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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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The choice of the right materials is an arduous engineering challenge to the materials engineer and, if done carefully, can be a springboard to the proper and successful implementation and subsequent operation of the design. There are a host of materials available to the designer, and making the right decision is a vital achievement in putting forth a successful design. Materials are required to perform according to the designer’s expectations and must possess and retain the right properties in the working environment throughout the working period.
\nMaterial selection is in most cases a contradictory decision-making process. Light-weight materials will most likely not possess sufficient strength, and brittle materials will not necessarily be good in fatigue resistance, stiffness or toughness. It is also almost impossible to find a single monolithic material with the required property profile for engineering applications. Moreover, material properties are greatly affected by the working environment (such as temperature, pressure, humidity, etc.) and the nature of loading (gradual, fluctuating, impact, fatigue, etc.). There is need, therefore, to combine two or more materials, as alloys or composites so as to utilise the different useful properties offered by the different materials. Most engineering materials appear in this configuration, and very few applications utilise pure monolithic materials [1]. This is true of aluminium, the most abundant metallic element in the Earth’s crust, accounting for 8% of the planet’s soil and rocks. Aluminium has been a metal of tremendous importance to the domestic and manufacturing industries from the mediaeval period (fifth–fifteenth century) and played an important role in the early years of the industrial revolution. The successful extraction and the first commercial applications of aluminium took place in the nineteenth century, the period in which the enthusiasm for new materials and their possible uses was immense [2].
\nThe first mention of aluminium as a metal of industrial importance indicated the metal was first utilised in the manufacture of household and ornamental items before becoming an important material in the construction of large industrial structures and machine components. With the advent of alloying technology, the use of aluminium was developed farther and positioned aluminium as the most utilised industrial metal for decades. The popularity of aluminium grew due to its good attributes related to its unique properties, mainly of light-weight combined with good thermal/electrical conduction and reasonably good strength and resistance to corrosion. With alloying, aluminium has found more applications than previously envisioned, making aluminium a serious competitor with (and sometimes a preferred alternative to) the traditional “strong” metals iron and steel [3].
\nAluminium alloys and composites have, in most applications, exhibited superior performance compared to their rival metals. The choice of aluminium alloys and composites derives from one important attribute of aluminium metal—light-weight. Light-weight translates into many important outcomes in engineering applications. In the automotive industry, it means less dead weight, lower fuel consumption, lower emissions, increased payload (for passengers and cargo) and easier handling. In the aerospace and aircraft industry, it translates into more payload (cargo), less fuel and lower emissions. There are similar advantages in all areas where aluminium is utilised—marine, rail, packaging, thermal management, building and construction, sports and recreation, etc. Aluminium’s good electrical and thermal conductivity have seen its increased use in electrical conductors, electronic packaging and thermal management. Nowadays, aluminium is viewed as an important material for energy conservation and environmental protection [4].
\nModern technology aims at meeting the market whose standards are ever appreciating. The market demands faster, more comfortable and hassle-free transport, more compact and lighter machines and tools, more efficient methods of power generation, etc. Most engineered materials can easily meet or surpass design specifications that would not have been envisaged a few years back. Today’s materials are subjected to more critical loads, more stresses and more severe operating conditions in an environment never experienced before. In a spacecraft, for example, the operating conditions experienced are quite unique and require special types of materials to withstand the severe stresses imposed on the spacecraft during take-off and maintenance in the orbiting space. Traditional materials have been found wanting in meeting these operating conditions and hence the need to intensify research and development (R&D) efforts in new and advanced materials for specific applications and efficiency improvement. Among the advanced materials on the R&D, the menu is the metal matrix micro- and nanocomposites. Metal matrix composites (MMCs) are metals or metal alloys that incorporate particles, whiskers, fibres or hollow microballoons made of a different material and offer unique opportunities to tailor materials to specific design needs [5]. In automotive applications, for example, these materials can be tailored to be light-weight and with various other useful properties including high specific strength and specific stiffness, high hardness and wear resistance, high thermal conductivity, high energy absorption and a damping capacity and low coefficients of friction and thermal expansion.
\nMMCs, therefore, offer more possibilities for wider applications of materials by manipulating their processing to suit the requisite properties under different working environments. The design of composite materials with specific properties can, moreover, be accomplished with the use of finite element modelling techniques. It is possible to predict the properties of a certain material of specified composition by using these techniques. In the same way, it is possible to design materials to offer specified properties by the use of these techniques [1].
\nA composite is a mixture of two or more constituents or phases which are chemically distinct on a microscopic scale, separated by a distinct interface, and can easily be specified. In addition, other criteria are normally satisfied before a material can be called a composite. The constituents have to be present in reasonable proportions, and the constituent phases should have distinctly different properties, such that the properties of the composite are noticeably different from the properties of the constituents [4]. The constituent which is continuous and in most cases available in larger quantities is termed the
Composite materials are usually classified according to the physical or chemical nature of the matrix, e.g. metal matrix, polymer matrix and ceramic composites. Additionally, the emergence of the intermetallic matrix and carbon matrix composites as reported by [7] has broadened the scope of composites. Intermetallic compounds are metal-based systems centred on the fixed atomic compositions occurring in metallic systems of aluminium with nickel (Ni), titanium (Ti) and niobium (Nb), such as Ni3Al, Ti3Al, TiAl and Nb3Al. Intermetallic compounds are of interest because they often exhibit higher melting points and less ease of deformation due to the lattice arrangement of their atoms [8].
\nIn certain applications, metal matrix composite materials, formed by combining two or more materials—one of which is a metal—exhibit a primary advantage over their counterpart organic matrix composites in regard to the maximum operating temperature. To support this point, [9] reports that the boron/aluminium composite offers useful mechanical properties up to a temperature of 510°C, whereas an equivalent boron/epoxy composite is limited to about 190°C. Furthermore, composites of graphite/aluminium, graphite/copper and graphite/magnesium exhibit higher thermal conductivity due to the significant contribution from the metallic matrix. A metal matrix composite retains the desirable properties of both the matrix and the reinforcement by combining the strength of its reinforcement with the ductility of its matrix [10]. The reinforcing constituent may be a particle, platelet, short fibre or continuous fibre and may range from sub-micrometre to millimetre in size. There is a difference between metal matrix composites and multiphase metallic alloys as the concept of MMCs introduces additional degrees of freedom into designing the microstructure. Materials with desirable properties not obtainable by conventional alloying and heat treatment can be created compositing. This can be achieved by altering the reinforcement type (metallic, ceramic or polymeric), content (volume fraction), size, shape, distribution and orientation [11].
\nIn the early development of MMCs, continuous ceramic fibres and single-crystal ceramic whiskers were the preferred reinforcements as they provided the most remarkable increase in strength and stiffness. Later, particulate and discontinuously reinforced MMCs then followed, registering substantial progress on many fronts especially in composites with aluminium as the metal matrix. In aluminium metal matrix composites (AlMMCs), aluminium or its alloy forms a percolating network and is the matrix phase, while the other constituent, which is embedded in this matrix, is the reinforcement. The reinforcement is usually ceramic such as silicon carbide (SiC) or aluminium oxide (Al2O3). The properties of AlMMCs can be varied by varying the nature of the constituent phases and their volume fractions [4].
\nAlthough the MMCs have been in existence since the 1960s, they have not been put to full commercial use due to their higher production costs and lack of proper understanding of their high-temperature behaviour [12]. The higher costs are mainly attributed to the machining processes requiring tool materials to have very high wear resistance because of the reinforcement component being extremely abrasive [13]. However, with the invention of functionally graded materials (FGMs), it is now possible to reduce the cost of secondary processing. FGMs are an emerging category of advanced materials that exhibit gradual microstructural transitions and/or the composition in a specific direction and hence different functional performances within a part [14, 15].
\nThe rapid growth and development of AlMMCs happened in the years after the launch of the Aluminium Metal Matrix Composites Roadmap 2002, a policy document produced by the Aluminium Metal Matrix Composites Consortium with support from the Technology Research Corporation (TRC) of the United States and other stakeholders. The document spelt out a pathway for the AlMMCs’ growth in 20 years from 2002 and asserted the industry’s vision to position AlMMCs as the material of choice in a broad range of structural and nonstructural applications. This vision was to be achieved by addressing three strategic goals, namely:
To reduce the cost of discontinuously reinforced AlMMCs to be comparable to existing alternatives by 2010
To develop the necessary infrastructure to provide design confidence for AlMMCs
To increase the market size for AlMMCs
By that time, AlMMCs had proved their potential in such applications as aerospace, automotive, electronic packaging, commercial and industrial markets. The market was projected to grow at a 14% overall rate to $173 million by 2004. The industry believed then that there was much greater unrealised potential for growth [16].
\nMetal matrix composites can be classified into several distinct classes, generally defined with reference to the type, shape and method of their reinforcements. The following classification is relevant to MMCs with aluminium as the matrix metal as explained in [4] and [11]. Typical microstructures are shown in Figures 1 and 2.
\nTypical microstructures of AlMMCs. (a) Al/Al2O3 platelets. (b) Al/Al2O3 continuous fibres. (c) Al/SiCp. (d) Al/graphite with 20 vol.% graphite flakes taken along the basal plane (source: [
Typical microstructures of MMCs. (a) Cu/Cr co-deformed composite. (b) Ti-6Al-4 V/SiC monofilament. (c) NiAl/Mo in situ composite. (d) Mg/Al2O3 short-fibre composite. (e) Al/SiC particulate composite. (f) Co/WC cermet (source: [
Other MMCs with variety of matrices other than aluminium include:
Primary compositing processes for manufacturing of AlMMCs at industrial scale can be classified into two main groups, namely, (1) liquid-state processes and (2) solid-state processes [4]. The liquid-state processes are further classified into liquid-metal-mixing processes and liquid-metal-infiltration processes. Specifically, liquid-metal mixing is the primary compositing route for producing materials considered for high-volume automotive applications, liquid-metal infiltration for high-volume electronic packaging applications and solid-state processing for high-performance aerospace applications [20].
\nThe liquid-metal-mixing process involves the incorporation of reinforcement particles or short fibres into a molten or semi-solid aluminium matrix through a stirring process. In stir casting technique, the process involves the incorporating of ceramic particulate into liquid aluminium melt and allowing the mixture to solidify. It is crucial to ensure that good wettability between the particulate reinforcement and the liquid aluminium alloy melt is achieved. Generally it is possible to incorporate up to 30% ceramic particles in the size range from 5 to 100 μm in a variety of molten aluminium alloys [16]. Surappa [4] identifies another variation of the stir casting process, called
Particulate-reinforced AlMMCs have been commercially available in significant quantities since the 1990s. The interest in these MMCs was driven by the combination of improved mechanical and physical properties imparted by the reinforcement while still maintaining the favourable metalworking characteristics and predominantly metal-like behaviour. A second motivating factor was the ability to tailor the mechanical and physical properties through selection of the reinforcement composition along with the matrix alloy.
\nIn the liquid-metal-infiltration process, the molten aluminium or its alloy is moved into a preform of the reinforcement, either as a packed bed or a rigid, free-standing structure. In order for the preform to retain its integrity and shape, it is often necessary to use silica- and alumina-based mixtures as a binder. Some degree of pressure is needed to overcome the wetting and capillary resistance, and this can vary from atmospheric to thousands of
Other variations of this technique include
The liquid-metal-infiltration process was first successfully demonstrated in the production of the Toyota piston in which a discontinuous fibre preform was infiltrated by squeeze casting to provide a local improvement in wear resistance in the piston ring land area. The technology has since been adopted for the manufacture of several automotive and military powertrain and suspension components [20].
\nSolid-state processes involve the mixing of reinforcement (particles or whiskers) into a solid-state matrix. Historically, these methods employed solid-state-based processes, such as powder metallurgy (P/M), to produce AlMMCs with the highest combinations of properties. Therefore, these materials are primarily employed in higher-performance applications, especially in the aerospace and automotive markets, where these materials are used in high-performance components, mostly those dominated by fatigue. Initially, ceramic-whisker materials were produced, and subsequently, ceramic-particulate-reinforced materials followed. These materials, while expensive both in terms of the reinforcement and processing costs, developed dramatically improved properties over the base metal and were used in a number of high-performance applications, both military and commercial. However, due to the health risks posed by whisker-reinforced MMCs, particulate-reinforced MMCs have replaced them in many applications, leaving the whisker-reinforced MMCs for specialised military applications [23]. Particulate reinforcement, besides being of lower cost, also exhibited improvements in strength and stiffness almost as high as those obtained in whisker-reinforced materials.
\nVariations in solid-state processing have been identified (see, e.g. [4]):
\nGenerally, aluminium has derived its importance in industrial and commercial applications due to the following attributes, most of which are imparted to its alloys and/or composites:
Aluminium is light; its density is only one-third that of steel.
Aluminium is resistant to weather, common atmospheric gases and a wide range of corrosive liquids.
Aluminium is safe and can be used in contact with a wide range of foodstuffs.
Due to its high reflectivity, aluminium is usually employed in a number of decorative applications.
The strength of aluminium alloys can equal (and sometimes exceed) the strength of normal construction steel.
Aluminium is highly elastic, a property which qualifies it to be employed in structures subjected to shock loads.
Aluminium has a unique behaviour of maintaining its toughness down to very low temperatures, unlike carbon steels which would otherwise suffer embrittlement.
Aluminium exhibits ease of workability and formability and can easily be rolled to very thin gauges.
Aluminium conducts electricity and heat nearly as well as copper.
With alloying and compositing, these attributes are enhanced, and the shortcomings of the base aluminium metal are improved tremendously. The major improvements in the properties of AlMMCs are manifested in form of greater strength and improved stiffness, reduced density, improved abrasion and wear resistance, improved high-temperature properties, better control of thermal expansion coefficient, better thermal/heat management, enhanced and tailored electrical performance, better control of reciprocating mass and improved damping capabilities.
\nThe above advantages have been quantified for a better appreciation. For example, [4] reports that the elastic modulus of pure aluminium can be enhanced from 70 to 240 GPa by reinforcing with 60 vol% continuous alumina fibre. Also, a decrease in the coefficient of thermal expansion from 24 to 7 ppm/oC can be achieved by incorporation of 60 vol% alumina fibre in pure aluminium.
\nWith the advent of nanostructured materials, new materials have been developed with exceptional properties exceeding those expected for monolithic alloys or composites. For example, carbon nanotubes have ultrahigh strength and modulus; when included in a matrix, they could impart significant property improvements to the resulting nanocomposite [5]. Jun and co-workers [24] present quantifiable results to the effect that incorporating only 10 vol% of 50 nm alumina particles to an aluminium alloy matrix using the powder metallurgy process increased yield strength to 515 MPa—which is 15 times stronger than the base alloy and over 1.5 times stronger than AISI 304 stainless steel.
\nAluminium metal matrix composites are increasingly registering success as “high-tech” materials in various applications. Significant performance-related benefits and economic as well as environmental benefits have been realised as a result of utilisation of AlMMCs. Notable among them are improved properties, increased component lifetime, improved productivity, energy savings, lower maintenance costs and environmental benefits such as lower noise levels and fewer airborne emissions. These composites can replace monolithic materials that include ferrous alloys, aluminium and titanium alloys and polymer-based composites in many applications. For widespread replacement, the whole system may be redesigned in order to gain additional weight and volume savings. Ideally, AlMMCs can be viewed not only as a replacement for existing materials but also as a means of enabling radical changes to the product or system design [4].
\nEngineering viability of AlMMCs in a number of applications has been well-documented. AlMMCs having a different type of reinforcements and produced both by solid-state and liquid-state processing have been used in many engineering applications. Some of the newer and visible applications of different types of AlMMCs are detailed below.
\nDetailed applications and the current state of utilisation are covered in Chapter 3.
\nThe automotive market represents the largest current market for AlMMCs on a volume basis. The potential for AlMMCs in this area is barely tapped, however, and represents a great opportunity for substantial growth. Through R&D, lighter, engineered materials are being developed which offer better performance than the existing materials. Replacement of steel and cast iron in internal combustion engine applications as well as in unsprung weight components, such as the brake system, is judged the most promising for the near term.
\nAluminium metal matrix composites are suitable replacements, not only for steel but also for aluminium alloys in various automotive systems and components. There are many ways to achieve light-weight without compromising the strength and safety requirements. Ideally, it is common practice to completely replace the existing structural material with the material of higher yield strength, with a possible reduction in section dimensions. The other way of achieving weight saving is to selectively replace conventional steel at specific areas with the lighter materials. By applying the mass reduction techniques, the mass of vehicles can be reduced independent of vehicle size, functionality, class or model [1]. In most of these techniques, lower density aluminium composites continue to replace the carbon steels. Aluminium-based engine blocks, suspension components, body panels and frame members are increasingly becoming common [27]. Most cylinder heads are aluminium-based, and by 2005, engine blocks made from aluminium in the US light-duty vehicles passed the 50% mark, surpassing steel in this area for the first time [28]. However, engine blocks typically require cast iron cylinder liners due to the inferior wear properties of aluminium—a shortcoming that has attracted considerable research and development (R&D) efforts, leading to some positive results. For example, [5] reports about the progress made in the development of aluminium alloy cylinder liners containing dispersed graphite particles that provide solid lubrication. Aluminium alloys and composites are also competing to replace many various traditional steel components in vehicles, such as valve covers, torque converter and transmission housings, crankcase, control arms, cradles, suspension links, door frames, steering wheels, dashboards, sheet panels and beams are also being replaced by alloy aluminium alloys and composites [29]. New areas are being explored for aluminium-based materials, and these include “all aluminium” bodies, bumpers, crash management systems and unibody construction [30].
\nThe automotive breaking system components, such as the disc brakes and callipers, are another area where significant weight savings can be realised by utilising AlMMCs. Most modern vehicle models including Lotus Elise, General Motors EV1, Chrysler Prowler, Volkswagen Lupo 3 L and Toyota RAV4 EV have used SiC-reinforced aluminium brake rotors [31]. Regarding the chassis, the requirements for vehicle performance and survivability of occupants in severe crashes dictate that chassis materials should possess adequate strength and toughness. Aluminium-fly ash (a waste by-product of coal power plants) cenosphere syntactic foams can be used to reinforce box or tubular frame sections in crumple zones to increase torsional rigidity and energy absorption upon vehicle impact [32]. Further cost/weight savings can be realised by incorporating fly ash in the aluminium matrix for components that do not experience extreme loading. In the suspension system, the use of aluminium-based materials has led to reduction in the unsprung weight, consequently, improving vehicle dynamics. Control arms and wheel hubs made of SiC-reinforced aluminium nanocomposites have exhibited improved strength characteristics similar to cast iron while using less material than aluminium. Self-lubricating graphite-reinforced aluminium bushings can also be incorporated into control arm castings to allow for service-free components [5].
\nApart from the core body frame structure, weight saving technology features in other areas can add up to substantial secondary weight reductions elsewhere. Lighter roof panels, side panels and beams are being offered by different vehicle manufacturers with thinner gauge high-strength steel (HSS), aluminium and some limited magnesium [33]. Significant weight reductions are being registered within the suspension and chassis system by utilising “alloy” (i.e. aluminium alloy) wheels and redesigned braking systems. In addition, many suspension and chassis parts can realise secondary weight savings from reduction in their size that result from weight reductions elsewhere on the vehicle [1].
\nThere is a limit to the savings made. Although primary weight savings also enable downsizing many of the other vehicle systems, a study sponsored by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) evaluated the maximum weight reductions possible for some car models. Using Honda Accord as the study sample, it was found out that the baseline body-in-white (BIW) mass, which was 48% HSS, could be reduced by 22% with advanced high-strength steel (AHSS) and by up to 35% with an aluminium-intensive design [1, 34]. In another study conducted by IKA, University of Aachen (Germany), it was observed that it was possible to obtain a weight reduction of their “alumaximised” model car from 1229 to 785 kg, after primary and maximum secondary weight savings [35].
\nWeight reduction has been driven to higher heights by new and advanced technologies and concepts. The new concept of “multi-material designs”, used mainly for high-volume production, is an alternative to the “all-aluminium” designs of BIW. The concept consists of mixing various materials to benefit from their individual advantages. To this end, it is possible to use aluminium together with high- and ultrahigh-strength steels, magnesium and plastics or composites, where applicable [1]. The driving force behind this concept is to use the “best and most suitable” material for the appropriate functions in order to achieve an overall cost-efficient light-weight design. This concept has been championed by some European car manufacturers, notably, BMW, in their 5 E60 series which utilises 20% as deep-drawing steels, 42% as higher-strength steels, 20% as ultrahigh-strength steels and 18% aluminium alloys. The front-end substructure consists of 16.4 kg steel, and 29.4 kg is made of 86 aluminium-based parts (stamped sheet, extrusions, high-pressure die castings and hydroformed tubes) [35, 36].
\nThe multi-material design concept was adopted and further developed by the SuperLIGHT-CAR (SLC) project. Under the umbrella of the European Council for Automotive Research (EUCAR), the European Commission (EC) in the year 2005 co-funded the 4-year collaborative SLC project, whose overall objective was to develop truly light-weight multi-material car concepts up to 50% lighter than the high-volume cars produced in the year 2004. The SLC project, recognising the importance of weight reduction as one of the most effective ways of reducing fuel consumption and CO2 emissions in the road transport sector, embarked on developing the integrated knowledge and technological capabilities needed to design and manufacture multi-material car bodies with reduced raw material consumption of up to 30% [37]. This was achieved by an ingenious mix of metals headed by aluminium. The multi-material concept consequently exceeded the initial target and yielded a 35% (or an equivalent of 101 kg) weight reduction compared to the reference 2004 benchmark of a VW Golf V [38].
\nLutsey [27] reports that reductions are more likely to be registered in manufacturing costs for vehicle mass reduction options up to about 20% for the light-duty vehicles in the 2009 fleet. Quoting the IMPACT Ford F150 project as an example, it is reported that the vehicle designs that reduced the pickup’s mass by 19% were achieved at net-zero manufacturing cost, whereas the full 25% mass reduction package came with a $ 500 per vehicle cost increase. Other studies involving aluminium-intensive designs also showed the potential for minimal net-vehicle costs with substantial mass reductions. The SLC multi-material design also shows the feasibility of a unibody structure of aluminium, magnesium and composites that delivers up to a 39% body mass reduction and with costs that are less than €10/kg-saved. The Lotus High Development vehicle study [39] found out that a 33% mass reduction is achievable at a 3% cost increase, which would roughly correspond to a $ 400–600 per vehicle increase in manufacturing cost. All these studies attest to the fact that it is possible to register significant cost reductions by increasingly making use of AlMMCs.
\nAluminium alloys and composites have played a big role in the advancement of aircraft and rocket technology. Right from the Wright brothers’ utilisation of aluminium in the engine of their first biplane to NASA’s use of an aluminium-lithium alloy in the spacecraft, aluminium has created and enhanced the mankind’s potential to fly around the Earth and into the outer space.
\nAluminium alloys and/or composites are the favoured choice for the fuselage, wing and supporting structures of commercial airliners and military or cargo aircraft. The airframe of a typical modern commercial transport aircraft is composed of 80% aluminium by weight. Attention is now focused towards aluminium casting technology, which offers lower manufacturing costs, the ability to form complex shapes and the flexibility to incorporate innovative design concepts.
\nAluminium metal matrix composites have been the material of choice for space structures of all types ever since the launch of Sputnik 1 (October 4, 1957). Chosen for their light-weight and their ability to withstand the stresses that occur during launch and operation in space, AlMMCs and alloys have been used on Apollo spacecraft, the Skylab, the space shuttles and the International Space Station. Aluminium alloys/composites consistently exceed other metals in such areas as mechanical stability, dampening, thermal management and reduced weight [40].
\nAluminium railroad cars were pioneered for the railroad industry in the late 1950s and are still the material of choice for this mode of transportation. Rail cars, designed with aluminium-based extrusions, require one-third the number of components, have reduced welding needs and are two-thirds the weight of comparable steel cars. The higher carrying capacity of aluminium repays its higher initial cost in less than 2 years, and the life-cycle fuel costs are lower due to the lighter weight of the car [41]. Aluminium-based materials offer excellent resistance to corrosion and high salvage value.
\nDesigning with aluminium results in light-weight cars that retain the strength of steel cars but can carry greater loads, hence saving money in increased freight and reduced fuel costs. The third generation of the French TGV Duplex high-speed train is a good example in this case. The train converted from steel to aluminium-based materials, resulting in a 20% weight saving, while at the same time converting to two decks and keeping the axle load below 17 tons. Similarly, the Japanese high-speed “bullet” train and the Washington DC Metro trains are also made with aluminium-based materials.
\nThe durability of aluminium makes it a suitable material for the railroad environment. Extensive shaking tests and decades of use offer testimony to aluminium’s superiority for this application. A recent study shows that after 20 years of service, there is a negligible loss of metal thickness or surface defects on cars used to ship different materials an average of 110,000 miles per year. Metal loss on floors and sidewalls from corrosion and wear measured approximately 25% less than comparable steel cars [42].
\nMarine transport has also been revolutionised with the use of aluminium alloys and composites. The use of these materials has enabled an increase in the speed and size of boats, yachts, ferries and ships while improving their fuel efficiency, seaworthiness, safety and reliability and reducing maintenance costs. By substituting aluminium for steel, weight savings of 35–45% in hulls and 55–65% in superstructures can be achieved [42]. Higher vessel speeds and load capacities translate into extra traffic volume and profits for a ship or boat operator.
\nIt is also possible to increase vessel volume and height without loss of stability. Passenger compartments can be larger, and more cabins can be located above sea level. The use of aluminium-based materials also ensures increased manoeuvrability and access to shallow draught ports.
\nAluminium-intensive cargo ships with load capacities up to 3000 metric tons have been designed to operate at up to 60 knots, crossing the Atlantic in under 60 hours. Military requirements seek smaller, more agile vessel designs with a lower radar cross section and capable of 60–80 knots or more—another excellent fit for aluminium, which is made possible due to advances in manufacturing methods, such as friction-stir welding and structural bonding.
\nAluminium-based materials satisfy the requirements of the International Maritime Organization high-speed code for vessel design, safety and control of fire risk. Compared to steel, aluminium performs better in handling the torsional, flexural, compression and impact loads of high-speed water travel [42].
\nIn 2009 the building and construction market constituted the third largest North American market for aluminium. Strength and stiffness are the two most important characteristics for structural applications of aluminium-based materials. The composites of aluminium such as the fibre-reinforced alloys of aluminium, discontinuously reinforced aluminium (DRA) and the conventional metals and graphite/epoxy composites provide the good uniaxial specific stiffness and specific strength and hence are the materials of choice for applications where maximum structural efficiency is the primary selection criterion [43].
\nAluminium was first used in large quantities for building and construction in the 1920s, with the applications primarily oriented towards decorative detailing and art deco structures. Nowadays, aluminium-based materials are recognised as some of the most energy efficient and sustainable construction materials. Moreover, an estimated 85% of the aluminium used in modern buildings comes from recycled material. Bridge decks made from aluminium-based materials need minimal maintenance, are corrosion-resistant, require no painting and, unlike concrete, require no extension framework or cure time. Advanced aluminium alloys and composites can easily support the weight of heavy glass spans, thus maximising the building’s capability for using natural sunlight.
\nAluminium has, over time, been viewed as a vital component of sustainable buildings since the metal is easily recycled and loses none of its properties during recycling. Moreover, the recycling process reduces energy consumption by more than 90% compared to the energy required to produce new aluminium [44]. Aluminium and its alloys are infinitely recyclable. More than 75% of all aluminium produced is still in use today.
\nOffshore platforms, helidecks and seawalls are other possible areas where aluminium-based materials can be effectively utilised. In water depths of 400 feet, a 1 ton weight saving in platform superstructure means weight savings of 6 tons in the supporting structure [42].
\nAluminium-based materials are often used in the construction of helicopter decks (helidecks) for resupply of oil rigs. Here, marine-grade aluminium alloys offer maintenance-free service with remarkable corrosion resistance. Using aluminium components reduces handling and offshore lifting costs and speeds the task of assembly. Aluminium is safe to use as it does not burn and presents no thermite sparking risks. It requires minimal maintenance. Even in salty water applications, little or no protective coatings are required for aluminium seawalls.
\nMarine-grade aluminium alloys are used for helidecks, telescoping bridges, accommodation modules, stair towers, cable ladders, fire walls, mud mats, gratings and many other applications. Aluminium structures weigh 40–70% less than equivalent steel structures. Handling is made easier since larger, lighter aluminium structures can be handled and lifted with smaller, less expensive equipment. In marine environments, properly selected aluminium alloys/composites require no painting and require little or no maintenance.
\nAluminium seawall shapes are generally extruded, achieving the most strength with the least material. Aluminium is easy to extrude and fabricate; hence, retrofitting of the offshore platforms and customisation become cost-effective. Installation is also easy since designers can create either a single-piece component, bolted connections or interlocking sections for fast and simple fit-up on site. Various proven mechanical methods joining can be applied to aluminium. Its weldability is good as it can be welded three times faster than steel, using inexpensive MIG machines. Aluminium offers excellent safety advantages as it is non-combustible and gives off no flammable vapour when heated—an important consideration when choosing materials for offshore applications such as helidecks [42].
\nThe high-temperature applications in the automotive industry are mainly concerned with the engine, transmission and braking components. These experience temperatures up to about 300°C. The AlMMCs suitable for use under these circumstances must be able to retain the desired properties of the part/component operating under these conditions [1].
\nThe major automotive components that have been successfully manufactured from AlMMCs are the following:
\nAerospace propulsion and power systems are ever placing increasing demands on load bearing materials. The quest to propel bigger payloads into space and provide electrical power for space experiments while at the same time meeting the demands of manned and unmanned spacecraft flying at hypersonic velocities requires the right materials. The materials must be light-weight and be able to withstand high temperatures for long periods of time in hostile environments.
\nMetal matrix composites have the potential to meet the wide variety of these requirements. By selection of the proper high-temperature fibre and combining the fibres with an appropriate matrix, a high temperature, light-weight MMC can be produced. Extensive research is needed on advanced fibres and matrices. Since the fibres provide the characteristics that dominate the strength, stiffness and conductivity of a composite, superior fibres need to be developed. Fibres having high melting points and coefficients of thermal expansion matching those of the matrices need to be evaluated for high-temperature strength, modulus and compatibility with various matrices. In case of matrices, intermetallic compounds offer higher melting points, light-weight and (in the case of aluminides and silicides) good oxidation resistance for aerospace propulsion systems [48].
\nHeat sinks play two key roles in electronic packaging: thermal management and mechanical support. Heat sinks support electronic devices and provide a path for heat dissipation. They are used in packages and with printed circuit boards (PCBs). Traditional heat sinks were primarily aluminium, copper or unalloyed blends of two metals, such as copper-tungsten or copper-molybdenum. The traditional heat sinks have exhibited a number of shortcomings, which has necessitated designing of new improved materials, primarily composites reinforced with fibres and particles. The new materials exhibit better properties including high thermal conductivities; low, controllable coefficients of thermal expansion; weight reductions; high strength and stiffness; and availability of net-shape fabrication processes.
\nThe packaging density is ever on the increase, which has resulted in the demand for materials with high thermal conductivities. In addition, to minimise thermal stresses that can cause component or solder failure, it is desirable that the packaging material should have a coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) matching that of the ceramic component it supports. Utilisation of composite materials is not a new phenomenon in electronic packaging. For example, polymer matrix composites (PMCs) in the form of E-glass fibre-reinforced polymer PCBs are well-established packaging materials.
\nAluminium metal matrix composites with the high volume fraction of reinforcement are attractive materials for thermal management. This is in view of the possibility to further enhance the thermal conductivity (TC) of the composite material by the use of high TC reinforcements and the flexibility to adjust the CTE by controlling the volume fraction of the reinforcement. Aluminium and copper were usually used as matrices due to their high TCs, and the reinforcements involved SiC, carbon and diamond. However, owing to the fact that the specific thermal conductivity of aluminium-based composites was higher than that of Cu-based composites, aluminium-based composites are more desirable in avionic applications where light-weight is demanded [49].
\nIn 2009, containers and packaging regained their position as the top market for aluminium-based materials. The aluminium industry shipped 4.73 billion pounds for packaging applications or 26.5% of all shipments [42]. Aluminium-based materials are used in products such as beverage cans and bottles, food containers and household and institutional foil. Manufacturers and consumers appreciate foil for its impermeability to light, water and air—making it a preferred packaging material for food, beverage and pharmaceutical products. Moreover, aluminium’s light-weight gives it a competitive advantage over other materials with regard to shipping costs and volume.
\nRegarding containerisation, it is difficult to discuss rail transport of freight and commercial goods without reference to the ubiquitous container. The cargo can be packed into large containers and conveniently shipped to their destinations interchangeably by rail, road, sea or air. The container has greatly simplified the transport of goods and has been adapted to the different modes of transport. With a backbone of aluminium extrusions and with considerable use of aluminium-based sheet material, the growth of containerisation has greatly facilitated the transportation industry.
\nAluminium-based materials have many advantages for electrical applications. Properties such as light-weight, strength, corrosion resistance and high efficiency in electrical conduction (aluminium has twice the conductivity of copper) render these materials the best choice for transmitting power from generating stations to homes and businesses. Their ease of recyclability makes them a perfect fit for today’s environment.
\nIn 2010, electrical market applications rose by 13.1%, and shipments of aluminium conductor steel-reinforced (ACSR) cable, bare cable, insulated wire and cable products soared to 631 million pounds, an increase of 11 million pounds from the previous year. The North American electrical market was the fourth largest for aluminium worldwide, accounting for 7.3% of all aluminium shipments during the year [42].
\nThe sporting goods industry is not left behind as far as utilisation of AlMMCs is concerned. Aluminium metal matrix composites are very attractive as materials for sporting goods applications. The material used generally consists of an aluminium matrix reinforced with particles of silicone carbide or boron carbide. The specific strength and modulus of these materials can offer design advantages not possible with steel or carbon/epoxy composites. In addition, they have a tremendous marketing appeal for the high-end sporting goods consumer as they are a new phenomenon [50]. Recreational products, including those used in golf, cycling, baseball, skiing and other leisure as well as competitive sporting activities, have always offered profitable opportunities for high-performance materials due to the focus on performance over cost. Although AlMMCs have been used in niche applications, more widespread opportunities are available if an improved combination of performance, manufacturability and cost can be achieved through specific R&D activities.
\nFinally, AlMMCs have been considered for specialised applications in which the combination of properties makes them especially well suited. Examples of these applications include robotics, medical, biomedical and nuclear shielding. These applications may require specific R&D activities to be carried out and technical problems solved before substantial use can occur but may represent high-value market opportunities for the industry if successful [16].
\nSeveral challenges must be overcome in order to intensify the engineering usage of AlMMCs. Design, research and product development efforts and business development skills are required to overcome these challenges. Surappa [4] emphasised the need to address the following issues:
A more and thorough understanding of the science of primary processing, especially the factors affecting the microstructural integrity including agglomerates in AlMMCs.
Need to improve the damage tolerant properties particularly fracture toughness and ductility in AlMMCs.
Need for work to be done towards the production of high-quality and low-cost reinforcements from industrial wastes and by-products.
An urgent need to develop simple, economical and portable non-destructive kits to quantify undesirable defects in AlMMCs.
Work in developing less expensive secondary processing tools for machining and cutting AlMMCs.
Work must be done to develop recycling technology for AlMMCs.
The challenges and barriers listed above are echoed by [16]. Further penetration of AlMMCs will largely depend on their primary production processes and secondary machining processes being affordable. Generally, the cost of aluminium is around 4–5 times that of steel. In addition, the manufacturability of these composites is cumbersome. These challenges are being addressed through R&D activities. In early development of AlMMCs, the industry was modelled on the roadmap drawn by the Aluminium Metal Matrix Composites Roadmap 2002, which spelt out a pathway for the AlMMCs growth in 20 years from 2002 and asserted the industry’s vision to position AlMMCs as the material of choice in a broad range of structural and nonstructural applications [1]. During the workshop that gave birth to the AlMMCs Roadmap 2002, a number of critical barriers hampering the market penetration of AlMMCs were identified, and common themes agreed on how to mitigate these barriers and realise their vision [16].
\nAlMMCs present a great opportunity and a host of possibilities for the materials/design engineer. There are now many possibilities for manipulation of properties/property combinations to suit specific requirements of material and component properties in order to enhance performance and reliability. New and emerging technological developments point to increased utilisation of AlMMCs in current and future industrial developments. Some of the existing barriers and challenges are being addressed through various R&D efforts to find a lasting solution.
\nFrom the foregoing review, it is evident that the future of AlMMCs in various industrial and commercial applications is very bright. Advanced technological developments in primary and secondary processing of AlMMCs will continue to give them a competitive edge over the alternative materials such as Mg, AHSS and polymer composites. The main challenges and barriers that have been identified include lack of property modelling (especially the high-temperature behaviour of AlMMCs), lack of design data and high costs of primary and secondary processes. However, there are promising signs of technological breakthroughs by various research efforts dedicated to finding solutions to these challenges. New developments in CNT and nanotechnology have, for example, offered possibilities of production of AlMMCs with enhanced properties for high-temperature applications and improved wear and corrosion resistance. Other developments such as the novel rheocasting process of semi-solid alloys [e.g. see [51]] and FGMs have also offered new possibilities of cost reduction in primary production and secondary processing of AlMMCs, respectively. New alloys of aluminium have been developed for application in such areas as crash management (crash alloy)—an area previously dominated by steel. These alloys offer new R&D opportunities for further development of AlMMCs and will redefine new roles and potential of AlMMCs in automotive applications. Various researchers are also coming up with innovative cost-reduction techniques to bring down the cost of replacing conventional ferrous materials with aluminium metal matrix composites.
\nThe authors would like to sincerely acknowledge the material and financial support extended by the Vaal University of Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering and the collaborating institutions—The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Pretoria and Makerere University, Kampala Uganda.
\nThe authors envisage no conflict of interest.
Ureases (urea amidohydrolase, EC 3.5.1.5) are ubiquitous enzymes produced by plants, bacteria and fungi, animals do not produce these metalloenzymes. They are found to be the most proficient known enzymes to date, the enzyme catalyzes the hydrolysis of urea to form carbamate and ammonia; the carbamate then decomposes to form carbon dioxide and another molecule of ammonia, enabling the reaction rate to be faster by at least a factor of 1014 when it is compared to the decomposition of urea by elimination reaction [1, 2, 3, 4]. The proficiency of urease Computational modeling brought about a proposal of a value equivalent to 1032 multiplied by the theoretical rate of uncatalyzed hydrolysis of urea [5]. But in solution, it can be debated upon that the value obtained is not visible based on some limitation imposed due to the substrate diffusion in water. Ureases from Plants maintain a special position in the history of science, involving in some relevant events in biochemistry. For example, Urease contributed about three landmarks in the history of Biochemistry. One, the
A leguminous plant belongs to the family Leguminosae otherwise known as Fabaceae. They produce their seeds around a pod [13, 14]. This plant family is large with more than 18,000 species shrubs, climbers, trees and herbs whereby only few has been studied for urease extraction and utilization. Common legumes that have been used for the extraction of urease include mung bean,
Some species of legumes.
In this review, we shall focus on ureases from legumes, providing information generated over time and exposes some areas that need to be focused by researchers.
Mammals synthesize urea via the Krebs-Henseleit cycle (also called the arginine, ornithine, or urea cycle) as nontoxic form of jettisoned ammonia [15]. Plants usually have the opposite problem, i.e., how to conserve nitrogen, which after carbon, is the most limiting element in plant nutrition [16]. This contention is consistent with the presence of urease in plants and in most bacteria and fungi [17] and its absence in mammals. Whereas in the latter, urea is a nontoxic “waste” form of ammonia in excess, in the former, ureolytic activity is necessary to recycle urea nitrogen (urea is 47% nitrogen). We discuss in this section the metabolic and tissue origins of plant urea.
Arginine, by the action of arginase, is the immediate precursor of urea in the mammalian arginine (urea) cycle. Although an active functional arginine cycle in plants has been debated [18], it is clear that arginase (EC 3.5.3.1) is widely spread in the plant world. Plant arginases resemble the animal enzyme in their high pH optima (approximately 9.7) and Mn2+ requirement [18, 19, 20, 21, 22]. As arginase is widely spread, so is its substrate abundant: arginine is a main nitrogen transport and plants’ storage compound. It is the nitrogen main transport compound of deciduous [23] and coniferous [24] trees and a major component of underground storage organs (bulbs, roots, tubers [25]). It was shown to be among the amino acids in the seeds of 379 angiosperms that is predominant [26]. It was recalculated (in mol %) the reported average seed amino acid composition of these 379 species. Arginine accounted for 7.7% of seed amino acids and its “N-weighted” contribution was 21.1% of total amino acid nitrogen, the highest contribution of any amino acid, with glutamine a close second (18.6% based on the assumption that half of the glutamate in protein hydrolyses came from glutamine) [26]. In Glycine max, arginine contains 18% of seed protein-bound nitrogen [27]. At least 50% of free amino acid N in developing seeds of pea [28] and soybean [27] is in the arginine pool. In addition, many legume seeds are exceedingly rich in free canavanine [29], an arginine analog. Half of arginine nitrogen (and two-thirds of canavanine nitrogen), in the guanidino moiety, is convertible to urea by arginase kanavinase action.
In higher plants it appears that urea can be assimilated only by urease action. Urease-negative plants and cultures, induced genetically [30] with urease inhibitor [31, 32] or by nickel deprivation [33, 34, 35, 36], have been observed either to accumulate urea or to be blocked in the ability to employ urea as a nitrogen source. All plant [37] and bacterial [3] ureases are probably nickel metalloenzymes. Seed ureases from jackbean [7, 38] and soybean [39] have been shown to contain nickel. Duckweed plants [40] and callus of soybean, rice, and tobacco [34, 37] are dependent on nickel for maximal growth with urea as sole nitrogen source. Urease appears to be the only nickel-requiring enzyme in plants since, as indicated below, nickel-deprived soybean plants have the same phenotype as those genetically blocked in urease synthesis [41]. Thus, higher plants appear to lack the ATP-dependent urea amidohydrolase reported in algae and yeast [42, 43, 44, 45]. This biotin-containing carboxylase/hydrolase appears not to be a nickel metalloenzyme and has a urea-assimilatory function (e.g., [46] in these urease-negative lower eukaryotes. In an interesting example of the potential of urease to provide nitrogen for the plant, [47] developed transgenic tobacco plants engineered for resistance to cyanamide. The resistance gene, from soil fungus
Given that urease is the plant’s only means of assimilating urea, the next question is the metabolic version of “If you are so smart how come you are not rich?” When applied to urease it would read, “If you’re so important how come the plant survives without you?” Indeed, completely urease negative mutant soybean plants develop to maturity and produce a relatively good yield of seeds that germinate at normal frequency to propagate another generation. However, if the role of urease is to recycle urea nitrogen generated from arginine (and possibly ureide) degradation, then a protein-rich plant such as soybean may provide a “suppressing” background for a urease defect. Soybean has indeed been intensively bred for large and protein-rich seeds. However, even in soybean we question the dispensability of urease. Urease-negative mutant plants [41] and nickel-deprived wild type [35, 36] exhibit necrotic leaf tips, apparently due tourea “burn.” Similar observations were made in nickel-deprived tomato [48, 49]. More important, perhaps, than the deleterious effects of leaf burn is the loss of significant quantities of nitrogen in a urea dead-end, lost nitrogen that could have a significant negative impact on seed protein deposition during pod fill. The assessment of the agronomic impact of a urease-negative phenotype on soybean performance requires extensive field testing of isogenic or nearly isogenic paired urease-positive and urease-negative lines, preferably in multiple environments. To obtain these lines we are currently engaged in the long process of backcrossing, generation advance, selection for uniformity in maturity group and plant architecture, etc., and amplification of seed stocks [50]. Our prediction that total seed protein of plant will decrease as suggested by [36], who reported a correlation between seed yield and nickel content per seed. However, there was too much variation in their material to obtain a statistically significant difference. It was observed that at the time of flowering completely urease-negative soybean mutants accumulated approximately 100 dry wt of total leaf (green plus necrotic tip) [41]. Assuming that 10% of the leaf dry weight is protein (16% nitrogen), much of which is destined to provide amino acids during pod fill, accumulated urea (47% nitrogen) represents 18% of the nitrogen in leaf protein. The developing soybean embryo does not generate urea [41]. Thus, other than recycling maternally derived urea, urease appears to play no direct role in embryo metabolism. However, it is possible that in monocots a urease role is more critical in embryo development. It has been reported that nickel is essential for development of viable barley embryos [51]. Post dormancy grains could not be rescued by nickel, whereas developing grains could be rescued by the feeding of nickel to the maternal plant. The role of nickel in barley embryo development is not known and may be unrelated to urease. (Urease is the only nickel metalloenzyme yet identified in plants). However, it is possible that a loss of urease activity under nickel-deprivation conditions leads either to urea poisoning or to nitrogen starvation of the embyro. It would be informative to study barley embryo development
What is the consequence of blocking urease action during germination when large of amounts of arginine and ureides are mobilized and generate urea? In soybean we observed a 7–8 h delay in germination of its protein-rich seeds imbibed in the potent urease inhibitor [52, 53, 54] phenylphosphorodiamidate (PPD) [55]. Protein-poor
As described in the next section,
Carbon followed by nitrogen is the major limiting element for the performance of plant [84], and a regular demand for utilization of nitrogen targeting the development of mechanism that are efficient for the uptake of nitrogen and metabolic pathways for remobilization if nitrogen in plants [85, 86]. A pressure like this eventually led to nitrogen content reduction of proteins from plants [87]. Since urea is known to be a major source of nitrogen in plants, arginase’ activity is found to be the only known pathway involved in the
It is interesting to note that there is no physiological function, either assimilatory or that of any other characteristics, could possibly be seen due to bountiful es-SBU. In reality, types of cultured cotyledons that are wild were not able to grow due to urea presence, because of a sudden increase in pH as a result released ammonia that was not controlled. A similar effect was not seen on mutants having ub-SBU only [41]. It was concluded that es-SBU could possibly be associated in protection against predators in plant. For the case of microbes or attack of insect, protection of chemical was postulated. Using a model like this, immature embryo that is infected would bring about the release of arginase release from mitochondria that is ruptured which will generate urea in abundance from the pool of arginine and urease from the cytoplasm would transform urea to ammonia rapidly [96]. This hypothesis still waiting for demonstration to be carried out, meanwhile a report has been published stating that mutants that lack the activity of urease were highly susceptible to be infected by microbes [97].
Many questions on why ureases are ubiquitous and multimeric has been asked, a possible answer is that the “earliest” enzyme may have gotten other form of “traits” during the evolutionary pressure of a biosphere that is complex which led to increase in competition [97]. Due to these “extra traits” findings on ureases, some applications of biotechnology can be suggested. Legumes such as
It has been estimated that
Ureases from plants such as
In summary there are several indications that urease is important for efficient nitrogen assimilation. The urease substrate urea is derived from ureides and arginine. Arginine, is the richest nitrogen repository among the amino acids of legumes and plant seeds storage proteins. Urease are significant during the fixation of nitrogen in “tropical” legumes for example soybean and other plants. Urease-negative plants accumulate substantial, non-utilizable urea in both maternal and embryonic tissue. During germination of urease-negative seeds, further urea accumulates as a dead end in nitrogen metabolism. Although this accumulation may not be a lethal defect for large protein-rich legume seeds like soybean, small or protein-poor seeds, such as
Plant ureases especially those from legumes are without any iota of doubt important events in the history of science, which has been an area of research as early as 1900s. Nevertheless, despite several researches, there are still lots of work that need to be carried out to completely understanding this complex molecule. The several characteristics exhibited by these enzyme shows that ureases are not just enzymes for the hydrolysis of urea, it also presents a wide array of biotechnological applications which are so interesting.
Intensive study of the toxic properties of ureases from plants can be of great interest in developing an alternative strategy in agriculture as biosecurity which will be very important to crops against so many natural enemies. Urease from legumes can also be isolated, purified, characterized and immobilized for the diagnosis of urea level of patients in the medical laboratories.
IntechOpen - where academia and industry create content with global impact
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\\n\\nCo-founded by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic: “We are passionate about the advancement of science. As Ph.D. researchers in Vienna, we found it difficult to access the scholarly research we needed. We created IntechOpen with the specific aim of putting the academic needs of the global research community before the business interests of publishers. Our Team is now a global one and includes highly-renowned scientists and publishers, as well as experts in disseminating your research.”
\\n\\nBut, one thing we have in common is -- we are all scientists at heart!
\\n\\nSara Uhac, COO
\\n\\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
\\n\\nAdrian Assad De Marco
\\n\\nAdrian Assad De Marco joined the company as a Director in 2017. With his extensive experience in management, acquired while working for regional and global leaders, he took over direction and control of all the company's publishing processes. Adrian holds a degree in Economy and Management from the University of Zagreb, School of Economics, Croatia. A former sportsman, he continually strives to develop his skills through professional courses and specializations such as NLP (Neuro-linguistic programming).
\\n\\nDr Alex Lazinica
\\n\\nAlex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"Our business values are based on those any scientist applies to their research. We have created a culture of respect and collaboration within a relaxed, friendly and progressive atmosphere, while maintaining academic rigour.
\n\nCo-founded by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic: “We are passionate about the advancement of science. As Ph.D. researchers in Vienna, we found it difficult to access the scholarly research we needed. We created IntechOpen with the specific aim of putting the academic needs of the global research community before the business interests of publishers. Our Team is now a global one and includes highly-renowned scientists and publishers, as well as experts in disseminating your research.”
\n\nBut, one thing we have in common is -- we are all scientists at heart!
\n\nSara Uhac, COO
\n\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco
\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco joined the company as a Director in 2017. With his extensive experience in management, acquired while working for regional and global leaders, he took over direction and control of all the company's publishing processes. Adrian holds a degree in Economy and Management from the University of Zagreb, School of Economics, Croatia. A former sportsman, he continually strives to develop his skills through professional courses and specializations such as NLP (Neuro-linguistic programming).
\n\nDr Alex Lazinica
\n\nAlex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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Almost all the parts of this plant, that are, fruit, leaves, flower bud, trunk, and pseudo-stem, can be utilized. This chapter deals with the fiber extracted from the pseudo-stem of the banana plant. It discusses the production of banana pseudo-stem fiber, which includes plantation and harvesting; extraction of banana pseudo-stem fiber; retting; and degumming of the fiber. It also deals with the characteristics of the banana pseudo-stem fiber, such as morphological, physical and mechanical, durability, degradability, thermal, chemical, and antibacterial properties. Several potential applications of this fiber are also mentioned, such as the use of this fiber to fabricate rope, place mats, paper cardboard, string thread, tea bags, high-quality textile materials, absorbent, polymer/fiber composites, etc.",book:{id:"7544",slug:"banana-nutrition-function-and-processing-kinetics",title:"Banana Nutrition",fullTitle:"Banana Nutrition - Function and Processing Kinetics"},signatures:"Asmanto Subagyo and Achmad Chafidz",authors:[{id:"257742",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Achmad",middleName:null,surname:"Chafidz",slug:"achmad-chafidz",fullName:"Achmad Chafidz"},{id:"268400",title:"Mr.",name:"Asmanto",middleName:null,surname:"Subagyo",slug:"asmanto-subagyo",fullName:"Asmanto Subagyo"}]},{id:"69568",title:"Water Quality Parameters",slug:"water-quality-parameters",totalDownloads:10165,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:36,abstract:"Since the industrial revolution in the late eighteenth century, the world has discovered new sources of pollution nearly every day. So, air and water can potentially become polluted everywhere. Little is known about changes in pollution rates. The increase in water-related diseases provides a real assessment of the degree of pollution in the environment. This chapter summarizes water quality parameters from an ecological perspective not only for humans but also for other living things. According to its quality, water can be classified into four types. Those four water quality types are discussed through an extensive review of their important common attributes including physical, chemical, and biological parameters. These water quality parameters are reviewed in terms of definition, sources, impacts, effects, and measuring methods.",book:{id:"7718",slug:"water-quality-science-assessments-and-policy",title:"Water Quality",fullTitle:"Water Quality - Science, Assessments and Policy"},signatures:"Nayla Hassan Omer",authors:null},{id:"40180",title:"Plant Tissue Culture: Current Status and Opportunities",slug:"plant-tissue-culture-current-status-and-opportunities",totalDownloads:66561,totalCrossrefCites:45,totalDimensionsCites:96,abstract:null,book:{id:"3568",slug:"recent-advances-in-plant-in-vitro-culture",title:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture"},signatures:"Altaf Hussain, Iqbal Ahmed Qarshi, Hummera Nazir and Ikram Ullah",authors:[{id:"147617",title:"Dr.",name:"Altaf",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"altaf-hussain",fullName:"Altaf Hussain"}]},{id:"66996",title:"Ethiopian Common Medicinal Plants: Their Parts and Uses in Traditional Medicine - Ecology and Quality Control",slug:"ethiopian-common-medicinal-plants-their-parts-and-uses-in-traditional-medicine-ecology-and-quality-c",totalDownloads:4172,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"The main purpose of this review is to document medicinal plants used for traditional treatments with their parts, use, ecology, and quality control. Accordingly, 80 medicinal plant species were reviewed; leaves and roots are the main parts of the plants used for preparation of traditional medicines. The local practitioners provided various traditional medications to their patients’ diseases such as stomachaches, asthma, dysentery, malaria, evil eyes, cancer, skin diseases, and headaches. The uses of medicinal plants for human and animal treatments are practiced from time immemorial. Stream/riverbanks, cultivated lands, disturbed sites, bushlands, forested areas and their margins, woodlands, grasslands, and home gardens are major habitats of medicinal plants. Generally, medicinal plants used for traditional medicine play a significant role in the healthcare of the majority of the people in Ethiopia. The major threats to medicinal plants are habitat destruction, urbanization, agricultural expansion, investment, road construction, and deforestation. Because of these, medicinal plants are being declined and lost with their habitats. Community- and research-based conservation mechanisms could be an appropriate approach for mitigating the problems pertinent to the loss of medicinal plants and their habitats and for documenting medicinal plants. Chromatography; electrophoretic, macroscopic, and microscopic techniques; and pharmaceutical practice are mainly used for quality control of herbal medicines.",book:{id:"8502",slug:"plant-science-structure-anatomy-and-physiology-in-plants-cultured-in-vivo-and-in-vitro",title:"Plant Science",fullTitle:"Plant Science - Structure, Anatomy and Physiology in Plants Cultured in Vivo and in Vitro"},signatures:"Admasu Moges and Yohannes Moges",authors:[{id:"249746",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Admasu",middleName:null,surname:"Moges",slug:"admasu-moges",fullName:"Admasu Moges"},{id:"297761",title:"MSc.",name:"Yohannes",middleName:null,surname:"Moges",slug:"yohannes-moges",fullName:"Yohannes Moges"}]},{id:"29764",title:"Underlying Causes of Paresthesia",slug:"underlying-causes-of-paresthesia",totalDownloads:193348,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1069",slug:"paresthesia",title:"Paresthesia",fullTitle:"Paresthesia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar and Alexander R. Vaccaro",authors:[{id:"91165",title:"Prof.",name:"Vafa",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimi-Movaghar",slug:"vafa-rahimi-movaghar",fullName:"Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"2",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"79168",title:"Pulses: A Potential Source of Valuable Protein for Human Diet",slug:"pulses-a-potential-source-of-valuable-protein-for-human-diet",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99980",abstract:"Nutritional profile of pulses has significant importance in human diet with respect to protein and mineral quality and bioavailability. Protein energy malnutrition is widespread throughout the world especially among the developing countries. Pulses being rich in macronutrients such as protein from 20 to 26% and low in calories are most suitable for product development for target-oriented population. During last decade, the demand for pulse-based products with high protein and fiber, low glycemic index, and gluten free with more antioxidant showed increasing trend by the consumers. Drift of end-use application of pulses generated interest for research in all disciplines such as breeding, agronomy, food, and nutrition, etc. A great share of plant protein in human diet may be a critical step for reducing dependence on animal origin protein source. This chapter will review contribution or choice of plant-based protein from legumes or pulses with good-quality protein based on amino acid composition. Additionally, this overview can give insight into the development of new product with balanced nutritional quality and high protein contents as a potential protein supply for malnourished population.",book:{id:"12236",title:"Legumes Research- Volume 2",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12236.jpg"},signatures:"Saima Parveen, Amina Jamil, Imran Pasha and Farah Ahmad"},{id:"83012",title:"Cotton Based Cellulose Nanocomposites: Synthesis and Application",slug:"cotton-based-cellulose-nanocomposites-synthesis-and-application",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106473",abstract:"Nanocellulose is a renewable natural biomaterial which has risen to prominence due to its biodegradability and physiochemical properties making it a promising candidate to replace non-biodegradable synthetic fibers. Due to its profound qualities, nanocellulose extracted from cotton fibers have tremendous application potential and have been intensively studied particularly in the generation of nanofillers and as reinforcement components in polymer matrixes. Deposition of inorganic nanoparticles on cotton fabric result in antimicrobial textiles with multifunctional use particularly in manufacture of PPE and as filtration devices against environmental pollutants and pathogens. This chapter compiles three main sections. The first section gives an overview of the extent of work done in the creation and application potential of cotton-based nanocomposites. The second section describes the in situ and ex situ methods of nanoparticle deposition and self assembly on cotton fabrics to generate multifunctional cotton-based nanocomposites with antimicrobial potential while the final section describes the incorporation of cotton nanofibers in polymer matrices, their reinforcing properties, as well as surface modification to assist their incorporation. Finally in the conclusion, a summary of the up-to-date challenges and progresses is presented postulating the undiscovered arenas and future undertakings of this venture.",book:{id:"11362",title:"Cotton",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11362.jpg"},signatures:"Patricia Jayshree Samuel Jacob"},{id:"82465",title:"Agroforestry: An Approach for Sustainability and Climate Mitigation",slug:"agroforestry-an-approach-for-sustainability-and-climate-mitigation",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105406",abstract:"Agroforestry Systems (AFS), or the association of trees with crops (or animals), is a strategy for land management and use that allows production within the sustainable development: (a) environmentally (production environmentally harmonic); (b) technically (integrating existing resources on the farm); (c) economically (increase in production), and (d) socially (equality of duties and opportunities, quality of life of the family group). As an intentional integration of trees or shrubs with crop and animal production, this practice makes environmental, economic, and social benefits to farmers. Given that there is a set of definitions, rather than a single definition of Agroforestry (AF) and AFS, it is justified to explore the historical evolution and the minimum coincidences of criteria to define them and apply them in the recovery of degraded areas. Knowing how to classify AFS allows us to indicate which type or group of AFS is suitable for a particular area with its characteristics. The greatest benefit that AFS can bring to degraded or sloping areas lies in their ability to combine soil conservation with productive functions. In other words, AF is arborizing agriculture and animal production to obtain more benefits including climate change adaptation and mitigation by ecosystem services.",book:{id:"11663",title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg"},signatures:"Ricardo O. Russo"},{id:"82972",title:"Actinomycosis: Diagnosis, Clinical Features and Treatment",slug:"actinomycosis-diagnosis-clinical-features-and-treatment",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104698",abstract:"Actinomycosis is a filamentous bacterium that forms part of the normal human flora of the gastrointestinal, oropharynx and female genitalia. This indolent infection is characterized by abscess formation, widespread granulomatous disease, fibrosis, cavitary lung lesions and mass-like consolidations, simulating an active malignancy or systemic inflammatory diseases. It is subacute, chronic and variable presentation may delay diagnosis due to its capability to simulate other conditions. An accurate diagnostic timeline is relevant. Early diagnosis of pulmonary actinomycosis decreases the risk of indolent complications. Proper treatment reduces the need for invasive surgical methods. Actinomycosis can virtually involve any organ system, the infection spread without respecting anatomical variables as metastatic disease does, making malignancy an important part of the differential diagnosis. As it is normal gastrointestinal florae, it is difficult to cultivate, and share similar morphology to other organisms such as Nocardia and fungus. It is often difficult to be identified as the culprit of disease. Its true imitator capability makes this infectious agent a remarkable organism within the spectra of localized and disseminated disease. In this chapter, we will discuss different peculiarities of actinomycosis as an infectious agent, most common presentation in different organ systems, and challenging scenarios.",book:{id:"10893",title:"Actinobacteria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10893.jpg"},signatures:"Onix J. Cantres-Fonseca, Vanessa Vando-Rivera, Vanessa Fonseca-Ferrer, Christian Castillo Latorre and Francisco J. Del Olmo-Arroyo"},{id:"82476",title:"Joint Action of Herbicides on Weeds and Their Risk Assessment on Earthworm (Eisenia fetida L.)",slug:"joint-action-of-herbicides-on-weeds-and-their-risk-assessment-on-earthworm-eisenia-fetida-l",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105462",abstract:"Frequent and intensive use of similar modes of action herbicides increases selection pressure resulting in nature adapt and a number of herbicide-resistant weeds. The most effective methods to prevent and delay herbicide-resistant weeds are herbicide tank mixture and adjuvant mixed herbicides. This chapter intends to explain the advantages of herbicide tank mixture and adjuvant mixed herbicides. In addition, the models of estimated herbicide mixture interaction response have been explained. Although herbicide mixtures have benefits, they may present risks leading to soil pollution and affecting soil fauna such as earthworms. Therefore, we discussed the negative effect of mixture herbicides on Eisenia fetida. On the other hand, various models to calculate mixture herbicide toxicity on earthworms will be present in this chapter.",book:{id:"11610",title:"New Insights in Herbicide Science",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11610.jpg"},signatures:"Mohammad Taghi Alebrahim, Elham Samadi Kalkhoran and Te-Ming Paul Tseng"},{id:"82953",title:"Early Visual Areas are Activated during Object Recognition in Emerging Images",slug:"early-visual-areas-are-activated-during-object-recognition-in-emerging-images",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105756",abstract:"Human observers can reliably segment visual input and recognise objects. However, the underlying processes happen so quickly that they normally cannot be captured with fMRI. We used Emerging Images (EI), which contains a hidden object and extends the process of recognition, to investigate the involvement of early visual areas (V1, V2 and V3) and lateral occipital complex (LOC) in object recognition. The early visual areas were located with a retinotopy scan and the LOC with a localiser. The participants (N=8) then viewed an EI, followed by the hidden object’s silhouette (disambiguation), and then, the EI was repeated. BOLD responses before and after disambiguation were compared. The retinotopy parameters were used to back-project the BOLD response onto the visual field, creating spatially detailed maps of the activity change. V1 and V2 (but not V3) showed stronger response after disambiguation, while there was no difference in the LOC. The back-projections revealed no distinct pattern or changes in activity on object location, indicating that the activity in V1 and V2 is not specific for voxels corresponding to the object location. We found no difference before and after disambiguation in the LOC, which may be repetition suppression counteracting the effect of recognition.",book:{id:"11374",title:"Sensory Nervous System - Computational Neuroimaging Investigations of Topographical Organization in Human Sensory Cortex",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11374.jpg"},signatures:"Marleen Bakker, Hinke N. Halbertsma, Nicolás Gravel, Remco Renken, Frans W. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 3rd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. He has served as guest editor for a number of special issues of peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"82526",title:"Deep Multiagent Reinforcement Learning Methods Addressing the Scalability Challenge",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105627",signatures:"Theocharis Kravaris and George A. 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Kleczyk, Karin Hayes and Rajesh Mehta",slug:"evaluating-similarities-and-differences-between-machine-learning-and-traditional-statistical-modelin",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11422.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81791",title:"Self-Supervised Contrastive Representation Learning in Computer Vision",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104785",signatures:"Yalin Bastanlar and Semih Orhan",slug:"self-supervised-contrastive-representation-learning-in-computer-vision",totalDownloads:59,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:9,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7723",title:"Artificial Intelligence",subtitle:"Applications in Medicine and Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7723.jpg",slug:"artificial-intelligence-applications-in-medicine-and-biology",publishedDate:"July 31st 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Marco Antonio Aceves-Fernandez",hash:"a3852659e727f95c98c740ed98146011",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Artificial Intelligence - Applications in Medicine and Biology",editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7726",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7726.jpg",slug:"swarm-intelligence-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Javier Del Ser, Esther Villar and Eneko Osaba",hash:"e7ea7e74ce7a7a8e5359629e07c68d31",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",editors:[{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7656",title:"Fuzzy Logic",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7656.jpg",slug:"fuzzy-logic",publishedDate:"February 5th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Constantin Volosencu",hash:"54f092d4ffe0abf5e4172a80025019bc",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Fuzzy Logic",editors:[{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. 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He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. 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Artificial insemination, for example, was the first technology applied on a large scale, initially in dairy cattle and afterward applied to other species. Nowadays, embryo production and transfer are used commercially along with other technologies to modulate epigenetic regulation. Gene editing is also emerging as an innovative tool. This topic will discuss the potential use of these techniques, novel strategies, and lines of research in progress in the fields mentioned above.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/28.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11417,editor:{id:"177225",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"rosa-maria-lino-neto-pereira",fullName:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9wkQAC/Profile_Picture_1624519982291",biography:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira (DVM, MsC, PhD and) is currently a researcher at the Genetic Resources and Biotechnology Unit of the National Institute of Agrarian and Veterinarian Research (INIAV, Portugal). She is the head of the Reproduction and Embryology Laboratories and was lecturer of Reproduction and Reproductive Biotechnologies at Veterinary Medicine Faculty. She has over 25 years of experience working in reproductive biology and biotechnology areas with a special emphasis on embryo and gamete cryopreservation, for research and animal genetic resources conservation, leading research projects with several peer-reviewed papers. Rosa Pereira is member of the ERFP-FAO Ex situ Working Group and of the Management Commission of the Portuguese Animal Germplasm Bank.",institutionString:"The National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research. 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