Taxonomy of challenges posed by AI on bank soundness.
\r\n\tIC offer services both at the macro-scale (country) and at the micro-scale (cities). The stability and the protection of these networks on both scales are a significant task, entrusted to the Operators who operate CI in a concession mandate. Due to the high level of interdependency of CI, which exchange services to each other for their functioning, their management and protection cannot be carried out by a "linearized" strategy (each infrastructure managed and protected independently on the others) due to the presence of tight links which connect each other. CI protection through provision of "smart" properties such as resilience, has become a complex task which must be tackled not only by deploying advanced technological means but also by triggering new management strategies, enabling holistic and global management policies.
\r\n\r\n\tThe book aims at providing an overview of the understanding of complex phenomena taking place on interdependent networks and of the advanced technical solutions related to management, risk analysis and resilience enhancement of networks, either from a theoretical and operational (i.e. with solution related to real or realistic cases) points of view. A large emphasis is provided to the capability opened by the use of field and remote sensing tools for monitoring and assessing risks on CI. The use of comprehensive data set, the access to big data is going to open the way to the realization of new tools for supporting the decision making process needed for both daily and emergency management.
",isbn:"978-1-83962-621-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-620-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-628-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7cfcd62bae8c99be207e18bb73e2a7b1",bookSignature:"Dr. Vittorio Rosato and Dr. Antonio Di Pietro",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10256.jpg",keywords:"Complex systems, Interdependence, Resilience, Cascading effects, Event prediction, Emergency management, Decision support, AI, Field sensors, Remote sensing, IoT, GIS",numberOfDownloads:525,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 15th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 6th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 4th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 23rd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 22nd 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"8 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Supervisor and Project Evaluator for EU, for the Italian Ministry of University and Research, and that of Economic Development; Consultant for several Italian Regions and the Italian Ministry of Defense; Coordinator of several National Projects; Co-founder of two SMEs active in software engineering and biotechnology; Author of more than 140 scientific papers in peer reviewed journals and conference proceedings.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"A full researcher at ENEA (Italian Energy, New Technology and Environment Agency) since 2007 and a joined member to the Laboratory for the Analysis and Protection of Critical Infrastructures (APIC) from 2015. Dr. Di Pietro took part in several European and Italian national research projects and acted as an advisor for certain Evaluation Studies commissioned by the EU.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"27002",title:"Dr.",name:"Vittorio",middleName:null,surname:"Rosato",slug:"vittorio-rosato",fullName:"Vittorio Rosato",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27002/images/system/27002.jpg",biography:"Vittorio Rosato received the Laurea degree (M.Sc.) in Physics from the University of Pisa (Italy) and a Ph.D. in Condensed Matter Physics from the University of Nancy (France). He has extensively been working in Computational Physics, particularly in Condensed Matter and Material Science in his positions as Research Assistant at the University College of Wales in Aberystwyth (UK) and at the Centre d'Etudes Nucleaires in Saclay (France). Staff Scientist at ENEA (Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development) since 1990, he is currently Head of the Laboratory of Analysis and Protection of Critical Infrastructures and Manager of the Italian Node of the European Infrastructure Simulation and Analysis Centre (EISAC.it).\nHis current research activities span from risk analysis to the design of Decision Support Systems for the management of complex technological networks. He acts as Supervisor and Project Evaluator for EU, for the Italian Ministry of University and Research, and that of Economic Development; he is also consultant for several Italian Regions and the Italian Ministry of Defense. He is and has been Coordinator of several National Projects. He is co-founder of two SMEs active in software engineering and biotechnology. He is author of more than 140 scientific papers in peer reviewed journals and conference proceedings.",institutionString:"ENEA (Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:{id:"284589",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Di Pietro",slug:"antonio-di-pietro",fullName:"Antonio Di Pietro",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bReF6QAK/Profile_Picture_1581328351906",biography:"Antonio Di Pietro received the Laurea degree (M.Sc.) in Informatics Engineering from Sapienza University of Rome (Italy) and a Ph.D. in Methodologies for Emergency Management in Critical Infrastructures from Roma Tre University (Rome).\nHe has been working as a full researcher at ENEA (Italian Energy, New Technology and Environment Agency) since 2007 and in 2015 he joined the Laboratory for the Analysis and Protection of Critical Infrastructures (APIC) in the same institution.\nHis research interests include modelling and simulation of critical infrastructures and the development of Decision Support Systems integrating seismic and meteorological natural threat modeling. He is also an Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) ENAC-certifed pilot to perform critical operations involving aerial photogrammetry tasks for biological and Infrastructure monitoring applications. He took part in several European and Italian national research projects and acted as an advisor in some Evaluation Studies commissioned by the EU. He has also been advisor of several M.Sc. students and also a teacher in several professional courses on Software Engineering and Databases.",institutionString:"ENEA (Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"74122",title:"Risk Analysis in Early Phase of Complex Infrastructure Projects",slug:"risk-analysis-in-early-phase-of-complex-infrastructure-projects",totalDownloads:87,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74493",title:"Flood Risk Analysis for Critical Infrastructure Protection: Issues and Opportunities in Less Developed Societies",slug:"flood-risk-analysis-for-critical-infrastructure-protection-issues-and-opportunities-in-less-develope",totalDownloads:50,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74123",title:"Resilience in Critical Infrastructures: The Role of Modelling and Simulation",slug:"resilience-in-critical-infrastructures-the-role-of-modelling-and-simulation",totalDownloads:78,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"73984",title:"Validation Strategy as a Part of the European Gas Network Protection",slug:"validation-strategy-as-a-part-of-the-european-gas-network-protection",totalDownloads:35,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74174",title:"Defects Assessment in Subsea Pipelines by Risk Criteria",slug:"defects-assessment-in-subsea-pipelines-by-risk-criteria",totalDownloads:44,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74240",title:"Analyzing the Cyber Risk in Critical Infrastructures",slug:"analyzing-the-cyber-risk-in-critical-infrastructures",totalDownloads:85,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74141",title:"Italian Crisis Management in 2020",slug:"italian-crisis-management-in-2020",totalDownloads:49,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74668",title:"A Strategy to Improve Infrastructure Survivability via Prioritizing Critical Nodes Protection",slug:"a-strategy-to-improve-infrastructure-survivability-via-prioritizing-critical-nodes-protection",totalDownloads:34,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74143",title:"Resilience of Critical Infrastructures: A Risk Assessment Methodology for Energy Corridors",slug:"resilience-of-critical-infrastructures-a-risk-assessment-methodology-for-energy-corridors",totalDownloads:66,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"205697",firstName:"Kristina",lastName:"Kardum Cvitan",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/205697/images/5186_n.jpg",email:"kristina.k@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"16841",title:"Selective Separation of Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes in Solution",doi:"10.5772/17612",slug:"selective-separation-of-single-walled-carbon-nanotubes-in-solution",body:'SWCNT can be conceptualized by wrapping a one-atomic-layer thick graphene into a hollow cylinder. As shown in Figure 1, the wrapping way is represented by the chiral vector (n, m), which denote the number of unit vectors along two directions in the crystal lattice of graphene sheet.1 Because of the symmetry and unique electronic structure of graphene, the structures of SWCNTs strongly affect their electrical properties. In particular, their band gaps can vary from zero to about 2 eV and electrical conductivity can be in a range of a metal or semiconductor. For a given (n,m) nanotube, when n = m, the nanotube is metallic; when n − m is a multiple of 3, the SWCNTs are semiconducting with geometry-dependent band gaps.
A SWCNT is formed by rolling up a graphene along a chiral vector. The circumference of the SWCNT is determined by a chiral vector Ch = na1 + ma2, where (n,m) are integers known as the chiral indices and a1 and a2 are the unit vectors of the graphene lattice. Reproduced from ref.1.
Metallic SWCNTs(m-SWCNTs)may show ballistic behaviors and are ideal conducting connectors and electrodes for electronic devices due to their excellent electron transport behavior, optical transparency and flexibility.2-5Semiconducting SWCNTs (s-SWCNTs), with mobilities as high as 79 000 cm2 V-1 s-1,6 are considered to be among the most promising candidates for next-generation high-performance field-effect transistors (FETs). The unique electronic properties of SWCNTs make them the ideal building blocks for nanoelectronics and thin film devices.7, 8 Unfortunately, the established CNT synthethetic methods often lead to the growth of the mixture of nanotubes, typically with 1/3 m-tubes and 2/3 s-tubes, hard to selectively harvest the CNTs with a specific electronic type (m- / s-) or with a desired chirality, which has greatly hindered their widespread applications. Therefore, the mass m/s separation of SWCNTs is of great significance for their advanced applications in high-performance nanoelectronicdevices. Chiral separation is also required for the uniform property of electronic devices. Since none of current synthetic techniques produce identical populations of SWCNTs, over the past two decades, many post-synthetic approaches have therefore been developed in an attempt to separate monodisperse SWCNTs into different fractions by their electronic types, diameters and chiralities. This chapter provides a brief introduction of the recent progress in the separation of SWCNT, in particular with an emphasis on the chromatographic approach.
One of the earliest developed enrichment techniques of SWCNTs is based on the selective removal strategy with bulk SWCNT powders and films. The enrichment of m- or s- type SWCNTs can be obtained by removing the other type (usually m-SWCNTs) through electrical breakdown9, plasma10, 11, irradiation12, 13 effects or chemical reagents11, 14-17. These ‘‘dry’’ physical or chemical removal techniques are scalable and compatible with existing semiconductor processing for SWCNT-based nano-devices. However, as the selective removal is an irreversible process, the removed fraction cannot be used any more. Hence in recent years, separation of monodisperse SWCNTs, such as selective dispersion, dielectrophoresis, centrifugation, and chromatography has been greatly developed.SWCNTs can be thus sorted by electronic types and chiralities to some extent. Great efforts are still required to further understand the separation mechanism and therefore able to optimize the SWCNT sorting at lower cost and higher purity.
Both theoretical calculations and experimental studies have shown that the electronic properties, diameters and chiralities of SWCNTs may affect their interaction with some compounds, containing small organic molecules, surfactants, DNA and conjugated polymers. Such taninteraction in return leads to the differentiation and sorting of SWCNTs of different types.
Metallic SWCNTs are usually believed to have a higher reactivity than semiconducting SWCNTs due to the higher electron density of states (DOS) at their Fermi levels14 and smaller ionization potential18. By covalent reaction on the sidewalls of SWCNTs, one type of SWCNTs (generally m-SWCNTs) tends to be functionalized first, leading to its selective dispersion in a solution and leaving the other one insoluble in the pristine form. As illustrated in Figure 2, Strano et al. first reported that diazonium reagents preferred to react with m-fractions rather than s-fraction, making s-SWCNTs well suspended in aqueous solution, and achieving SWCNT manipulation under controlled conditions.14 Selectivity is dictated by the availability of electrons near the Fermi level to stabilize a charge-transfer transition state preceding bond formation. Later Doyle et al. found that several 4-substituted benzenediazonium salts, Ar-R (Ar = N2+-C6H4 and R = Cl, NO2, OMe) at pH 10 showed the highest reactivities for s-SWCNTs with the largest band gaps.19 Additionally, nitronium ions20, 21 and osmium tetroxide (OsO4)21 were also found to react preferentially with m-SWCNTs due to their larger electron density near the Fermi level. However, azomethine ylides derived from trialkylamine-N-oxides exhibited selective reactions with s-SWCNTs by cycloaddition, which was achieved by preorganizing the starting N-oxides on the nanotube surface prior to generating the reactive ylide.22 Separation of m-SWCNTs from functionalized s-SWCNTs was also successfully accomplished by inducing solubilization of s-SWCNTs in the presence of lignoceric acid. Although covalent functionalization seems an easy approach for the separation of m- or s-SWCNTs, it remains a challenge as a result of uncontrollable reaction selectivity and possible structural damages on CNTsthemselves.
A) Diazonium reagents extract electrons, forming N2 gas and leaving a stable C−C covalent bond at the nanotube surface. (B) The extent of electron transfer is dependent on the density of states in that electron density near EF leads to higher initial activity for metallic and semimetallic nanotubes. (C) A functionalized nanotube may exist as a delocalized radical cation, which tends to receive electrons from neighboring nanotubes or react with fluoride or diazonium salts.Reproduced from ref.14.
In comparison with covalent functionality, non-covalent functionality is a more popular separation method, as it is a non-destructive process. By interacting with the hydrophobic surface of SWCNTs or matching their chiral structures, some organic molecules may selectively adsorb onto or wrap along SWCNT species. In 2003, Chattopadhyay and coworkers reported that octadecylamine (ODA) had a higher affinity to carboxyl functionlized s-SWCNTs than m-fractions. S-SWCNTs were thus retained in the supernatant due to the increased solubility by stronger ODA adsorption, whereas m-SWCNTs were selectively precipitated.23 As such, through the selective interaction of amine with s-SWCNTs, a self-sorted s-SWCNT network could be fabricated by spin-coating SWCNT solution on amine-functionalized surfaces,24 where the chirality separation of nanotubes and simultaneous control of density and alignment may be achieved in one step. The field-effect transistors fabricated based on this method showed an on/off ratio as high as 900,000.
Interestingly, in the case of neutral SWCNTs without carboxyl group, both theoretical calculations and experiments have shown that the amine groups prefer to selectively interact with m-SWCNTs. Maeda et al. showed that m-SWCNTs could be highly concentrated to 87% by applying a dispersion-centrifugation process in a tetrahydrofuran solution of propylamine.25 Similar results were also obtained in the m/s separation of SWCNTs by using bromine26 and porphyrins27. The porphyrin and its derivates tend to attach onto the sidewalls of s-SWCNTs, making them enriched in the supernatant. While due to the formation of charge-transfer complex between bromine and m-SWCNTs, m-SWCNTs can be thus effectively sorted out by centrifugation.
In addition to m/s recognition, control on the structures of dispersants may also lead to the selective separation of SWCNTs by diameter and chirality. Ortiz-Acevedo et al. proposed a novel approach to coat SWCNTs with reversible cyclic peptides (RCPs) that covalently wrap around CNTs through the oxidation of thiols incorporated into the peptide backbone.28 By controlling the length of the RCPs, they demonstrated limited diameter-selective solubilizations of SWCNTs. Some aromatic polymers were also found to selectively solubilize certain nanotube species. As illustrated in Figure 3, Nish et al. reported that the polymer poly(9,9-dioctylfluorenyl-2,7-diyl) was very selective to nanotubes.29They suggested that the SWCNT–polymer bonding was strongly influenced by both the relative orientation of the polymer chain to the nanotube structure, and the possible charge transfer that occur from metallic tubes and lead to changes in the conformation of the polymer.
A) The PLE map shows the strength of the PL emission as a false color plot, with the different species labeled by their (n,m) indices. The emission is dominated by a very prominent (7,5) peak. (B) A comparison between the Raman spectra, taken using a 647 nm light source, of surfactant-wrapped SWCNTs (red line) and PFO wrapped SWCNTs (black line), normalized with respect to the semiconducting (7,5) nanotube. Reproduced from ref.29.
Small organic moluecules are also designed for the diameter- selective and chiral separation. Tromp et al. used oligo-acene adducts as a diameter-selective molecular anchor for separation and functionalization of SWCNTs.30 SWCNT field effect transistors fabricated from diameter-sorted SWCNTs showedremarkably improved electrical properties compared to non-sorted SWCNTs. More recently, Wang et al. reported that the enantiomers of SWCNTs can be separated based on molecular recognition with chiral diporphyrin nanotweezers.31 The chiral nanotweezers consisting of phenanthrene spacer and two chiral porphyrins may discriminate the diameter and handedness of CNTs simultaneously by taking into account the relationship between the (n, m) selectivity and the structures of previously reported chiral nanotweezers. Owing to the relatively narrow cleft made by two porphyrins, the nanotweezers showed high selectivity toward (6,5)-SWCNTs possessing the smallest diameter among the major components of SWCNTs grown from CoMoCAT.. In addition, the single enantiomer of (6,5)-SWCNTs could be enriched through the molecular recognition with 1. These results imply that it is crucial for the selective functionalization of SWCNTs to generate a broad variety of molecular anchors and functional backbones with excellent diameter selectivity.
Due to different dielectric constants of m- and s-SWCNTs under an alternating current (a.c.) electric field, SWCNTs can be sorted by their electronic types via dielectrophoresis. Early in 2003, Krupke et al. developed an alternating current dielectrophoretic method to separate m-SWCNTs from s-SWCNTs in suspension.32 As shown in Figure 4A, when SWCNT suspension was placed on an array of microelectrodes and applied with an alternating current, an opposite movement of m- and s-tubes occurred along the electric field gradient. M-SWCNTs were attracted toward the microelectrode array, leaving s-SWCNTs in the solvent. Principlly, a complete separation between metallic and semiconducting SWCNTs may be possible if all tubes in the suspension are dispersed as individual tubes (no bundles). However, this method was only available for the sorting of m- and s-SWCNTs on a small scale.
A) Schematic of dielectrophoresis of SWCNT suspension by using a microelectrode array. Reproduced from ref.32. (B)The continuous separation mechanism based on dielectrophoresis by using an H-shaped microfluidic channel. Reproduced from ref.33.
Later, Shin et al. developed this technique and established a nondestructive, scalable method for SWCNT separation by using an H-shaped microfluidic channel, where highly pure m-SWCNTs were continuously extracted from a suspension, as shown in Figure 4B.33Two laminar streams were generated in an H-shaped microfluidic channel with two inlets and two outlets. The flow conditions were carefully controlled to minimize diffusive and convective transport across the boundary between the two flows. Dielectrophoretic force from the embedded electrode at the junction extracted m-SWCNTs from a stream of nanotube suspension toward the other stream of buffer solution without nanotubes. Thus, the highly pure m-SWCNTs were obtained simultaneously at separate outlets. However, the separation efficiency and purity of s-SWCNTs is still difficult to be enhanced. Moreover, this method is only compatible with the m/s separation, ineffective for the chiral separation.
Centrifugation is a process widely used in industry and in laboratory settings for the separation of mixtures driven by the centrifugal force. More-dense components in the mixture migrate away from the axis of the centrifuge, while less-dense components in the mixture migrate towards the axis. Increasing the effective gravitational force on a test tube, more dense components will be precipitated on the bottom of the tube. The less dense components are collected in the supernatant solution. SWCNTs are usually synthesized in a highly mixed status with a broad distribution of lengths, diameters and chiralities, leading to the sorting a tough issue. However, centrifugation is found effective for the separation of SWCNTs. To date with this simple technique, the SWCNTs can be sorted by the m/s, diameter and chirality.
Density gradient ultracentrifugation (DGU) is a technique commonly utilized to separate and isolate different sub-cellular components, DNA from RNA, and even different sequences of DNA by their compositions. Arnold et al. firstly described the sorting of DNA-wrapped SWCNTs by DGU,34 this technique has been well developed for SWCNT sorting with multiple purposes, such as separation by m/s, diameter and chirality, even the separation of the mirror-image isomers of seven (n,m) species.35-41 In this process, SWCNT suspension is added to centrifuge tubes containing liquid mixtures arranged to form a spatially varying density profile. Under strong centrifugation, SWCNT species are separated by migrating to regions matching their individual densities. Hence, the sorting efficiency is greatly dependent on the dispersants and DGU processing.
Salts like sodium cholate (SC) or cosurfactants are often added to optimize the fine sorting of monodispersed SWCNTs. Arnold et al reported in 2006 that the sorting of SWCNTs by diameter, bandgap and electronic type using structure-discriminating surfactants to engineer subtle differences in their buoyant densities.35Density gradients were formed from aqueous solutions of a non-ionic density gradient medium, iodixanol. Gradients were created directly in centrifuge tubes by one of two methods: by layering of discrete steps and subsequent diffusion into linear gradients or by using a linear gradient maker. As shown in Figure 5, they have isolated the SWCNTs of narrow diameter distributions, more than 97% of which are within a 0.02-nm-diameter range. Furthermore, by using cosurfactants, they obtained bulk quantities of SWCNTs of predominantly a single electronic type. By a hydrodynamic model, Nair et al. described the motion of surfactant-suspended single-walled carbon nanotubes in a density gradient.42The theoretical results predicted that the number of surfactant molecules adsorbed on each nanotube determined its effective density and, hence, its position in the gradient after centrifugation has been completed.
Sorting of SWCNTs by electronic type, diameter and bandgap using DGU. (A) Schematic of surfactant encapsulation and sorting; (B) Photographs and optical absorbance (1 cm path length) spectra after separation using DGU. Visually, the separation is made evident by the formation of coloured bands of SC encapsulated, CoMoCAT-grown SWCNTs (7–11 A°) sorted by diameter and bandgap. Bundles, aggregates and insoluble material sediment to lower in the gradient. The spectra indicate SWCNTs of increasing diameter are more concentrated at larger densities. Three diameter ranges of semiconducting SWCNTs are maximized in the third, sixth and seventh fractions (highlighted by the pink, green and light brown bands). These have chiralities of (6,5), (7,5) and (9,5)/(8,7), and diameters of 7.6, 8.3 and 9.8/10.3 A° respectively. Reproduced from ref.35.
In 2008, Yanagi et al. achieved the separation of m- and s-SWCNTs using sucrose as a gradient medium in sucrose-DGU.36 By lowering the temperature during sucrose-DGU and tuning the concentrations of the surfactants, m- and s-SWCNT samples were obtained with high purity, estimated to be 69% and 95%, respectively, from their optical absorption spectra. They pointed out that the temperature during centrifugation was also an important parameter that improved the m/s separation capability. Recently Antaris et al. found that nonionic, biocompatible block copolymers were useful to isolate m- and s-SWCNTs using DGU.40 Separations conducted with different Pluronic block copolymers revealed that Pluronics with shorter hydrophobic chain lengths led to the purity levels for s-fraction sorting higher than 99% when Pluronic F68 was used. In contrast, X-shaped Tetronic block copolymers showed a specific affinity to m-SWCNTs, yielding metallic purity levels of 74% for Tetronic 1107.
In addition to m/s separation, by further tuning the surfactant component, enhanced diameter-dependent and chiral sorting of SWCNTs can be achieved by DGU. Zhao et al. used sodium deoxycholate (DOC) and sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) as cosurfactant encapsulating agents to form a DOC-restricted SDS wrapping morphology around the SWCNTs and thus 97% pure isolation of (6,5) SWCNTs was achieved.37 Interestingly, via optimizing surfactant structure or DGU processing, enantiomer separation of SWCNTs is obtained. Green et al. reported that by using chiral surfactant, such as sodium cholate, left- and right-handed SWCNTs can be discriminated.38 This sorting strategy can be employed for simultaneous enrichment of SWCNTs by handedness and roll-up vector having diameters ranging from 0.7 to 1.5 nm.
Sorting of HiPco SWCNTs by (n,m) structure using single-step nonlinear DGU. (A) Image of a centrifuge tube containing HiPco SWCNTs sorted by one 18-h nonlinear DGU run at 268,000g (max). (B) Near-infrared absorption spectra of the marked colored layers. (C) Photoluminescence spectra of 10 separated fractions excited at the E22 peak of each main (n,m) component. (D) Image of a centrifuge tube showing resolved pairs of enantiomer bands sorted from HiPco SWCNTs by nonlinear DGU with sodium cholate. Reproduced from ref.41.
However, simultaneously sorting many SWCNTs species in a single step still is a bottleneck. Recently, Ghosh et al. made a breakthrough for SWCNT sorting.41 They showed that highly polydisperse HiPco SWCNTs were readily sorted in a single step to enable fractions enriched in any of ten different (n,m) species by introducing nonlinear density gradients. Furthermore, minor variants of the method allowed separation of the mirror-image isomers of seven (n,m) species. They prepared centrifuge tubes with nonlinear, S-shaped gradients designed to have very small variations of density with depth at densities typical of suspended nanotubes. A photograph of such a tube after centrifugation shows extensive color banding (Figure 6A). Absorption spectra of the separated fractions (Figure 6B) clearly indicate that different (n,m) species have been sorted into distinct layers. From top to bottom, the bands are identified as (6,4), (7,3), (6,5), (8,3), (7,5) and (7,6). The (6,5) band is purple in color; (8,3) and (7,6) are green; and (7,5) is blue. Further evidence of effective sorting is displayed in Figure 6C, which shows normalized emission spectra of ten fractions separated from DGU-processed samples containing single or co-surfactants, each excited at the E22 peak of its dominant species. The enriched species are (6,4), (7,3), (6,5), (9,1), (8,3), (9,2), (7,5), (8,4), (10,2) and (7,6). By adding a co-surfactant to sodium cholate in their nonlinear DGU method, they achieved effective and highly reproducible single-step enantiomeric sorting of several (n,m) species in HiPco samples. Further they found optimal enantiomer separation with a surfactant mixture of 0.7% sodium cholate plus 0.175% sodiumdodecyl sulphate in a slight variant of the nonlinear DGU gradient described earlier. The enantiomers of (6,5), (8,3), (8,4), (6,3) and (6,4) SWCNTs were able to be separated by this technique. This novel approach promised a scalable, relatively simple, and refined separation method of SWCNTs.
In comparison with DGU usually set the speed at about 2×105 g, normal centrifugation is found also available for the sorting of SWCNTs at low speed of about 2×104 g. More recently, Tanaka et al. reported a rapid and scalable method for the separation of metallic and semiconducting SWCNTs by normal speed centrifugation.43 When SDS dispersed SWCNT suspension was mixed with liquid agarose gel and then centrifugated, it was found that m-fraction was favorably enriched in supernatant, and s-fractions were retained in the precipitated gel. Such separation effect resulted from the selective interaction of s-SWCNTs with agarose gel. Upon centrifugation, s-SWCNTs were selectively trapped in the gel, whereas metallic nanotubes remained in the free state with SDS micelles in the solution as illustrated in Figure 7A. The effective separation is greatly dependent on the dispersant and gel. It is also found that the purity of the m- and s-SWCNTs obtained by centrifugation can be improved by optimizing the gel concentration and composition of agarose.
A) Model of MS separation using agarose gel. Red, s-SWCNTs; beige, agarose gel matrix; green, m-SWCNTs; yellow, SDS. Spectral results of (B) Gel fraction and (C) Solution fraction separated by centrifugation method at various concentrations of agarose (0.05-1.0%). Reproduced from ref.43.
The purity of s-SWCNTs in the compressed gel could be increased by decreasing agarose concentration in the starting gel (Figure 7B), while the purity of the metallic tubes collected in the supernatant tended to increase with agarose concentration up to approximately 1.0% (Figure 7C), beyond which the metallic nanotube purity increased only slightly. When the separation was repeated for the solution fraction concentrated m-SWCNTs, m-SWCNTs could be further enriched. Due to the selective entrapment of s-SWCNTs in agarose gel, the effective m/s separation could be also realized by simple frozen, thawed, and squeezed procedures. Although this method was reported to be readily scalable and not restricted by equipment limitations, the melting and mixing of excessive agarose with SWCNT dispersion made the sorted SWCNTs containing agraose impurities, which were hard to be removed.
Chromatography is a popular method used for purification of individual chemical or biological compounds from their mixtures. Different compounds exhibit different physicochemical properties, leading them to behave diversely between mobile and stationary phases. Based on the similar properties of SWCNTs to biological macromolecules in sizes and surface properties, earlier from 1998, researchers have made efforts to separated SWCNTs by the chromatography. Due to the diversity of the stationary and mobile phases, SWCNTs dispersed in solution can be sorted following different separation mechanisms, such as size-exclusion chromatography (SEC)44-50, anion exchange chromatography (IEC)8, 51-54 and electrokinetic chromatography46, 50, 55-57. By tuning the stationary phase and eluents, the dispersed SWCNTs have been successively sorted by length, m/s, diameter and chirality.
Among numerous chromatographic methods, gel filtration chromatography, or gel permeation chromatography is widely applied in the efficient and low-cost separation of biological macromolecules.58 Its separation is based on differences in the sizes or weights of the analytes, which govern their access to the pore beads packed in a column. In general, the smaller analytes can enter the pores more easily and therefore spend more time in these pores, increasing their retention time. Conversely, larger analytes spend little if any time in the pores and are eluted quickly. It can be thus inferred that the pore sizes of gel beads for the column packing play a critical role in the separation of an analyte with a desired range of molecular weights. Since the lengths of SWCNTs in suspensions prepared by ultrasonication are in a wide range from 50 nm to 1000 nm, SWCNTs are separated according to their lengths by the size-exclusion chromatography. Many porous packing media as the stationary phases have been used.
In 1998, Duesberg et al. reported that carbon nanospheres, metal particles, and amorphous carbon could be efficiently removed by size exclusion chromatography when applied to surfactant stabilized dispersions of SWCNT raw material.44 In addition, length separation of the tubes was achieved. 1wt% sodium dodecylsulfate (SDS) solution was used to disperse and stabilize SWCNTs. Controlled-pore glass (CPG) with an average pore size of 300 nm (CPG 3000Å, Fluka) was packed in the column. Different fractions of SWCNTs were eluted out sequentially with 0.25wt% SDS aqueous solution. Later, Farkas et al. accordingly undertook to length sort of cut SWCNTs by size exclusion chromatography (SEC) using a HPLC system,45 promising that efficient length separation with good resolution is feasible on a preparative scale. Further by using three silica-based column resins in series with pore sizes of 2000, 1000, and 300 Å, Huang et al. demonstrated that DNA dispersed SWCNTs with very narrow length distribution could be sorted out.47 The atomic force microscopy revealed that the average length decreased monotonically from >500 nm in the early fractions to <100 nm in the late fractions, with length variation ≤ 10% in each of the measured fractions.
Polysaccharide-based porous beads were also applied for the separation of SWCNTs. Heller and Arnold et al. reported that by the gels of sephacryl S-500, the concomitant length and diameter separation of SWCNTs were achieved.46 As shown in Figure 8, separation by diameter was concomitant with length fractionation, and nanotubes that were cut shortest also possessed the greatest relative enrichments of large-diameter species. They demonstrated that the longer sonication time led to an increase in the electrophoretic mobility of CNTs in the gels and thus determined the degree of both length and diameter separation of the nanotubes.
Absorption spectra of selected fractions of nanotubes probe-tip sonicated for 3 h and separated by a size exclusion column. The spectra show changes in the concentrations of the nanotube species with respect to elution time. Reproduced from ref.46.
The stationary phase played an important role in the chromatographic separation of carbon nanotubes, Moshammer et al first demonstrated that by size exclusion chromatography of Sephacryl S-200 gel, SDS-dispersed SWCNTs could be fractionated according to electronic structure type.50 More recently, Liu et al achieved the m/s separation of SWCNTs by using agarose derived filling gel.59 Sepharose 2B gel (a bead-formed cross-linked agarose gel matrix, GE Healthcare, bead size range 60-200 μm) was used. When SWCNTs dispersed in SDS solution were applied to the top of the gel column, from Figure 9A, m- and s-SWCNTs could be sorted with a two-step elution using SDS and sodium deoxycholate (DOC) solution, respectively. Importantly, by the successive addition of DOC solutions with concentrations ranging from 0.05 to 2 wt % and fractional collection at each concentration,
A) Optical absorption spectra (normalized at 620 nm). (B) Optical absorption spectra of the selectively enriched s-SWCNTs fractions by fractional collection with DOC eluants of different concentrations: (a) DOC 0.05 wt %, fraction 1, (b) DOC 0.05 wt %, fraction 3, (c) DOC 0.05 wt %, fraction 6, (d) DOC 0.05 wt %, fraction 9, (e) DOC 0.1 wt %, (f) DOC 0.25 wt %, (g) DOC 0.5 wt %, and (h) DOC 2 wt %. Reproduced from ref.59.
they found that smaller-diameter enriched s-SWCNTs were eluted first with the DOC solution at lower concentration and the larger-diameter enriched s-SWCNTs preferred to be eluted at higher DOC concentrations, as displayed in Figure 9B. Thus, diameter-selective enrichment of semiconducting fraction was achieved. These results indicate that agarose gel is effective for simultaneous sorting of CNTs by their electronic types and diameters, which predicts the SWCNT separation in a simple, low-cost and scalable way.
Ion exchange chromatography is a process that allows the separation of ions and polar molecules based on their charge. It can be used for almost any kind of charged molecule including large proteins, small nucleotides and amino acids. The surface of stationary phase displays ionic functional groups that interact with analyte ions of opposite charge. In comparison with size-exclusion chromatography, by anion exchange chromatography, more refined separation of SWCNTs can be achieved, not only by m/s, and diameter, but also by chirality. Earlier in 2003, Ming Zheng’s group reported that bundled SWCNTs were effectively dispersed in water by their sonication in the presence of single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) and demonstrated that DNA-coated carbon nanotubes could be fractionized with different electronic structures by ion-exchange chromatography, as shown in Figure 10A and B.51 A strong anion-exchange column HQ20 (Applied Biosystems) functionalized by quarterized polyethyleneimine was chosen, which is expected to bind to the negativelycharged phosphate groups of DNA. A linear salt gradient (0 to 0.9 M NaSCN in 20 mM MES buffer at pH 7) at a flow rate of 2 ml/min was used to fractionalize SWCNTs. Further by a systematic search of the ssDNA sequence with d(GT)n, n = 10 to 45, they found that wrapping of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) by ssDNA was sequence-dependent.52 The electrostatics of the DNA-CNT hybrid depends on tube diameter and electronic properties, enabling nanotube separation by anion exchange chromatography. Optical absorption and Raman spectroscopy showed that the early fractions were enriched in the smaller diameter and metallic tubes, whereas the fractions collected later were enriched in the larger diameter and semiconducting tubes.
Separation of DNA-CNT by anion exchange chromatography. (A) Electronic absorption spectra of two fractions f47 and f49. (B) Visual comparison of DNA-CNT solutions of the starting material, f47 and f49. Reproduced from ref.51.
However the separation resolution by this approach was not perfect. They proposed that a major issue was probably related to the broad distribution of tube length, since the dispersed CNTs were randomly cut during the long-term ultrasonic process, resulting in the tubes ranging from 50 to 1000 nm in length. Hence, in 2007, they combined the SEC with IEC to improve the separation resolution of small diameter SWCNTs.53 They first narrowed the length distribution of SWCNTs by conducting SEC separation and then performed a chiral separation by the IEC. (9,1) tubes were separated from the same diameter but different chirality and much more abundant (6,5) species. Such exquisite separation was suggested as a result of chirality dependent interactions between DNA-wrapped SWCNTs and the IEX resin. These interactions could be electrostatic in nature, arising from chirality-dependent DNA-wrapping, and/or electrodynamic in nature, originating from chirality-dependent van der Waals forces.
Similar separation results were also reported by the group of Hongjie Dai.8 With separated SWCNT fraction, they fabricated FET devices with s-tubes of small diameters, achieving the high on-/off-current (Ion/Ioff) ratios up to 105 owing to s-SWCNTs with only a few (n,m) chiralities in the fraction. This was the first time that chemically separated SWCNTs were used for short channel, all-semiconducting SWCNT electronics dominant by just a few (n,m)s.
After single-chiral tube specie was separated by SEC-IEC technique, by designing an effective search of a DNA library of 1060 in size, as shown in Figure 11A, all 12 major single-chirality semiconducting species were separated from a synthetic mixture by Ming Zheng group.54 They identified more than 20 short DNA sequences, each of which recognizes and enables chromatographic purification of a particular nanotube species from the mixture. Recognition sequences exhibit a periodic purine–pyrimidines pattern, which can undergo hydrogen-bonding to form a two-dimensional sheet, and fold selectively on nanotubes into a well-ordered three-dimensional barrel, as illustrated in Figure 11B-D. They proposed that the ordered two-dimensional sheet and three dimensional barrel provided the structural basis for the observed DNA recognition of SWCNTs.
It is clearly indicated that for the surface properties of dispersed SWCNTs, which may be tailored by dispersants, and the interaction of dispersed CNTs with stationary phase are both critical issues to determine the selectivity and efficiency of chromatographic methods for SWCNT sorting. Ss-DNA appears more selective than SDS for the recognition of SWCNTs of different structures; however, it’s very costly and currently difficult to be applied for a large-scale separation.
Electrokinetic chromatography is a well-established chromatography technique performed under electric field, taking the advantages of electrically driven force and the tunable selectivity of stationary phase. Earlier in 2003, Doorn et al. found that capillary electrophoresis (CE) could be performed on polymer-stabilized bundles and SDS suspensions of HiPco SWCNTs.55 They showed, for poly(vinylpyrrolidone) (PVP)-stabilized tube bundles, that separations resulted in the fractions containing bundles of different electronic properties, which were dependent on bundle sizes.. CE on SDS dispersed CNT suspensions separated their large aggregates from smaller bundles and produced a relatively pure fraction of individual isolated nanotubes. Isolation of the aggregates from individual nanotubes more likely is attributed to the differences in molecular weight or diameter, leading to different migration behaviors under electric field.
A) Optical absorption spectra and atomic structures. Ultraviolet–visible–near-infrared absorption spectra of 12 purified semiconducting SWCNTs (ranked according to the measured E11 absorption wavelength) and the starting HiPco mixture. The structure of each purified SWCNT species (viewed along the tube axis) and its (n,m) notation are given at the right side of the corresponding spectrum. (B) A 2D DNA sheet structure formed by three anti-parallel ATTTATTT strands. The dotted lines between bases indicate hydrogen bonds. The open arrow in each strand denotes 5´ to 3´ direction. The dashed grey arrow (top right to bottom left) represents the roll-up vector along which the DNA barrel in c is formed. (D) A DNA barrel on a (8,4) nanotube formed by rolling up a 2D DNA sheet composed of two hydrogen-bonded anti-parallel ATTTATTTATTT strands. (D) The structure in c viewed along the tube axis. Color coding: orange, thymine; green, adenine; yellow ribbons, backbones. Reproduced from ref.54.
Agarose gel electrophoresis, where agarose gel is the stationary phase, was successfully applied to sort SWCNTs by length, diameter and electronic type. In 2004, Heller et al. performed the concomitant length and diameter separation of SWCNTs by the gel electrophoresis.46HiPco SWCNTs were suspended in sodium cholate hydrate. Electrophoresis was performed in a 7 ×10 cm, 1% agarose gel in TAE buffer (trisacetate-EDTA) with 50 mM sodium cholate at 100 V. Nanotube fractions were removed from the gel via electroelution by creating a second set of eight wells in the gel 4.5 cm from the original 40 μL sample wells. Material was pipetted out of the second set of wells after 30 min of electrophoresis and repeatedly after an additional 5 min of applied potential to obtain six fractions. Highly resolved fractions of nanotubes with average lengths between 92 and 435 nm were sorted out. They demonstrated that nanotubes that have been cut shortest also possess the greatest relative enrichments of large-diameter species.
In 2008, by modulating the dispersant and electrophoresis condition, Tanaka et al. performed a better m/s separation of SWCNTs with agarose gel electrophoresis.56 As illustrated in Figure 12, when the SWCNTs were isolated with SDS and embedded in agarose gel, only the m-SWCNTs were separated from the starting gel under an electric field. Such method is available for the sorting of other kinds of SWCNTs produced by arc and laser ablation methods. It affords a solution containing 70% pure m-SWCNTs and leaves a gel containing 95% pure s-SWCNTs. SDS and agarose played a synergic role for such separation effect.
M/s separation of various kinds of SWCNTs by AGE. (A) Sequential photographs showing the progress of separation. Tube 1, HiPco SWCNTs (1.0 ± 0.3 nm); tube 2, LV1 SWCNTs (1.2 ± 0.1 nm); tube 3, LV2 SWCNTs (1.4 ± 0.1 nm); and tube 4, Arc SWCNTs (1.4 ± 0.1 nm). Agarose gel concentrations of gel samples are 0.2% (HiPco, LV1, and LV2 SWCNTs) and 0.5% (Arc SWCNTs). (b–e) Absorption spectra of separated SWCNTs: (B) HiPco-, (C) LV1-, (D) LV2-, and (E) Arc-nanotubes. Blue and red spectra indicate semiconducting and metallic fractions, respectively. Results for the SWCNT dispersion before separation (black line). The peaks (970 and 1160 nm) derived from water are indicated by asterisks. Reproduced from ref.46.
Similar m/s separation results were also reported by Moshammer et al.50 They proposed that in the SDS-dispersed “starting” suspensions, s-SWCNTs were primarily in the form of small bundles whereas m-SWCNTs were predominantly suspended as individual tubes. They thought that the selective dispersionability of SDS led to the different mobilities of m- and s-SWCNTs during the gel electrophoresis and finally sorted SWCNTs into two fractions. However such an explanation seems kind of intuitive and the detailed mechanism is still not clear. Considering that SDS dispersed SWCNTs are charged and dominant in micelles, by employing thionine (TN) as a probing molecule and monitoring color changes and absorption bands of TN molecules, we roughly estimate the migration and adsorption properties of SDS micelles in the gel as well as on SWCNT surfaces during the electrophoresis.57\n\t\t\t\t\t\tFigure 13A illustrated the electrophoresis results of SDS gel and SDS-SWCNT gels with and without the TN probe, respectively. It was observed that although TN is a positively charged dye, when dissolved in 1% SDS solution, TNs interact with SDS micelles to form negatively charged SDS-TN micelles and migrate toward the anode under the electric field. The electrophoresis of SDS-SWCNT gel with TNs also resulted in the separation of SWCNTs into two fractions. The staying fraction in the initial gel showed a Spanish green color, pretty similar to that observed in the staying fraction of SDS-SWCNT gel without TNs. The moving fraction, however, showed two color regions, a light blue region (arrow direction), which migrated faster and
A) Sequential photographs of SDS-TN gel, SWCNT-SDS gel, and SWCNT-SDS-TN gel performed by agarose gel electrophoresis at 0, 5, and 30 min, respectively. (B) Optical absorption spectra of initial SDS-SWCNT dispersion and the moving fractions collected from the three kinds of gels after agarose gel electrophoresis shown a; (C) Optical absorption spectra of initial SDS-SWCNT dispersion as well as the staying fractions collected from SDS-SWCNT gels with and without TNs after agarose gel electrophoresis. Reproduced from ref.57
displayed color similar to the case of SDS-TN, and a gray-blue region (the region above arrow), different from the color obtained with SDS-SWCNTs without TN probe. By analyzing their corresponding absorption spectra (Figure 13B and C), we proposed that the uniqueinteraction of s-SWCNTs with agarose and the exfoliation of some SDS molecules from SDS-s-SWCNT entities lead to the m/s separation of SWCNTs. Understanding the role of SDS in the separation may help us to further optimize the purification of each fraction and develop a more effective and low-cost separation strategy.
Separated m- and s- SWCNTs offer many unique opportunities for a variety of technological applications.60 Regarding metallic nanotubes, in principle, they may carry an electrical current density of 4×109 A/cm2, which is more than 1000 times greater than the copper. Since in 1997 first electrical devices based on metallic SWCNTs were fabricated,2, 5 their potential applications in nanocircuitry, conductive nanocomposites and transparent conductive films have been widely investigated. The electrical conductive performance in the films from the separated m-SWCNTs was consistently much better than that in the films from as-purified SWCNTs.61-63 For examples, employing the DGU method, Hersam and co-workers enriched m-SWCNTs of different diameter ranges for transparent conductive films.61 For enriched metallic HiPco SWCNTs, the resulting film exhibited a sheet resistance of ~231 Ω/square for 75% optical transmittance at 550 nm, in comparison with ~1340 Ω/square in the reference film of the same optical transmittance from nonseparated HiPco SWCNTs. The films of enriched m-SWCNTs from laser-ablation- and arc-discharge-produced nanotube samples generally exhibited better performance, with less than 140 Ω/square sheet resistance at optical transmittances of over 70% in the visible and near-IR spectral regions.
The separated m-SWCNTs can also enhance the transparent conductive performance in composite films with conductivepolymers.63, 64 Wang et al. prepared the composite films of enriched m-SWCNTs with poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)/poly-(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT/PSS) in various compositions, by the spraying method.63 The sheet resistanceindicated that the composite films prepared from enriched m-SWCNTs were consistently and substantially better in device performance than those with nonseparated SWCNTs, which could be applied in electronic devices such as organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs).
In comparison to m-SWCNTs at a similar energy level, s-SWCNTs have a large density of electronic states and present diameter-dependent transition bands. S-SWCNTs are capable of carrying a high current with an electron/hole mobility. Hence, s-SWCNTs are widely investigated due to the pursued applications in field-emission transistors (FETs).9, 11, 15 To maximize the performance of FETs, it is desirable to obtain SWCNTs with similar diameter, chirality and thus band-gaps, and connect them in parallel to build each FET device for sufficient on-currents and reproducible device characteristics. The lengths of SWCNTs should also be controllable to meet the requirement of desired channel length. The well-refined separation of s-SWCNTs according to their length, diameter, and chirality are very significant for the application of SWCNTs in nanoelectronics.
S-SWCNTs separated from post-synthetic methods have already been used in FETs. For example, with a small-diameter s-SWCNT fraction separated by the SEC-IEC chromatography, Zheng et al. fabricated FET devices composed of separated s-SWCNTs in parallel, with high on-/off-current (Ion/Ioff) ratios up to 105 owing to s-SWCNTs with only a few (n,m) chiralities in the fraction.8 In addition, nanoelectronic devices composed of single chirality-enriched (10,5) tubes were fabricated with Ion/Ioff ratios as high as 106.65 The performance of the FETs made with the slightly bigger (10,5) tubes was better than the previously reported results using (7,6) and (8,4) tubes, even larger single-chirality s-SWCNTs were preferred in order to further improve the device performance. Similarly, the s-SWCNTs from agarose gel-based separation were also used in thin-film FETs, with performance better than that in devices fabricated with non-separated SWCNTs. 43 Recently Lee et al. demonstrated that the CoMoCat SWCNTs treated with diazonium salts and purified by DGU could be used to fabricate solution-processable FET devices with a full semiconductor device yield.66 By increasing the network thickness, the effective mobility of the devices could be raised to ~10 cm2 V-1s-1 while keeping the on–off ratio higher than 5 000. The removal of impurities was found to be essential for achieving high-on–off-ratio devices. It was easier to achieve a full semiconductor device yield using the CoMoCat SWCNTs, which were very small in diameter and where the difference between chiralities were significantly large in terms of the reactivity with diazonium salts.
The separated SWCNTs with uniform structure, eg single electronic (m- or s-) type and chirality, have presented better performance than non-separated SWCNTs in nanoelectronics and thin-film devices. For real industry applications of SWCNTs, a simple, low-cost, high-purity and scale-up separation technique is highly demanded. So far by post-synthetic techniques, especially by density gradient ultracentrifugation and chromatography technique, SWCNTs have been separated according to their lengths, electronic types, diameters and chirality in a certain scale. For the density gradient ultracentrifugation method, the relative expensive equipment and the careful process make it less competitive than a well-established chromatography method. Considering the effective roles of stationary phase and mobile phase, we propose that the chromatography will offer more opportunities for the refined separation in a simple, lower-cost and scalable way for the industrial applications of SWCNTs.
\n\t\tFunding from the 973 Project (2011CB932600-G),Hundred Talent Program for Q. Li and Knowledge Innovation Program (No. KJCX2.YW.M12) by Chinese Academy of Science, International Collaboration Project (No. 2009DFB50150), National Basic Research Program (No. 2010CB934700) by Ministry of Science and Technology and National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 20903069 and 21073223) are gratefully acknowledged.
The Global Financial Crisis (GFC) showcased that even banks that are well established, operating in robust markets and governed by tough and forceful regulatory frameworks can fail. Over the years banks have grown larger in size, have become more complex and complicated in its nature of operation making it opaque and incomprehensible. Bank supervisors are still struggling to demystify the risk undertaken by banks during the GFC. The unknown risk posed by yet another Blackbox in the name of Artificial Intelligence (AI) could pose identical challenges of increased systemic fragility, bank failures and freezing up capital markets evident during the GFC. As such, bank supervisors are critical of banks adopting AI. To move forward banks need to give assurance that banks will “do no harm”. As such, it is important to consider the lesson from the GFC which calls into question the soundness of regulations to capture the risk but most importantly to critically evaluate the process that is in place, in this case the efficacy of the implementation of AI. It is necessary to know if AI promotes safety and soundness in the financial system or adds undue burdens to the markets [1]. As such, the study looks to critically assess the challenges posed by AI that could influence bank soundness from the light of Capital (C), Asset (A), Management (M), Earning (E), Liquidity (L) and Sensitivity (S) (CAMELS), determinants of bank bank’s health and wellbeing [2, 3, 4] while “doing no harm” to individuals, corporations and society as a whole.
\nThe chapter contributes to literature in several ways. Earlier research has either focused on AI application on the entire financial sector covering banks, fintech companies, mortgage lenders, security companies amongst others [5, 6, 7] or have evaluated AI applications in the form of Machine Learning (ML), Neural Networks (NN) Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) in specific areas such as credit evaluation, portfolio management, financial prediction and planning [2, 8, 9, 10] or by examining user friendly experiences of end users [5, 6, 11]. Therefore, these studies are not sufficient to understand the challenges proposed by AI from solely a bank’s perspective. As such, the chapter fills this gap by taking a holistic approach in scrutinizing the challenges faced by banks solely by deploying AI. By doing this the chapter provides a significant insight into the significant challenges that AI technology can pose on the banking industry depleting its chances of survival. The chapter also further considers bank soundness with the application of AI from various aspects of Capital (C), Asset (A), Management (M), Earning (E), Liquidity (L) and Sensitivity (S) (CAMELS) determinants of bank soundness. This chapter is the first to review the challenges of deploying AI in banking operation in light of CAMELS. Earlier research [2, 3, 4] has only focused on bank soundness from the CAMELS perspective. The chapter also more specifically focuses from both the service provider and customer end, providing further insight to regulators on what they need to look into. Most importantly, the intention is to examine through the lens of CAMELS how sound are banks having applied AI into their processes.
\nThe chapter is organized as follows: the next section presents a brief theoretical discussion on the application of AI in different sections of the bank from front, middle to back office operation. Section three introduces the literature gathering and research method. Section four presents result and discussions on the challenges posed by banks on application of AI from CAMELS perspective. The last section concludes the chapter and highlights insight on further research.
\nCentral banks worldwide have actively embedded AI into their daily operations from microprudential and macroprudential supervisions to information management, forecasting and detecting fraudulent activities. Monetary Authority of Singapore applies AI to scrutinise suspicious transactions, while the central bank of Austria has developed a prototype for data validation. The central bank of Italy uses AI techniques to predict price moves on the real estate market [7].
\nBanks also have deployed AI from front office through middle-office to back office operations in different subsets of the banks [7, 12]. AI is not only widely used and applied in conventional banks it has been actively embraced in Islamic banks as well [13, 14]. AI in the form of Neural Networks (NN) has been used in risk management, forecasting i.e. inflation [15, 16, 17, 18], identify complex patterns [16, 19, 20], predict future stock behavior, market trends, market response, real estate evaluations, financial crises, bank failures, bankruptcy, exchange rates, detecting credit card fraud [9, 20, 21, 22].
\nArtificial Neural Networks (ANN) has been used to analyse relationships of bonds and stocks between economic and financial phenomenon, futures and financial markets, loan application and overdraft check, loan scoring, credit scoring, credit worthiness, mortgage choice decision, portfolio optimization, portfolio management, asset value forecasting, index movement prediction, exchange rate forecasting, global stock index forecasting, portfolio selection, portfolio resource allocation, forecasting, planning, generating time series, credit evaluations, bankruptcy prediction, predicting thrift failures, financial distress prediction, asset value forecasting, and decision making [22, 23, 24, 25, 26].
\nBackpropagation neural networks (BPNN) is applied to classify loan applications from good to bad [20]. Decision Tree (DT) is applied in credit risk classification [26]. SVM is applied in corporate credit rating [26].
\nMachine Learning (ML), a subfield of AI is used in customer services such as search engines, offering product recommendations [27], manage customer online queries, perform voice recognition, predictive analysis, provide financial advice, analyse risks, manage assets and engage in algorithmic trading [6]. ML is deployed for call-centre optimization, mortgage decision making, relationship management, treasury-management initiatives, customer-credit decisions and equity trading [27, 28] where algorithmic trading is used to pick stocks and is able to fulfil the job specification of a portfolio manager [29, 30]. JP Morgan uses ML to execute trades in equity markets [31].
\nBig Data and Machine Learning (BD/ML) in the form of Robo-advisers use algorithms to deliver stock recommendations, analysing incoming information for investors, providing investment advice and financial planning services, make credit decisions [32]. Goldman Sachs uses ML platform Kensho to offer automated analysis of breaking news and compiling the information into regular summaries. Wells Fargo on the other hand, uses AIERA (Artificial Intelligent Equity Research Analyst), to issue buy and sell call options on stocks. While bank officers offer recommendations through this platform [32]. Several studies have worked with various ML models for credit scoring namely ensemble classifier [33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39], support vector machine [40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46], neural network [45, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52], genetic programming [53, 54, 55], Bayesian network [56, 57, 58] and decision tree [50, 59, 60, 61]. Automated trading where systems make independent decisions without human intervention or oversight is evident in stock markets. Nasdaq runs on autonomous trading by 75% [25].
\nDevelopment in AI is moving in the direction of hybrid models where two or more Artificial Intelligent systems are combined to enhance performance namely with the application of intelligent systems which is able to integrate intelligent techniques to problem-solving namely the combined efforts of neural network and fuzzy system [26].
\nThe research is conducted as a conceptual chapter with the aim to provide a deeper understanding of the opportunities parted by AI from a service provider and customer perspective. To answer the research question on how able banks are to effectively deploy AI into their daily operations to improve CAMELS from a bank’s perspective, a systematic review of the literature and objective observations were undertaken to examine banks through the lens of bank soundness determinants of CAMELS. The observations found in existing literature are gathered to assemble a framework categorized by CAMELS (Figure 1). The literature was gathered through the Scopus database as a main source of finding existing literature. The database offers a wide range of management and business-related studies relevant for the topic of research. In addition, other databases such as Google Scholar, Social Science Research Network (SSRN), SpringerLink and IEEE Xplore were also examined. Journal articles since the period 2000–2020 were extracted using the prescribed keywords of Bank, Bank soundness, Financial Sector, Artificial Intelligence (AI), CAMELS. Only articles that were available in full text, published in scholarly, peer reviewed journal were chosen to be closely examined. The search was also conducted using the backward and forward approach where reference list of articles was utilized to find further research papers.
\nTaxonomy of challenges posed by AI on Bank Soundness - A classification based on the determinants Bank Soundness of CAMELS.
This section presents an overview of the challenges posed by banks in deploying AI in their daily front, middle and back office operations prescribed from the CAMELS perspective (see Table 1 in the Appendix).
\nBank capital acts as a core determinant for bank’s survival. Capital absorbs losses during adversity and insufficient capital holdings can cause banks to collapse. AI with its limitless abilities and capabilities helps banks to hold robust capital holdings through stress testing.
\nBanks have to hold sufficient liquidity funding to ensure that it is able to meet unforeseen deposit outflows. Banks that struggle to meet its daily liquidity needs will eventually fail [3]. Central banks working on larger scales overseeing the workings of the market use AI to sort large number of bank notes and detect liquidity problems.
\nAI’s ability to detect or uncover crisis depends on the quantity and quality of data provided and used to train the algorithms. As such if the dataset lacks important conditions such as economic crashes, as normal periods exist more than crisis periods, limited crisis data could reduce AI’s predictive abilities and the output will have limited use in measuring or projecting future risk under stress [7, 32]. As such, will have little value for bank’s setting their minimum prescribed capital/liquidity holding (Basel accords) to remain solvent while lending through recessions [27]. Banks have little choice but to rely on theory of distribution of losses and parametric statistical structure to link normal times data to determine large losses that causes instability. Yet, a more accurate prediction will yield from data of distribution of losses itself [27].
\nAsset quality is measured by the level of credit risk contained in bank’s assets [62]. Therefore, a bank that can detect, measure, monitor and regulate credit risks will hold higher quality assets [63]. The GFC showcased that credit risk is the most challenging risk to manage and control as it not only absorbs profits but exposes banks to failures as well. AI helps banks to clearly assess and evaluate customers’ risk, eliminating ambiguity, biasness while improving loan processes and.
\nBanks are accountable for each decision that they make. As such employ verification and checks at several levels to weed out incorrect or weak decisions. As such, Loan officers should be able to provide a logical explanation on what grounds a loan has been accepted or rejected to their superiors, compliance officers, auditors, regulators and customers [5, 7, 10, 12, 64, 65]. The working logic of AI decision has to be traceable backwards. Customers need to understand the reasons why their loan application has been rejected or why AI has recommended a particular product before acting on it. Keeping customers in the dark without proper justification will cut short the chances of them determining the real cause behind the rejection, finding solutions to their problems and improving their circumstances or proving an identity theft if it happened to them. In short, AI adverse decision will have a permanent detrimental effect on someone’s future [28, 64, 66, 67, 68].
\nTransparency is also important to fully trust the system through validating the decision made by AI, by not only detecting anomalies in the decision process such as biasness, mistakes, manipulations of data, deficiencies, compliance to rules i.e. GDPR, cybersecurity crimes linked to work processes such as dataset poisoning, internal network manipulation, and side-channel attacks [69] but also to detect clearly and precisely at which step the anomalies occurred and what information AI fed itself [10, 12, 64, 66, 67, 68, 70, 71, 72].
\nAlthough AI can assess customers from various angles namely with non-traditional data such as customers connection, internet searches, network diversity, etc., yet how reliable is this information to make an informed decision about a person’s repayment ability, thus future. Does the credit score of a person increase if they socialise with those who are creditworthy? Borrowers may also be judged based on how they behave online or their dishonesty in disclosing financial data, forming biases and being judged unfairly [73]. Also, are customers aware that non-traditional data is used in the evaluation process to assess their loan repayment ability? [6].
\nAI that are trained based on supervised learning where both inputs and output are fed into the system have zero chance of biasness unless the data fed itself is biased. Data used to train ML algorithm must be representative of a wide range of customers that will apply for loans representing namely a whole population [27, 72]. If a population is underrepresented or there are rare cases such as women, race, ethnicity, marital status, zero credit history and this information is used to train AI, AI will deliver biased results if data is highly correlated in these categories [7, 28, 72, 73, 74].
\nIn unsupervised learning, AI trains itself to make independent decisions. As such, based on what AI trains itself with, decisions can be bias. In reinforced learning AI takes uses its own initiative to combine various decision to make an ultimate decision where biasness can form as well. In checking creditworthiness AI can discriminate based on gender if more men are in professions or earning higher salaries, race if more discount stores are located near ethnic minorities, spelling mistakes in internet searches etc. Statistics reveal, algorithms accept white applicants and reject black applicants evident from the gradual reduction in black applicants’ loan approval in banks [64].
\nAccording to Janssen algorithms can systematically introduce inadvertent bias, reinforce historical discrimination, favor a political orientation or reinforce undesired practices [75]. Standard affordability rules such as defaults, loan-to-value, and loan-to-income may not be applicable to all groups of borrowers [76] causing low-income borrowers to be marginalised. Looking from a different perspective, the contribution of one’s data could contribute to a whole set of minority, race, gender, marital status or society to be judged in a certain way, forming biases, causing more harm than intended. For example, algorithms picking up 20 black female who are constantly delinquent on their loans as a representative of the whole black female population. AI could also link financially vulnerable customers to mental health issues [12]. Banks could utilize this information to turn down loan applications causing more harm to the society than intended [12]. Yet, to train AI systems to replicate human decision-making skills is a challenge. As it is difficult to transform various algorithmic concepts into training data to solve every problem for a range of lending products [10, 77].
\nBanks rely heavily on management to not only generate earnings and increase profit margins [3] but also to keep banks alive [78]. AI helps banks to be more efficient, effective, effectual and efficacious.
\nThe legal profession requires predictability in its approach i.e. contracts are written in a way knowing how it will be executed. As such, the legal system offers a predictable environment where customers can improve their lives [64]. Therefore, AI needs to be predictable to customers.
\nThe GFC is the outcome of human greed, manipulation and corruption. As such, AI algorithms need to be robust against exploitation [64]. Discontented employees or external foes may learn the inner workings of the AI model to easily corrupt algorithms or use AI application in malfeasant ways [28]. This will strike of a worst catastrophe than the GFC, as the involvement of AI increases complexity and opaqueness of the financial systems making it is difficult to configure a solution.
\nWhen an AI system fails at its assigned task, it is difficult to pin down who is to take the blame for its actions. As the AI ecosystem comprises of wide range of stakeholders from the philosopher, the AI researcher, the data scientist, the data provider, the developer, the library author, the hardware manufacturer, the OS provider, programmers, etc. Each staff has established procedures to part with AI and their responsibilities have been distributed widely amongst them. As such, when a catastrophe strikes, it would be difficult to assign liability and could be a perfect cover for mistakes, manipulation and exploitation [64, 72, 79]. In the pursuit of accumulating big data, banks could cross the boundaries to incorporate customers private information. As such, when any loss results from the use of AI should the scientists who work to tune the experience to the needs of consumers, employees write the content the chatbots or the algorithm provider be liable? [5, 7].
\nAs AI systems are interconnected, hackers or malicious software can manipulate bank’s data by hacking client’s financial details, creating false identities, flooding systems with fabricated data resulting in misclassification or bad clusters causing incorrect decisions facing consumer backlash and regulatory repercussions [28, 72].
\nAlgorithms are constantly looking to improve predictive power. As such are in the constant look out for correlations producing spurious relationships which eventually leads to bias conclusions [80].
\nLiterature have pointed out the potential for AIs to act on biased data [81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92]. scientists have realised that ML can discriminate customers based on race and gender. One such example is the ‘white guy’ syndrome where men are picked over women. Input data is directly linked to the outcome. As every individual have their own biases, norms and ethics it is difficult to establish that biases will not exist even after AI has gone through training data [84, 93]. Also to perfect the existing biases under the Fair Lending Act, and to improve processes and innovation, more data from people with disability, colour, age, gender and creed could be incorporated into the system. Only if customers feel comfortable to share [12, 32].
\nAs developing and operating AI requires extensive resources and big data, only large banks can be players in this field. This encourages concentration affecting healthy competition in the market [7]. Banks have to rely heavily on technology companies for AI’s critical tools and infrastructure. As such, increasing operational risk [7].
\nAs there are only a few players in the market, operational risk could easily feed into systemic risk. On top of that, the widespread use of AI in similar functions such as provision of credit or trading of financial assets and the uniformity in data, training and methodology employed to develop the algorithms could spark off herding and procyclical behaviour [7].
\nBanks that are extensively working with AI need staff that have expertise not only the field of finance but also have formal training in computer science, cybersecurity, cryptography, decision theory, machine learning, formal verification, computer forensics, steganography, ethics, mathematics, network security, psychology and other relevant fields. The challenge would be to find sufficient number of staff to fit this role.
\nAI in the form of robo-advisory services incur high development, marketing as well as advertising costs. As such a single client acquisition costs ranges between $300–$1,000 with clients at the lower end only generating $100 in annual revenues [9, 94]. Robo-advisors’ slim operating margin and low average account size would eat up the profits garnered quickly taking banks a decade or more to cover the $10 to $100 million in marketing costs [9, 95].
\nSome studies have pointed out that ML is only able to act on the primary stages of decision making such as data processing and forming predictions. However, at higher levels of judgement, action and task, requires special skills such as empathy, lateral thinking as well risk evaluations where AI is unable to muster [6].
\nAlgorithmic trading through ML could also facilitate trading errors. A single failure in the AI system could lead to devasting catastrophes without a chance for recovery resulting in flash crashes [96, 97], causing “excess volatility or increase pro-cyclicality as a result of herding” [98]. Besides, major financial institutions returned compliance software that stopped detecting trading issues from excluded customer trades [28]. Developers prescribe that new intelligent features embedded into AIs could pose unexpected and unknown risks creating new points of vulnerability leaving loopholes for hackers to exploit [28, 32].
\nIf humans make mistakes, manipulated the system they can be fired instantly. However, if AI makes mistakes or corrupts, customers will lose hope and trust in the bank and its systems [5]. Robo-advisors work with several parties namely clearing firms, custodians, affiliated brokers, and other companies in the industry to offer its services to customers. While Lewis suggest that robo-advisors resolve conflict of interest amongst the parties [99], Jung et al. suggest conflicts remains costing customers [100]. If company uses brokers for an example, this cost is transferred to customers increasing the price of service while the robo-advisor makes profit as the middleman [101]. In other scenarios, robo-advisors could receive fee for order flow in exchange for routing trades to a clearing firm or have an equal interest in securities that customers are looking into [101].
\nScripting errors, lapses in data management, misjudgments in model-training data can compromise fairness, privacy, security, as well as compliance [28]. As the volume of data being sorted, linked, ingested is large, further complicated with unstructured data, mistakes such as revealing sensitive information could take place. i.e. client’s name might be redacted from the section that is used by an AI but present in the stock broker’s notes section of the record thus breaching European Union’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) or the California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA) [28].
\nBanks that manage their expenses well while fully utilising their assets to generate constant revenue streams are most likely to be sound [3]. AI enables banks to offer unique selling points in products that increases customer satisfaction, boosting sales and revenue [6].
\nStudies have recorded chatbot controversy and backlash [5, 6]. AI chatbot Microsoft’s Tay, tweeted racist, sexist, xenophobic, and prejudiced opinions through learning them through tweets it read and interaction with younger demographics on Twitter upsetting customers [7, 102, 103, 104].
\nTo increase market share and competitive positions, improving the predictive power of algorithms and ensuring AIs are trained properly to avoid bias decisions, banks need a large set of quality and diverse data. In the pursuit and pressure to achieve this goal, banks might share customer’s private data without their consent when customers trusted the bank to keep it confidential [7, 9, 12]. Privacy is important to not only for customers but also banks to allow banks to remain in its competitive position [27].
\nTraining AIs to exclude certain segments of customers in sales could also lead to discrimination and biasness [28]. AI could also weave zip codes and income of individuals to create target offering causing discrimination against other classes and groups of people [28]. Robo-advisors can provide incorrect risk evaluation if it is not equipped with all aspects of an investor’s financial condition to accurately access the overall risk. When customised questions are unable to capture unique life experiences such as receiving large inheritance customers are better off with human advisors [9].
\nCustomers are more likely to rely on human advisers than chatbots and robo-advisors to assist when it comes to more personal and sensitive matters. One example is when large sums of money is involved either through wealthy customers or due to death and illness. Another is when there is market volatility. Customers are less inclined to trust new technologies and would prefer humans to handle such transactions for accountability purposes [6, 9, 105, 106]. Customers are also more confident to gain insight from human advisors when it comes to complex financial products such as derivatives, discussing complicated matters or making complains [6].
\nAI lacks emotion quotient. As such is unable to connect, understand or react to human at deeper level to comprehend their emotion and to empathise, rejoice or sympathize with them [5, 6]. As such, some prefer front-desk receptionist to a chatbot or an electronic menu that needs to be navigated.
\nAlthough the equality act, that oversees the violation against race and gender acknowledges inequality when “a person” treats “another person” favourably. It does not recognise discrimination by AI’s but it recognises discrimination by other “non-humans” such as government agency or regulator. As such, AI cannot be taken to court [6].
\nBanks may not disclose their use of AI to customers to either benefit the bank or to avoid “fear factor of AI” amongst customers. Banks have to be transparent with their customers revealing if they are working with AI or human advisors. Although Swedbank and Société Générale agree it is best to be honest with customers others may not agree as it disadvantages the banks in many ways. As such AI are being trained to offer seamless interaction through training to very closely mimic humans. [6].
\nBanks are subject to market risks (i.e. interest rate risk, foreign exchange risk, price risk etc) that can have adverse effects on bank’s earnings and capital. AI provides solutions to real world problems [20], through real time, enabling banks to keep up, adapt and respond to constant and dynamic changes in the environment. Thus, improving bank stability and soundness.
\nUnsupervised ML techniques are the only ones that can be used to detect frauds as it is able to identify unusual transaction characteristics to then investigate and test further to prove the authenticity of the transaction [27, 32]. Besides, unsupervised ML can also be used to closely monitor traders’ behavior enabling auditing [107]. Yet, as unsupervised ML is linked to blackbox decision making, it is difficult to point out if the decision was made fairly.
\nML in the form of decision tree and logistic regression models are interpretable but lack accuracies [10]. AI in the form of Deep Neural Networks (DNNs) and ensemble models such as random-forest, XGboost and Adaboost have strong higher predictive power and accuracy as it works with multiple layers of hundreds and thousands of parameters and neurons while applying nested non-linear structure which makes them opaque and a complex blackbox [10, 27, 32, 71]. Various stakeholders have labelled the effort of allowing black boxes to make decisions as irresponsible as decisions created by these blackboxes are not justifiable, not interpretable, trackable, legitimate, trustworthy as the decision lacks detailed explanations [71].
\nInvestment in AI is one of the most essential and a core element in bank survival. Therefore, it is vital for banks to continue to deploy AI into their operations. Yet, AI suffers from a series of limitations that must be considered in assessing its use. Many studies have raised concerns about AI biasness, discrimination, violating privacy, manipulating political systems compromising national security, economic stability, political stability, digital safety, and financial safety causing disastrous consequences from reputational damage, revenue losses, regulatory backlash to criminal investigation, ignores equality and fair treatment, difficult to evaluate decisions due to poor explainability, transparency, resulting in lack of trustworthiness, accountability and reliability [12, 20, 28, 108]. The chapter has successfully portrayed bank soundness in the face of AI through the lens of CAMELS. The taxonomy partitions challenges posed by AI into 1(C), 4(A), 17(M), 8 (E), 1(L), 2(S) distinct categories. Ironically, both AI and banks are opaque in nature and have diminished public trust in them. Governments will be held accountable once again by taxpayers if markets come to a standstill as a result of AI. As such, banks need to provide answers on how well they are protecting customer’s privacy and security with a range of protocols, controls and measures. If a silver bullet is not found than either banks will have to disappear, or the world will witness yet another catastrophe created by banks but this time with the help of AI. As such, trapping banks further into the conundrum of being in between the devil and the deep blue sea.
\n\n
\nGovernment Support | \nAI & Banks | \n
---|---|
\n | Competition and Survival Nature of Banking Industry Future customers Beyond human capacity | \n
\n | Challenges | \n
Capital | \n\n
| \n
Asset | \n\n
| \n
Management | \n\n
| \n
Earnings | \n\n
| \n
Liquidity | \n\n
| \n
Sensitivity | \n\n
| \n
Taxonomy of challenges posed by AI on bank soundness.
In line with the Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing, below is a more detailed description of IntechOpen's Advertising Policy.
",metaTitle:"Advertising Policy",metaDescription:"IntechOpen partners with third-party companies to serve ads and/or collect certain information when you visit our website. These companies may collect non-personally identifiable information (not including your name, address, email address or telephone number) during your visit to IntechOpen's website.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/advertising-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"1. IntechOpen partners with third-party companies to serve ads and/or collect certain information when you visit our website. These companies may collect non-personally identifiable information (not including your name, address, email address or telephone number) during your visit to IntechOpen's website.
\\n\\n2. All advertisements and commercially sponsored publications are independent from editorial decisions and are linked to reader behaviour.
\\n\\n3. IntechOpen does not endorse any product or service marked as an advertisement on IntechOpen website.
\\n\\n4. IntechOpen has blocked all the inappropriate types of advertising.
\\n\\n5. IntechOpen has blocked advertisement of harmful products or services.
\\n\\n6. Advertisements and editorial content are clearly distinguishable.
\\n\\n7. Editorial decisions will not be influenced by current or potential advertisers and will not be influenced by marketing decisions.
\\n\\n8. Advertisers have no control or influence over the results of searches a user may conduct on the website by keyword or search topic.
\\n\\n9. Please send any complaints about advertising to: info@intechopen.com.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'1. IntechOpen partners with third-party companies to serve ads and/or collect certain information when you visit our website. These companies may collect non-personally identifiable information (not including your name, address, email address or telephone number) during your visit to IntechOpen's website.
\n\n2. All advertisements and commercially sponsored publications are independent from editorial decisions and are linked to reader behaviour.
\n\n3. IntechOpen does not endorse any product or service marked as an advertisement on IntechOpen website.
\n\n4. IntechOpen has blocked all the inappropriate types of advertising.
\n\n5. IntechOpen has blocked advertisement of harmful products or services.
\n\n6. Advertisements and editorial content are clearly distinguishable.
\n\n7. Editorial decisions will not be influenced by current or potential advertisers and will not be influenced by marketing decisions.
\n\n8. Advertisers have no control or influence over the results of searches a user may conduct on the website by keyword or search topic.
\n\n9. Please send any complaints about advertising to: info@intechopen.com.
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5774},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5239},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1721},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10411},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15810}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118377},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"14"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10666",title:"Noble Metals Recent Advanced Studies and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"7322b325b1276e2b4185a7db798d588a",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mousumi Sen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10666.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"310218",title:"Dr.",name:"Mousumi",surname:"Sen",slug:"mousumi-sen",fullName:"Mousumi Sen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10668",title:"Sustainable Concrete",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"55856c6a8bc3a5b21dae5a1af09a56b6",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Hosam M. Saleh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10668.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-saleh",fullName:"Hosam Saleh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10669",title:"Corrosion",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4a76d54f8a40fc2e7002a8d13fd617c1",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Fahmina Zafar, Dr. Anujit Ghosal and Dr. Eram Sharmin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10669.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"89672",title:"Dr.",name:"Fahmina",surname:"Zafar",slug:"fahmina-zafar",fullName:"Fahmina Zafar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10670",title:"Properties and Applications of Alginates",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"062083e53cc5c808af597de6426cea06",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Irem Deniz, Dr. Esra Imamoglu and Dr. Tugba Keskin Gundogdu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10670.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"204855",title:"Dr.",name:"Irem",surname:"Deniz",slug:"irem-deniz",fullName:"Irem Deniz"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10941",title:"Ferrite",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f6a323bfa4565d7c676bc3733b4983b0",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Maaz Khan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10941.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"107765",title:"Dr.",name:"Maaz",surname:"Khan",slug:"maaz-khan",fullName:"Maaz Khan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:20},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:25},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5249},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9669",title:"Recent Advances in Rice Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12b06cc73e89af1e104399321cc16a75",slug:"recent-advances-in-rice-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur- Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-Ur-",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-Ur- Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1089",title:"Preventive Oncology",slug:"preventive-oncology",parent:{title:"Oncology",slug:"medicine-oncology"},numberOfBooks:1,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:44,numberOfWosCitations:38,numberOfCrossrefCitations:11,numberOfDimensionsCitations:51,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"preventive-oncology",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"1822",title:"Cancer Prevention",subtitle:"From Mechanisms to Translational Benefits",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3055d5ee62e305b4342112c97ade7442",slug:"cancer-prevention-from-mechanisms-to-translational-benefits",bookSignature:"Alexandros Georgakilas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1822.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"53981",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros G.",middleName:null,surname:"Georgakilas",slug:"alexandros-g.-georgakilas",fullName:"Alexandros G. Georgakilas"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:1,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"35598",doi:"10.5772/30464",title:"The Therapeutic Potential of Pomegranate and Its Products for Prevention of Cancer",slug:"the-therapeutic-potential-of-pomegranate-and-its-products-for-prevention-of-cancer",totalDownloads:9992,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:12,book:{slug:"cancer-prevention-from-mechanisms-to-translational-benefits",title:"Cancer Prevention",fullTitle:"Cancer Prevention - From Mechanisms to Translational Benefits"},signatures:"Arzu Akpinar-Bayizit, Tulay Ozcan and Lutfiye Yilmaz-Ersan",authors:[{id:"82677",title:"Dr.",name:"Arzu",middleName:null,surname:"Akpinar-Bayizit",slug:"arzu-akpinar-bayizit",fullName:"Arzu Akpinar-Bayizit"},{id:"93411",title:"Dr.",name:"Tulay",middleName:null,surname:"Ozcan",slug:"tulay-ozcan",fullName:"Tulay Ozcan"},{id:"93413",title:"Dr.",name:"Lutfiye",middleName:null,surname:"Yilmaz-Ersan",slug:"lutfiye-yilmaz-ersan",fullName:"Lutfiye Yilmaz-Ersan"}]},{id:"35595",doi:"10.5772/32142",title:"Chemopreventive Activity of Mediterranean Medicinal Plants",slug:"chemopreventive-activity-of-mediterranean-medicinal-plants",totalDownloads:1823,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,book:{slug:"cancer-prevention-from-mechanisms-to-translational-benefits",title:"Cancer Prevention",fullTitle:"Cancer Prevention - From Mechanisms to Translational Benefits"},signatures:"A.C. Kaliora and A.M. Kountouri",authors:[{id:"90328",title:"Dr.",name:"Andriana",middleName:null,surname:"Kaliora",slug:"andriana-kaliora",fullName:"Andriana Kaliora"},{id:"96463",title:"Dr.",name:"Aggeliki",middleName:null,surname:"Kountouri",slug:"aggeliki-kountouri",fullName:"Aggeliki Kountouri"}]},{id:"35586",doi:"10.5772/28692",title:"Targeting Tumor Microenvironments for Cancer Prevention and Therapy",slug:"targeting-tumor-microenvironments-for-cancer-prevention-and-therapy",totalDownloads:2609,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:8,book:{slug:"cancer-prevention-from-mechanisms-to-translational-benefits",title:"Cancer Prevention",fullTitle:"Cancer Prevention - From Mechanisms to Translational Benefits"},signatures:"Li V. Yang, Reid D. Castellone and Lixue Dong",authors:[{id:"75019",title:"Dr.",name:"Li",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"li-yang",fullName:"Li Yang"},{id:"105059",title:"MSc.",name:"Reid",middleName:null,surname:"Castellone",slug:"reid-castellone",fullName:"Reid Castellone"},{id:"105061",title:"MSc.",name:"Lixue",middleName:null,surname:"Dong",slug:"lixue-dong",fullName:"Lixue Dong"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"35590",title:"Targeting Molecular Pathways for Prevention of High Risk Breast Cancer: A Model for Cancer Prevention",slug:"dendritic-cells-vaccines-for-prevention-of-estrogen-independent-breast-cancer-a-model-for-cancer-pre",totalDownloads:1411,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"cancer-prevention-from-mechanisms-to-translational-benefits",title:"Cancer Prevention",fullTitle:"Cancer Prevention - From Mechanisms to Translational Benefits"},signatures:"Shayna Showalter and Brian J. Czerniecki",authors:[{id:"88319",title:"Dr.",name:"Brian",middleName:null,surname:"Czerniecki",slug:"brian-czerniecki",fullName:"Brian Czerniecki"},{id:"106736",title:"Dr",name:"Shayna",middleName:"Lefrak",surname:"Showalter",slug:"shayna-showalter",fullName:"Shayna Showalter"}]},{id:"35591",title:"Lifestyle Changes May Prevent Cancer",slug:"lifestyle-changes-may-prevent-cancer",totalDownloads:1862,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"cancer-prevention-from-mechanisms-to-translational-benefits",title:"Cancer Prevention",fullTitle:"Cancer Prevention - From Mechanisms to Translational Benefits"},signatures:"Budimka Novaković, Jelena Jovičić and Maja Grujičić",authors:[{id:"83080",title:"Prof.",name:"Budimka",middleName:"Dusan",surname:"Novaković",slug:"budimka-novakovic",fullName:"Budimka Novaković"},{id:"88154",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jelena",middleName:"N",surname:"Jovičić Bata",slug:"jelena-jovicic-bata",fullName:"Jelena Jovičić Bata"},{id:"125823",title:"MSc.",name:"Maja",middleName:null,surname:"Grujičić",slug:"maja-grujicic",fullName:"Maja Grujičić"}]},{id:"35598",title:"The Therapeutic Potential of Pomegranate and Its Products for Prevention of Cancer",slug:"the-therapeutic-potential-of-pomegranate-and-its-products-for-prevention-of-cancer",totalDownloads:9995,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:12,book:{slug:"cancer-prevention-from-mechanisms-to-translational-benefits",title:"Cancer Prevention",fullTitle:"Cancer Prevention - From Mechanisms to Translational Benefits"},signatures:"Arzu Akpinar-Bayizit, Tulay Ozcan and Lutfiye Yilmaz-Ersan",authors:[{id:"82677",title:"Dr.",name:"Arzu",middleName:null,surname:"Akpinar-Bayizit",slug:"arzu-akpinar-bayizit",fullName:"Arzu Akpinar-Bayizit"},{id:"93411",title:"Dr.",name:"Tulay",middleName:null,surname:"Ozcan",slug:"tulay-ozcan",fullName:"Tulay Ozcan"},{id:"93413",title:"Dr.",name:"Lutfiye",middleName:null,surname:"Yilmaz-Ersan",slug:"lutfiye-yilmaz-ersan",fullName:"Lutfiye Yilmaz-Ersan"}]},{id:"35603",title:"Prevention and Therapeutic Strategies in Endometrial Cancer",slug:"therapeutic-strategies-in-endometrial-cancer",totalDownloads:1901,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"cancer-prevention-from-mechanisms-to-translational-benefits",title:"Cancer Prevention",fullTitle:"Cancer Prevention - From Mechanisms to Translational Benefits"},signatures:"Dan Ancuşa, Gheorghe Furău, Adrian Carabineanu, Răzvan Ilina, Octavian Neagoe and Marius Craina",authors:[{id:"71624",title:"Dr.",name:"Marius",middleName:null,surname:"Craina",slug:"marius-craina",fullName:"Marius Craina"}]},{id:"35601",title:"Creating a Sustainable Cancer Workforce: Focus on Disparities and Cultural Competence",slug:"creating-a-sustainable-cancer-workforce-focus-on-disparities-and-cultural-competence",totalDownloads:1374,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"cancer-prevention-from-mechanisms-to-translational-benefits",title:"Cancer Prevention",fullTitle:"Cancer Prevention - From Mechanisms to Translational Benefits"},signatures:"Maureen Y. Lichtveld, Lovell Jones, Alison Smith, Armin Weinberg, Roy Weiner and Farah A. Arosemena",authors:[{id:"95298",title:"Dr.",name:"Maureen",middleName:null,surname:"Lichtveld",slug:"maureen-lichtveld",fullName:"Maureen Lichtveld"},{id:"96523",title:"Ms.",name:"Farah",middleName:null,surname:"Arosemena",slug:"farah-arosemena",fullName:"Farah Arosemena"},{id:"127950",title:"Dr.",name:"Lovell",middleName:null,surname:"Jones",slug:"lovell-jones",fullName:"Lovell Jones"},{id:"130246",title:"BSc.",name:"Alison",middleName:null,surname:"Smith",slug:"alison-smith",fullName:"Alison Smith"},{id:"130247",title:"Dr.",name:"Armin",middleName:null,surname:"Weinberg",slug:"armin-weinberg",fullName:"Armin Weinberg"},{id:"130248",title:"Dr.",name:"Roy",middleName:null,surname:"Weiner",slug:"roy-weiner",fullName:"Roy Weiner"}]},{id:"35597",title:"Phytoestrogens as Nutritional Modulators in Colon Cancer Prevention",slug:"phytoestrogens-as-nutritional-modulators-in-colon-cancer-prevention",totalDownloads:1323,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"cancer-prevention-from-mechanisms-to-translational-benefits",title:"Cancer Prevention",fullTitle:"Cancer Prevention - From Mechanisms to Translational Benefits"},signatures:"Michele Barone, Raffaele Licinio and Alfredo Di Leo",authors:[{id:"95134",title:"Prof.",name:"Michele",middleName:null,surname:"Barone",slug:"michele-barone",fullName:"Michele Barone"},{id:"95605",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfredo",middleName:null,surname:"Di Leo",slug:"alfredo-di-leo",fullName:"Alfredo Di Leo"},{id:"95629",title:"Dr.",name:"Raffaele",middleName:null,surname:"Licinio",slug:"raffaele-licinio",fullName:"Raffaele Licinio"}]},{id:"35589",title:"Kaiso and Prognosis of Cancer in the Current Epigenetic Paradigm",slug:"kaiso-and-prognosis-of-cancer-in-the-current-epigenetic-paradigm",totalDownloads:1316,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"cancer-prevention-from-mechanisms-to-translational-benefits",title:"Cancer Prevention",fullTitle:"Cancer Prevention - From Mechanisms to Translational Benefits"},signatures:"Jaime Cofre",authors:[{id:"97994",title:"PhD.",name:"Jaime",middleName:null,surname:"Cofre",slug:"jaime-cofre",fullName:"Jaime Cofre"}]},{id:"35595",title:"Chemopreventive Activity of Mediterranean Medicinal Plants",slug:"chemopreventive-activity-of-mediterranean-medicinal-plants",totalDownloads:1824,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,book:{slug:"cancer-prevention-from-mechanisms-to-translational-benefits",title:"Cancer Prevention",fullTitle:"Cancer Prevention - From Mechanisms to Translational Benefits"},signatures:"A.C. Kaliora and A.M. Kountouri",authors:[{id:"90328",title:"Dr.",name:"Andriana",middleName:null,surname:"Kaliora",slug:"andriana-kaliora",fullName:"Andriana Kaliora"},{id:"96463",title:"Dr.",name:"Aggeliki",middleName:null,surname:"Kountouri",slug:"aggeliki-kountouri",fullName:"Aggeliki Kountouri"}]},{id:"35587",title:"Inflammatory ROS in Fanconi Anemia Hematopoiesis and Leukemogenesis",slug:"inflammatory-ros-in-fanconi-anemia-hematopoiesis-and-leukemogenesis",totalDownloads:1520,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"cancer-prevention-from-mechanisms-to-translational-benefits",title:"Cancer Prevention",fullTitle:"Cancer Prevention - From Mechanisms to Translational Benefits"},signatures:"Wei Du",authors:[{id:"83350",title:"Dr.",name:"Wei",middleName:null,surname:"Du",slug:"wei-du",fullName:"Wei Du"}]},{id:"35588",title:"Staying a Step Ahead of Cancer",slug:"staying-a-step-ahead-of-cancer",totalDownloads:1557,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"cancer-prevention-from-mechanisms-to-translational-benefits",title:"Cancer Prevention",fullTitle:"Cancer Prevention - From Mechanisms to Translational Benefits"},signatures:"Somaira Nowsheen, Alexandros G. Georgakilas and Eddy S. Yang",authors:[{id:"53981",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros G.",middleName:null,surname:"Georgakilas",slug:"alexandros-g.-georgakilas",fullName:"Alexandros G. Georgakilas"},{id:"105800",title:"Ms.",name:"Somaira",middleName:null,surname:"Nowsheen",slug:"somaira-nowsheen",fullName:"Somaira Nowsheen"},{id:"149029",title:"Dr.",name:"Eddy S.",middleName:"S",surname:"Yang",slug:"eddy-s.-yang",fullName:"Eddy S. Yang"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"preventive-oncology",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/193519/castillo-juarez",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"193519",slug:"castillo-juarez"},fullPath:"/profiles/193519/castillo-juarez",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()