulted in a vacuum in governance, and weak stewardship at decision-making levels The National Health Vision 2016–2025 later outlined more clearly the roles and responsibilities of the federal and provincial government vis-à-vis health programs and interventions [16]. There is a proposal that going forward, each district must have its own EPI implementation plan, which should consider and address the gaps identified by the situational assessment [13]. Polio in Pakistan has generated much analysis and discussion at the global and national levels. In late 2014, due to a rise in polio cases, an Emergency Operations Centre was established, and was mandated to ensure a synergy between the Polio Eradication Initiative and EPI, as well as with other sectors. Nevertheless, this convergence or synergy is still to be seen as fully operational [17]. The role of the private sector as a key stakeholder has also been documented with regard to governance of EPI [18], which could work hand in hand with the public sector in order to achieve the desired targets of immunization; but its potential still remains untapped.
\nThe lack of a comprehensive human resource (HR) strategy has been discussed time and again in the context of EPI in Pakistan. There is no regular and formal training program for the management cadres, and learning is mostly self-directed and on the job. Managers often lack the practical knowledge for leading program operations proficiently [19]. EPI workers’ fatigue due to frequent polio campaigns have reduced their time dedicated to routine EPI vaccination initiatives [13]. In-service training for routine immunization staff is not held on the basis of any planning and programming, rather it is conducted whenever the donor funding is available. Competency of the staff, outreach capacity, service structure, attitudes toward clients, political interference in transfers and postings, and lack of accountability are all notable HR related issues of EPI [20, 21]. On the other hand, there are workers in the Polio program who are willing to perform their duties while putting their lives at risk, and facing extremist sections of the society, amidst a grim law and order situation [22]. Introducing incentive structures among managers and health workers of EPI or contracting with non-governmental organizations (NGOs) can potentially improve the HR performance [23].
\nImmunization services provided through outreach are costly and face logistic issues. The outreach strategy of EPI lacks details in micro-plans; has weak monitoring and supervision; and deficient human, operational, and other resources [13]. In many rural areas, routine immunization literally comes to naught during National Immunization Days, when all vaccinators are entrusted with the additional responsibility of covering 150–200 children per day, door-marking, record keeping in tally-sheets, and locating and marking missing children [24]. Coverage of vaccination services requires a rational re-deployment of vaccinators, and task-shifting to community-based service providers e.g. lady health workers (LHWs) and community midwives for covering their catchment areas. Vaccinators would thus be able to focus on areas not covered by any workers [25]. Involvement of the private sector and NGO outlets is also one of the solutions, but at present there is no policy in EPI on formal engagement with the private sector [13].
\nInterrupted supply of vaccines has been reported from time to time. Delays in forecasting, procurement, storage, and distribution to the provinces, districts and to the “last mile” (i.e. the hardest to reach segments of the population) have suffered in the past because of unduly tedious procedures [13]. Inadequate maintenance of cold chain is another issue reported in the literature. Power outages are frequent and there is no electricity back up at many places. EPI has state of the art cold chain for vaccine storage and transport; however, its maintenance has been a long-standing issue, particularly in rural remote areas where program monitoring is also weak [26]. Alternative solutions such as solar energy ought to be tried as a backup for power outages.
\nUnreliable reporting, poor monitoring and supervision systems, and limited use of local data for decision-making are other impediments in the performance of EPI. Data collection is paper-based at the facility level, and then from district upwards, it becomes electronic. Therefore, establishing its credibility has been a challenge. Moreover, for quite some time, the EPI data was not reflected in the district health information system (DHIS) [27]. Inaccurate immunization records lead to the loss of billions of rupees every year [15]. There is a dearth of health systems research to better understand the dynamics between EPI and the beneficiary population [28].
\nLow community awareness and misbeliefs that vaccines cause disease, and the doubts about vaccine safety and effectiveness have been reported as important factors, impeding the uptake of immunization, especially in case of polio [29]. Therefore, educating the masses and population segments with low literacy levels, especially the women, is a must for improving the utilization of immunization services [30]. Gender differential in immunization coverage needs innovative gender mainstreaming strategies at the community level such as employing more female vaccinators and community volunteers for outreach to women [31]. Community activists can also encourage people to seek immunization services, and can increase demand through educating various community segments [32]. Communication between immunization workers and the parents of children has been flawed, and a positive engagement has helped with overcoming the resistance to vaccinations [33]. On the other hand, service providers in clinics do not emphasize the importance of immunization [34]. Religious beliefs and lack of knowledge about the benefits of the vaccines still dictate many pockets of this highly diverse and populated country [35]. Targeted community awareness programs, a robust surveillance network, and engagement with the dominant religious entities can help to root out the issue [36, 37]. Better understanding of the religion and soliciting local support for vaccination campaigns may assist in negotiating access in the areas where refusal is an issue [38].
\nDemand side issues and community misperceptions are quite high. Ample funds are allocated for social mobilization, yet meager amounts are spent on communication, and to create community awareness of routine immunization [13]. Moreover, a shift of resources from mass media (TV and radio) to community-level, dialogic communication is proposed, given clear evidence that caregivers rely on healthcare providers, family and friends for information about immunization [16]. The demand and supply barriers of EPI have been well summarized (Table 1) in an important study undertaken by UNICEF [39].
\nIssues | \nDemand/supply side barriers | \n
---|---|
1. Low awareness level among caregivers and healthcare providers regarding vaccine-preventable diseases and their risks | \nDemand | \n
2. Concerns of caregivers about safety of Oral Polio Vaccine | \nDemand | \n
3. Belief in and use of local remedies for prevention and treatment | \nDemand and Supply | \n
4. Low knowledge and awareness of health care workers regarding VPDs and their prevention | \nSupply | \n
5. Distance, time and cost of travel to health facility and long waiting time there | \nDemand and Supply | \n
6. Unavailability of vaccines and vaccinators and dissatisfaction with quality of service | \nDemand and Supply | \n
7. Missing vaccination card in the home | \nDemand | \n
Demand and supply side barriers in effective implementation of EPI.
There are several factors which we can bank upon for improving the EPI immunization program in Pakistan: provincial autonomy as called for in the 18th constitutional amendment, re-enactment of a national ministry of health for coordination, the infrastructure needed for the polio program and the renewed focus of the government and the development partners on routine immunization. No program, however, can improve without looking at it insightfully and searching for the underlying factors that may be the reason for its sub-optimal performance. This monograph has unraveled some important areas that need further exploration. These areas along with key recommendations are summarized here for future research and to broaden the evidence base for the immunization program in Pakistan and elsewhere.
Financing and resource allocation: The budgetary allocations, spending and reporting has to be made more efficient. Switching over to a midterm budgetary framework mode could be a good option for EPI. This mode of financing will be performance-based and target-oriented. Funds must be earmarked for the maintenance of cold chain, which is the most vital component of the entire program. Keeping in view the climatic condition of Pakistan, availability of the power source and requirement of the cold chain space according to the target population at each level of hospital i.e. primary, secondary and even at tertiary care facility. Every facility must have an ice lined refrigerator, cold boxes, and vaccines carriers. Funds must be allocated for regular repair and maintenance of the cold chain equipment. Periodic replacement and upgradation of the cold chain equipment is also a requisite that would require appropriate funds allocation.
Program governance, management and accountability: The role of the federal ministry of health and federal EPI cell in the overall coordination of immunization services in the country is pivotal. Forums for ‘interprovincial coordination’ and ‘donor coordination’ must be established. Program review meetings held regularly at the federal, provincial, district and health facility levels may help to improve governance of the program. Involving the private sector can also resolve some governance issues. Furthermore, participation of local organizations, community leaders, and volunteers can provide timely feedback to improve the immunization services.
Capacity building and human resource: A fresh review and mapping of the EPI HR and their capacity is required for chalking out a plan for an in-service training. This exercise will bring to light the HR gaps at the federal and provincial EPI cells, and will lead to recruitment of new vaccinators and women volunteers at the community level. This may help to reduce workload on the existing staff, and perhaps task shift to some extent. Strategies for capacity building may encompass short courses on public health epidemiology, different operational aspects in immunization for the mid-level managers, vaccinators and supervisors. All newly recruited vaccinators must undergo intensive 3 months practical training before being authorized to administer EPI injections independently. This is equally important for the Lady Health Workers who assist the EPI in national immunization days. In addition to this, refresher trainings must be arranged at least once every 2 years. The EPI management staff should undergo management trainings before assuming immunization program responsibilities at any level. This should be followed by a refresher training at least once every 2 years.
Immunization policy and legislation for service delivery: Private sector, which is the first contact of care seeking for 80% of the population in Pakistan and which is perceived as more trustworthy, must also be engaged for the delivery of routine immunization. This engagement will have the potential to improve access as well as coverage. Likewise, if task shifting to LHWs is required, legislation and policy decisions must be taken expeditiously. The program needs a clear strategy on immunization through outreach as well as fixed centers. Integration of EPI with other public health interventions such as breastfeeding, maternal nutrition, community midwifery, micronutrients etc. must be considered. A common integrated program (with common funding) will allow all health workers of various units to take up immunization related activities as their responsibility. For instance, a health staff counseling a mother for breastfeeding or nutrition must also inform her about importance and schedule of immunization. Workforce shortage in EPI will thus be addressed, and more workforce will be propagating the EPI messages and will be available to deliver services.
Information systems: EPI data reliability ought to be enhanced through a critical review of the current reporting system and by objectively examining the procedures, roles and responsibilities, and also the reasons for its under-performance. Employing newer technologies (i.e. GPS, tablets, smart phones etc.) can potentially improve the timeliness and accuracy of the data.
Engaging communities: Campaigns for demand creation need careful planning and coordination with communication experts. Increase in the allocation of funds for mass campaigns, and to the districts to customize messages in their local context is needed. Developing a deeper understanding of locally held perceptions or misperceptions that shape the behaviors of the community will be helpful in certain geographical areas that have historically proved resistant to EPI efforts. Face to face communication and advocacy with local opinion leaders and community elders should be continued. Such engagements with communities have shown to be fruitful for increasing the coverage of immunization.
Risk analysis: Periodic assessment of the high risk, high priority districts and mapping of vulnerable populations must be carried out. Similarly, profiling of HR and logistic gaps is imperative. Real time information using cell phone technology can be assimilated in a dashboard where monitoring teams should instantly pick up the shortage of HR or any supplies/logistics, and action can be taken immediately. Timely and correct interpretation of risk analysis is vital for designing context specific interventions. Community’s role in diseases surveillance must also be tapped for early case detection and reporting, initiating an immediate response, and improving outcomes.
This chapter has endeavored to unravel a multifactorial picture responsible for insufficient immunization coverage in Pakistan. Current evidence suggests that focusing on governance of the program, improving facility-based service delivery and addressing community perceptions could result in the biggest payoffs. Within a multi-cultural milieu and a complex health system, the country presents an ideal case for embarking upon more systematic health systems and implementation research to develop an empirical evidence base and to re-build the routine immunization program to serve the people who are most in need. Moreover, research conducted in the universities must be communicated in simplistic manner to the implementers and policy makers. The current situation pleads the case for generating fresh evidence in order to review policy, programmatic approach, service delivery and stakeholder engagement for improving EPI.
\nNot applicable.
\nNone.
EPI | Expanded Program on Immunization |
WHO | World Health Organization |
LMIC | lower middle income countries |
BCG | Bacillus Calmette–Guérin |
UNICEF | United Nations Children’s Emergency Fund |
GAVI | Global Alliance for Vaccines & Immunization |
JICA | Japan International Cooperation Agency |
HR | human resources |
NGOs | non-governmental organizations |
LHW | lady health workers |
DHIS | District Health Information System |
GPS | global positioning system |
Water availability is one of the most important environmental factors for plant growth and development. The water deficit caused by drought or salinity in soils is one of the most serious environmental problems that limit agricultural production in various regions of the world. According to [1], water deficit occurs when all water content in the cell is below the highest water content displayed in the state of greatest hydration.
Plants experience a water deficit when water supply to the roots becomes difficult or when the rate of evapotranspiration becomes very high. These two conditions generally coincide in regions with an arid and semiarid climate and affect plants to a greater or lesser extent according to the tolerance that species have [2].
Plant response to biotic and abiotic stresses is a complex network of reactions, which involves different physiological pathways of the primary and secondary metabolism. At the cellular level, membranes and proteins can be damaged by a reduction in hydration and an increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) [3]. ROS derive from oxidative processes such as photosynthesis and respiration, and, in normal conditions, they are produced in low concentration without any negative consequences for the plants. In stressful conditions (biotic or abiotic), ROS levels increase as an index of the oxidative burst induced by the stress agent [4]. When ROS become toxic, they can result in a series of damages to plant metabolism, such as deterioration of photosynthetic components, inactivation of proteins and enzymes, and destruction of the structure and permeability of the cell membrane by lipid peroxidation [5, 6].
Antioxidants and their role in the plant defense system have received a lot of attention in scientific research. Many results suggest that the effects of environmental stresses, such as salinity, drought, low temperatures, and herbicide residues, damage plants directly or indirectly by increasing endogenous ROS [7].
Plant cells are protected against the damaging effects of ROS by a complex antioxidant system composed of enzymatic antioxidants, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and ascorbate peroxidase (APX) [8]. The close relationship between antioxidant activity and stress tolerance has been identified in many crops such as maize (Zea mays L.) [7], tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) [9], and grasses [10].
Biostimulants are extracts obtained from organic raw materials containing bioactive compounds. The most common components of the biostimulants are mineral elements, humic substances (HSs), vitamins, and amino acids [6]. Seaweed extracts have been used in agriculture as soil conditioners or as plant stimulators. They are applied as foliar spray and enhance plant growth; freezing, drought, and salt tolerance; photosynthetic activity; and resistance to fungi, bacteria, and virus, improving the yield and productivity of many crops [11, 12]. Seaweeds used for biostimulant production contain cytokinins and auxins or other hormone-like substances [13]. From a legal point of view, the biostimulants can contain traces of natural plant hormones, but their biological action should not be ascribed to them; otherwise they should be registered as plant growth regulators [6].
Humic acids have been used in the composition of many commercial products because they have phytohormones [14] that favor protection against oxidative damage in plants caused by environmental stresses. Thus, the use of biostimulants in agriculture has been emphasized, which are products that contain active ingredient or organic agent free of pesticides, capable of acting, directly or indirectly, on all or part of the cultivated plants, increasing their productivity [15].
The components of biostimulants can change the hormonal status of the plant and have a great influence on its development and health. Seaweed, humic acids, and vitamins are commonly present in biostimulants and are important in improving plant development and hormonal activity [16]. In addition, these products increase the antioxidant activity in plants, especially when they are under water stress, severe temperatures, and herbicide action, among others [7].
Several studies have shown results in improving the resistance of plants to water stress when subjected to the application of biostimulants. The activity levels of the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), and catalase (CAT) have been determined. In general, increases in these antioxidant enzymes have been observed with the use of biostimulants [16]. Another parameter that has been improved in the plant with the application of biostimulants is the photochemical efficiency [17].
Thus, the objective of this chapter was to approach the role of biostimulants in plants submitted to water supply deficit, by affecting the activities of enzymatic antioxidants.
Biostimulants are components that produce responses in plant growth by improving tolerance to abiotic stresses. Many of the effects of these products are based on their ability to influence the hormonal activity of plants. Phytohormones are chemical messengers that regulate the normal development of plants by growing roots and shoots, in addition to regulating responses to the environment where they are located [18].
Many statements about biostimulants also refer to the improvements they provide in the tolerance of plants to water stress, a limiting factor in the management of the crops. Water stress affects many metabolic functions in plants, specifically photosynthesis. The application of biostimulants increases the defense system of the plant by increasing its level of antioxidant enzymes [15].
The components of biostimulants can alter the plant’s hormonal status and have a major influence on its growth and health. Seaweed, humic acids and vitamins are commonly present in biostimulants and are important in improving plant development and hormonal activity [19]. In addition, these products increase the antioxidant activity in plants, especially when they are under water stress, severe temperatures and herbicide action, among others [20].
However, the composition of biostimulants is partly unknown; the complexity of the extracts and the wide range of molecules contained in the solution make it very difficult to understand which the most active compounds are. Moreover, the isolation and study of a single component present in a biostimulant can produce unreliable results because the effects on plants are often due to the combination and synergistic action of different compounds. In addition, the mechanisms activated by biostimulants are difficult to identify and still under investigation [6].
Plants usually thrive when the environment is favorable. Under these conditions, the effects of biostimulants may not be easily identified. However, when plants are stressed and undergo treatment with biostimulants, they develop better, as their defense system becomes more efficient due to the increase in their levels of antioxidants [20]. Besides, many of the active substances of biostimulants can be present in very low concentrations, sometimes below the levels detectable with commonly available technologies, but can provide strong biological effects [6].
Biostimulants and humic substances have shown an influence on many metabolic processes in plants, such as respiration, photosynthesis, synthesis of nucleic acids, and ion absorption. Within the cell, humic substances can increase the chlorophyll content resulting in greener leaves and reduction of some problems in plants, such as leaf chlorosis, since humic substances improve the capacity of nutrient uptake by the roots [21]. Beyond humic substances, various raw materials have been used in biostimulant compositions, such as hormones, algae extracts, and plant growth-promoting bacteria [22].
Water availability is one of the most limiting environmental factors that affect crop productivity. In the semiarid tropics, the occurrence of drought or water deficit in the soil is quite common, despite the fact that crops in regions of tropical and temperate climate suffer seasonal periods of water deficit, especially during the summer [23].
Drought is a prevalent stress factor especially in arid and semiarid areas and can affect different aspects of plant growth, development, and metabolism. Drought is a multidimensional stress factor, and hence its effects on plants are complex. Its effects on plants can occur on a molecular level up to a whole-plant level. There are several reasons for drought in nature, including low rainfall, salinity, high temperature, and high intensity of light, among others [24].
Some of the plants’ first responses to stress appear to be mediated by biophysical events, rather than changes in chemical reactions resulting from dehydration. The closing of stomata, the reduction of photosynthesis, and osmotic adjustments are the responses of some plants to the first stage of water deficit [25]. As the water content of the plant decreases, the cells shrink, and the cell walls relax. With this, the solutes increase their concentration in the cells, and the plasma membrane becomes thicker and more compressed, as it covered a smaller area than before [1]. Cell expansion occurs when the turgor pressure is greater than the growth of the cell wall. Water stress greatly decreases cell expansion and plant growth due to low turgor pressure [26].
Stomata provide the main mechanism for controlling the rate of water loss. However, the site of water loss is also the site of carbon gain by the plant, so a reduction in water loss by stomatal control also results in a reduction in assimilation with consequent effects on productivity and the accumulation of reactive oxygen species [27]. These responses hinder the supply of CO2 for photosynthesis and expose chloroplasts to excess energy excitation, especially under high light intensity [25].
The low potentials in the soil and in the plant inhibit their growth, reduce the development activities of cells and tissues, decrease the uptake of nutrients, and cause morphological and biochemical changes [28]. To maintain water uptake, the roots have to grow deeper or increase their density. A characteristic of drought-resistant species is that they have a large proportion of their total mass consisting of roots and a deep-rooted habit. A high root/shoot ratio does not indicate in itself great ability to absorb water: water deficiency invariably increases the root/shoot ratio, but this is due to the loss of plant shoot weight without loss of root mass [1].
Photosynthesis is the driving force of plant productivity. The ability to maintain the rate of photosynthetic carbon dioxide and the assimilation of nitrate under environmental stresses is fundamental for the maintenance of plant growth and production. It is known that when water stress becomes extreme, non-stomatal factors can become even more limiting for photosynthesis [17].
The water deficit often decreases the number of photons captured by the leaves because withered leaves are at a more acute angle to the sun’s rays. Changes in the absorption characteristics of the leaves occur due to the shrinkage of the cells. However, changes in chloroplasts and thylakoid during light capture and energy transfer centers are relatively small under water deficit conditions [29].
The diatomic oxygen (O2) molecules in the Earth’s atmosphere are the major promoters of reactions in cells. Except for those organisms that are specially adapted to live under anaerobic conditions, all animals and plants require oxygen for efficient energy production [30].
Aerobic organisms use diatomic oxygen as a terminal electron receptor, providing a high-energy field compared to fermentation and anaerobic respiration. In this base stage, molecular oxygen is relatively nonreactive, but it is capable of giving rise to excited reactive and lethal states, such as free radicals and their derivatives [31].
Superoxide, produced by electron transport to oxygen, is not compatible with cellular metabolism; hence, all organisms that are involved in aerobic environments must have an efficient mechanism capable of removing or neutralizing free radicals from cellular components. The balance between oxidative and antioxidant capabilities determines the fate of the plant [32]. Without this defense mechanism, plants may not efficiently convert solar energy into chemical energy [33].
The formation of reactive oxygen species occurs primarily through the superoxide radical (O2●−), which can be dismutated into hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), or even through catalytic action, by the action of the superoxide dismutase (SOD) enzyme. Antioxidant systems in plants act as mechanisms of resistance to stress by protecting the membranes against damage caused by these oxygen species produced under conditions of environmental and xenobiotic stress [34].
The fate of cells under stressful environments is determined by the duration of the stress, as well as the plant’s protective capacity. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) play a crucial role in causing cellular damage to plants under stress. The sequence of events in plant tissues subjected to stress is increased production of ROS; increased levels of antioxidants; and increase in the capacity to “sweep” ROS, resulting in the plant’s tolerance against water stress [35].
The detoxification mechanisms of ROS exist in all plants and can be categorized into enzymatic (superoxide dismutase, SOD; catalase, CAT; ascorbate peroxidase, APX, among others) and nonenzymatic (carotenoids, ascorbic acid, among others). The degree to which the amount and activities of antioxidant enzymes increases under water stress is extremely variable between many plant species and even between two cultivars of the same species. The level of response depends on the species, the development of the plant, as well as the duration and intensity of the stress [35].
The superoxide produced by the thylakoid can spontaneously be dismutated into molecular oxygen and hydrogen peroxide. In chloroplasts, this reaction is catalyzed enzymatically via superoxide dismutase (SOD). Chloroplasts also contain large amounts of ascorbic acid, which can efficiently reduce superoxide to hydrogen peroxide via ascorbate peroxidase [4].
Plants have the superoxide dismutase enzyme containing Cu and Zn, Fe, or Mn as prosthetic metals. Zn is found in superoxide dismutase present in chloroplasts and cytosol, while Mn is found in superoxide dismutase in mitochondria and Fe in superoxide dismutase is present in chloroplasts and mitochondria [36].
Reactive oxygen species can react with unsaturated fatty acids, causing the peroxidation of essential lipid membranes in plasmalemma or intracellular organelles [33]. The damage caused by the peroxidation of plasmalemma leads to extravasation of cellular content and rapid dissection and cell death. The damaged intracellular membrane affects the respiratory activity in the mitochondria, in addition to depigmentation and loss of the ability to fix carbon in chloroplasts [34].
Under normal conditions, antioxidant systems eliminate or slow the reaction of reactive oxygen, preventing its transformation into products more toxic to cells. Photosynthetic cells can tolerate high levels of oxygen because endogenous mechanisms sweep and remove toxic products before cell damage occurs [32]. However, oxidative damage is evident under conditions where the rate of production of ROS is high and the removal ability is low [37].
Water stress conditions can trigger an increase in the production of various forms of reactive oxygen, which can explain the damage to chloroplasts, lipids, and proteins and the alteration of the structural integrity of cell membranes. During the reduction of water inside the plant, the superoxide radical (O2●−) can also react nonenzymatically with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), giving rise to products such as hydroxyl radicals (OH−) and singlet oxygen (1O2), which are more reactive than the superoxide radical (O2●−) [32].
Although a number of regulatory mechanisms have been evolved within the plant cell to limit the production of these toxic molecules, oxidative damage remains a potential problem, as it causes disturbances in metabolism, such as loss of coordination between production processes (source) and energy use (drain) during photosynthesis on green leaves under stressful environments [38].
When plants are under stress, free radicals or ROS damage plant cells, and antioxidants decrease the toxicity of these radicals. Plants with high levels of antioxidants produce better root and shoot growth, maintaining a high water content in the leaves and low incidence of disease, both occurring when they are under ideal growing conditions and under environmental stress [18].
The use of biostimulants in plant breeding could change the activity of enzymes and antioxidant properties. Lycopene, ascorbic acid, phenolic compounds, and others have antioxidant properties. Antioxidant compounds (e.g., phenols, ascorbic acid) and enzymes (e.g., catalase, peroxidase, superoxide dismutase) detoxify reactive oxygen molecules [20].
Biostimulants stimulate root production and growth when applied to seeds or early plant development, especially in soils with low fertility and low water availability. Biostimulants act in accelerating the recovery of the seedlings in unfavorable conditions, such as water deficit. In addition, biostimulants reduce the need of fertilizers to the plants and increase their productivity and resistance to water stress, since they act as a hormonal and nutritional increment [15].
The application of humic acid extracts seems to be beneficial for field crop monocots. In a study conducted by [39], extracts from vermicompost applied to rice (Oryza sativa L.) played a role in activating antioxidative enzymatic function and increased ROS-scavenging enzymes. These enzymes are required to inactivate toxic-free oxygen radicals produced in plants under drought stress. Humic acid extracts may stimulate plant growth by improving nutrient uptake by exerting hormone-like effects as auxins, stimulating shoot elongation and increasing leaf nutrient accumulation and chlorophyll biosynthesis [40].
According to [41], humic acids improve root and shoot growth by increasing the concentrations of antioxidants in tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) and creeping bent grass (Agrostis palustris) grown under conditions of low water availability. The authors also claim that exogenous applications of seaweed extracts together with humic acids promote root and shoot growth through the action of antioxidants in plants under water stress conditions.
A study carried out using a biostimulant based on salicylic acid and chitosan nanoparticles had an effect on the enzyme and antioxidant activity in maize leaves under water shortage [42]. The enzyme activity in leaves treated with chitosan, salicylic acid, and a control was comparable, and the activity of superoxide dismutase and peroxidase activity in plants treated with a biostimulant was 7.7 (after 2 days) and 5.2 (after 3 days) times higher than for plants treated with only salicylic acid.
The activities of antioxidant enzymes in plants are normally favored when plants are subjected to some kind of improvement in the conditions in which they are grown. The superoxide dismutase (SOD) antioxidant enzyme is the first line of defense against ROS caused by environmental stresses. Increases in SOD values provide an increase in plant resistance when subjected to environmental stresses [43].
In an experiment with Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis) subjected to water stress and humic acid applications, [44] observed an increase in superoxide dismutase activities related to the applied doses of humic acids. However, a decrease in the activity of superoxide dismutase related to soil moisture content was observed. The authors justify this decrease by the increase in nonenzymatic antioxidants favored by the action of humic acids, which caused a decrease in the reactive oxygen species present in the cells.
The activity of superoxide dismutase responds differently to water deficit in different experiments and species: it can be increased [45] or decreased [46], or it cannot be altered [45]. Due to the presence of multiple enzymatic forms of the superoxide dismutase enzyme [33], only the investigation of the responses of each of its enzymatic forms can provide more information about the behavior of this enzyme in plants subjected to water stress.
Some authors mention that catalase activity has little affinity for hydrogen peroxide, a reason why it is common not to have a significant increase in its activity when evaluated in plants under stress [7]. [47] examined the activity of catalase in rice seedlings (Oryza sativa) under water stress and found that the increase of this enzyme in plants was not significant. Likewise, [48] did not find a significant increase for catalase in tomato plants (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. cv. Nikita) submitted to three different levels of water stress. However, the extract of Moringa oleifera used as a biostimulant in rocket plants (Eruca vesicaria subsp. sativa) under water stress presented a decrease in the activity of the antioxidant enzymes (catalase, peroxidase, and superoxide dismutase) [49].
Several seaweed species influence ROS-scavenging systems in the plant tissue. Seaweed extracts controlled oxidative stress under drought conditions, by reducing lipid peroxidation, increasing total phenolic content, and enhancing superoxide dismutase, catalase, and ascorbate peroxidase activity in green bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) [50]. Extracts from Sargassum and Ulva, applied as seed presoaking, activated antioxidant systems by enhancing catalase and peroxidase activities, increasing ascorbic acid content, and therefore alleviating stress symptoms in wheat grown under drought conditions [51]. Ascophyllum nodosum extract applied to roots increased the total phenolic and flavonoid content and total antioxidant activity in spinach (Spinacia oleracea) [52]. In tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea), A. nodosum extract increased the activity of superoxide dismutase and in another study additionally enhanced glutathione reductase and ascorbate peroxidase activities [36]. Similarly applied seaweed extract increased the antioxidant capacity and enhanced flavonoid and tannin content in plant leaves of the ornamental hybrid Calibrachoa x hybrida under normal conditions [53].
Seaweed extracts have also been applied in combination with other compounds to enhance antioxidant activity in plants under water stress, such as a mixture of seaweed extracts from A. nodosum, Fucus spp., and Laminaria spp. with zinc and manganese and A. nodosum extract with free amino acids. These mixtures increased superoxide dismutase activity in shoots and roots of maize (Zea mays) and soybean (Glycine max). Collectively, these studies demonstrate that seaweed extracts enhance antioxidant activity, indicating their potential to scavenge damaging ROS molecules and improve plant stress tolerance [54].
Humic acids have also been shown to alleviate water deficit stress. Faba bean (Vicia faba) plants were protected from lead-induced oxidative damage by fulvic acids, which reduced lipid peroxidation, hydrogen peroxide, and pigment content [55]. The foliar application of fulvic acid ameliorated drought stress symptoms of reduced chlorophyll content, gas exchange, and yield while enhancing activities of superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, and catalase and increasing proline content in a study with maize [56]. Humic and fulvic acid based biostimulants, applied to the soil, enhanced superoxide dismutase, ascorbate peroxidase, and catalase activities in leaves of maize grown under well-watered and drought conditions. However, the effect of these biostimulants was less pronounced in soybeans [7].
Humic substances can also increase activity of antioxidant enzymes. Activity of superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, and catalase was higher after foliar application of fulvic acid in maize grown under drought conditions. Biostimulant containing humic and fulvic acids and amino acids increased activity of antioxidant enzymes, specifically superoxide dismutase and ascorbate peroxidase in maize subjected to drought stress, but did not affect catalase activity [7].
The composition of biostimulants should present a variety of organic materials such as humic substances, seaweed extracts, organic matter, and amino acids in order to improve stress tolerance. The literature on biostimulants have been reporting an increase in enzyme activities involved in antioxidant functions, especially under stress conditions.
Investigations on the role of biostimulants in the physiological mode of action in plants subjected to drought stress should be continued, since considerable researches remain to be completed to gain a clearer understanding of how these products increase the physiological health of plants under water stress.
IntechOpen aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. We uphold a flexible Copyright Policy, guaranteeing that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their Work.
',metaTitle:"Publication Agreement - Monograph",metaDescription:"IntechOpen aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our authors. For that matter, we uphold a flexible copyright policy meaning that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and authors retain exclusive copyright to their work.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/publication-agreement-monograph",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"When submitting a manuscript, the Author is required to accept the Terms and Conditions set out in our Publication Agreement – Monographs/Compacts as follows:
\\n\\nCORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\\n\\nSubject to the following Article, the Author grants to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright, and any extensions or renewals of that term, the following:
\\n\\nThe foregoing licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Publication Agreement for any reason.
\\n\\nThe Author, on his or her own behalf and on behalf of any of the Co-Authors, reserves the following rights in the Work but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Work as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\\n\\nThe Author, and any Co-Author, confirms that they are, and will remain, a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
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\\n\\nAll rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the specific approval of the Author or Co-Authors.
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\\n\\nWhen distributing or re-publishing the Work, the Author agrees to credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Author guarantees that Co-Authors will also credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Work.
\\n\\nThe Author agrees to:
\\n\\nThe Author will be held responsible for the payment of the agreed Open Access Publishing Fee before the completion of the project (Monograph/Compacts publication).
\\n\\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of issue of the invoice. The Author or whoever is paying on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\\n\\nThe Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Work worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen, at its request, the original copies of such consents for inspection or the photocopies of such consents.
\\n\\nThe Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from those who might recognize themselves or be identified by others, for example from case reports or photographs.
\\n\\nThe Author shall respect confidentiality during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Author and Co-Authors are confidential and are intended only for the recipients. The contents of any communication may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
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\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm and warrant that the Work does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Work contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy.
\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm that: (i) the Work is their original work and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Work has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors have not assigned, and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign, any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
\\n\\nThe Author agrees to indemnify IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses, as well as all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of, or in connection with, any breach of the agreed confirmations and warranties. This indemnity shall not apply in a situation in which a claim results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\\n\\nNothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\\n\\nTERMINATION
\\n\\nIntechOpen has the right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Author and/or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (being a private individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (as a corporate entity) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for, or enters into, any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\\n\\nIn the event of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Author of the decision in writing.
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\\n\\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen, at its discretion, agrees to publish the Work attributing it to the Author and Co-Authors.
\\n\\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen agrees to provide publishing services which include: managing editing (editorial and publishing process coordination, Author assistance); publishing software technology; language copyediting; typesetting; online publishing; hosting and web management; and abstracting and indexing services.
\\n\\nIntechOpen agrees to offer free online access to readers and use reasonable efforts to promote the Publication to relevant audiences.
\\n\\nIntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\\n\\nIntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nMISCELLANEOUS
\\n\\nFurther Assurance: The Author shall ensure that any relevant third party, including any Co-Author, shall execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\nThird Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\\n\\nEntire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by, or on behalf of, the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (known as the "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of any fraudulent pre-contract misrepresentation or concealment.
\\n\\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\\n\\nVariation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall have effect unless it is in writing and signed by the parties, or their duly authorized representatives.
\\n\\nSeverance: If any provision, or part-provision, of this Publication Agreement is, or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted. Any modification to, or deletion of, a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\nNo partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
\\n\\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2018-09-11
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'When submitting a manuscript, the Author is required to accept the Terms and Conditions set out in our Publication Agreement – Monographs/Compacts as follows:
\n\nCORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\nSubject to the following Article, the Author grants to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright, and any extensions or renewals of that term, the following:
\n\nThe foregoing licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Publication Agreement for any reason.
\n\nThe Author, on his or her own behalf and on behalf of any of the Co-Authors, reserves the following rights in the Work but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Work as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\n\nThe Author, and any Co-Author, confirms that they are, and will remain, a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Work and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process, including all published versions, is retained by the Author and any Co-Authors.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Author and Co-Authors retain patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Work.
\n\nAll rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the specific approval of the Author or Co-Authors.
\n\nThe Author, on his/her own behalf and on behalf of the Co-Authors, will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Work as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Work arising from the translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits as determined by IntechOpen.
\n\nAUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\nWhen distributing or re-publishing the Work, the Author agrees to credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Author guarantees that Co-Authors will also credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Work.
\n\nThe Author agrees to:
\n\nThe Author will be held responsible for the payment of the agreed Open Access Publishing Fee before the completion of the project (Monograph/Compacts publication).
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of issue of the invoice. The Author or whoever is paying on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\nThe Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Work worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen, at its request, the original copies of such consents for inspection or the photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from those who might recognize themselves or be identified by others, for example from case reports or photographs.
\n\nThe Author shall respect confidentiality during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Author and Co-Authors are confidential and are intended only for the recipients. The contents of any communication may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\nAUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm and warrant that the Work does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Work contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy.
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm that: (i) the Work is their original work and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Work has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors have not assigned, and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign, any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
\n\nThe Author agrees to indemnify IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses, as well as all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of, or in connection with, any breach of the agreed confirmations and warranties. This indemnity shall not apply in a situation in which a claim results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\nNothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\nTERMINATION
\n\nIntechOpen has the right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Author and/or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (being a private individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (as a corporate entity) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for, or enters into, any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn the event of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Author of the decision in writing.
\n\nIntechOpen’s DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen, at its discretion, agrees to publish the Work attributing it to the Author and Co-Authors.
\n\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen agrees to provide publishing services which include: managing editing (editorial and publishing process coordination, Author assistance); publishing software technology; language copyediting; typesetting; online publishing; hosting and web management; and abstracting and indexing services.
\n\nIntechOpen agrees to offer free online access to readers and use reasonable efforts to promote the Publication to relevant audiences.
\n\nIntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\nIntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\nMISCELLANEOUS
\n\nFurther Assurance: The Author shall ensure that any relevant third party, including any Co-Author, shall execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\nThird Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\nEntire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by, or on behalf of, the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (known as the "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of any fraudulent pre-contract misrepresentation or concealment.
\n\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\nVariation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall have effect unless it is in writing and signed by the parties, or their duly authorized representatives.
\n\nSeverance: If any provision, or part-provision, of this Publication Agreement is, or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted. Any modification to, or deletion of, a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\nNo partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
\n\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2018-09-11
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