Number of dates exporting markets for each of the GCC countries.
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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Date palm cultivation in the Gulf Cooperation Council (Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Bahrain, Sultanate of Oman, United Arab Emirates, and Kingdom of Bahrain) has a long history, yet the efforts exerted by the individual countries on its research and development, although significant, are still insufficient and fall below expectations. In general, the product quality is still low, the field and post-harvest losses are high, and the date products and by-products utilization needs improvement. Therefore, the status of date palm cultivation in the GCC countries and the enhancement of quality of produce cannot be overemphasized. To address the above mentioned constrains, the GCC countries ranked date palm as one of the high research priority as reflected in priority setting for agricultural research in the Central and West Asia and North Africa (CWANA) region [1].
\nIn this regards, the project “Development of sustainable date palm production systems in the GCC countries of the Arabian Peninsula”, funded by the GCC Secretariat, was implemented, in partnership, by various ministries of agriculture, agricultural authorities, and agricultural research institutions and universities in the six GCC countries of the Arabian Peninsula (Kingdom of Bahrain, United Arab Emirates, State of Kuwait, State of Qatar, Sultanate of Oman, and Kingdom of Saudi Arabia - KSA) and the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA). The major objectives of the project are to improve date palm productivity per unit of water and rationalize the use of the available resources in order to make production sustainable.
\nThis chapter provides a description of the actual situation for the date palm value chain in the GCC countries, while providing strategic short term perspectives for a more effective and inclusive date palm market sector, constraints and challenges that have to be taken into account as well as proposed strategies to enhance systemic changes in the sector necessary to progress towards more solid and sustainable date palm value chain in the GCC. A specific attention is given to the challenges and constraints in the date palm sector in the GCC countries.
\nThrough the mapping of the chain, the overall objective of this study is to identify the processes where values are created and how they are distributed among stakeholders along the date palm value chain. A special focus is devoted to policy instruments used by the Government to solve specific problems characterizing the chain and consequently enhance the development of the sector and see in particular to what extent those instruments are value creating.
\nWith this view in mind, the present study has been designed with the following specific objectives:
To overview the date palm sector in GCC countries.
To analyze the existing value chain of date palm marketing with special attention to the international date palm markets and opportunities for GCC countries.
To provide strategies and interventions for the GCC date value chain with potential for significant development of value-added.
Date palm production is a strategic sector in most of the Arab countries including the GCC ones. The sector is one of the oldest economic activity in the Arabian Peninsula and continue to play a key role in the welfare, culture, history, environment, and nutrition of its population. At present (in 2016), the Arab Region is the world leader of date cultivation with almost 75% of global area under date palm, around 77% of world production and approximately 69% of world total export of dates. In addition to the importance of dates for domestic consumption, this sector is also a source of employment, income generation, and trade in many of these countries. In some very arid areas, date fruit remains as an important source of subsistence and resilience for local population, given its adaptability to harsh environment and tolerance to high temperature, salinity, drought and other severe arid conditions.
\nAccording to the FAO statistical database [2], the GCC countries such as KSA, Oman, and United Arab Emirates (UAE) have the highest harvested areas in 2016 with respectively 145,516 ha; 24,120 ha and 93,561 ha in the three countries. While this area was increased in KSA during the last two decades (from 142,450 ha in 2000 to 145,516 ha in 2016), it has rather been decreasing in both Oman (from 35,508 ha in 2000 to 24,120 ha in 2016) and UAE (from 185,330 ha in 2000 to 93,561 ha in 2016). This decrease was the highest in Oman with around 49.50% between 2000 and 2016. This This decline is mainly attributed to a combination of various factors including increased soil salinity in major date palm-growing regions, desertification in areas adjacent to the desert in central Oman, heavy insect pest infestation such as dubas bug and red palm weevil, and urbanization of rural areas.
\nWith respect to pace and trends in planted area, production and productivity varied considerably between the GCC countries although perhaps it was a result of the special attention paid and considerable government support during the last few decades. The harvested areas in Bahrain, Kuwait and Qatar are still very limited with respective values of 3986 ha; 3021 ha; and 2407 ha during 2016. In these three countries, the planted area has been quickly progressing during the last two decades with an average annual increase of about 20, 40, and 1.38% in respectively, Bahrain, Kuwait, and Qatar. The highest average yields (calculated over the period 2000–2016) are recorded in Kuwait, Qatar, and Oman with respectively 22.03; 11.13; and 10.34 tons/ha.
\nThe assessment of the date palm yields reveals that the average yield at the global level is around 6 tons/ha. In the GCC countries, the lowest average yields are in UAE, KSA, and Bahrain, with respectively 5.89, 6.38, and 7.56 tons/ha in the three countries. These yield values combined to the statistics on harvested areas makes Saudi Arabia the top producer of dates in the GCC region, with an average annual production1 of 885,542.8 tons/year, followed by UAE producing and average of 667,569.8 tons/year. It is clear that the productivity of the date palm tree varies within individual countries, and mainly depends on the agro-ecological systems, variety and farming system adopted.
\nIn terms of consumption, GCC countries vary widely in their per capita date consumption. According to Frija et al. [3], date consumption per capita is highest in Oman with a value of 68 kg/capita/year, followed by Saudi Arabia with a value of 34 kg/capita/year. Sultanate of Oman greatly outpaces all GCC countries in per capita date consumption, which is more than double that of the KSA, the second highest ranking in date consumption among Arab and GCC Countries. The per capita date consumption for the other countries is comparatively low. The trends of date consumption per capita in the study countries reveals, in addition to being low, that it is also decreasing in most of the GCC countries over the period 2000–2013.
\nIn addition to human consumption, date pits and dates falling down from palms before maturity are used as animal feed. There is some use for feed of final product in some countries. This practice is not only observed in GCC countries but is also frequent in other North African countries, such as Tunisia. Some portion of date production is date wasted. Recent statistics from FAO (several years) indicates that up to 38% of the date production was fed to animals in UAE during 2013. For Oman, this figure is around 4%. The volume of wasted dates is also important in the study countries. The lowest wasted percentage (of production) is recorded in KSA (1%), while a highest rate of 13% is recorded in Kuwait.
\nIn the majority of GCC countries, date products’ marketing is dominated by local marketing process since export marketing, with the exception of UAE and KSA, is still a small percentage of local production. Domestic marketing of dates is free of direct government involvement and is sole responsibility of the private sector and to a lesser extent of the producers. It takes many forms. At the domestic market, date marketing is passing through two avenues:
Direct traditional marketing to consumers: Where the producers sell their dates after harvesting directly to the local markets localized in the production areas and the neighboring markets without any further processing. The dates are commercialized without proceeding to any process, such as sorting, grading, steaming, and washing. The dates are marketed under two stages according to the maturity of the fruit: The stage of secret and wet (fresh) and the final matured fruit.
Marketing to the date palm factories: In general, the dates delivered to the factories are of the best quality as the date palm producers deliver their products to the local existing factories under pre-fixed norms and standards fixed by the factory. The price is fixed on the basis of quality of the fruits and the supplied quantities.
Food marketing, according to Kohls and Uhl [4], is “the performance of all business activities involved in the flow of food products and services from the point of production until they are in the hands of consumers.” For dates, these activities include harvesting, processing, packaging, and transportation/shipment to local or export markets. A marketing channel describes the movement of a product or commodity from the site of production to the place of consumption. It may include transportation, handling and storage, ownership transfers, processing, and distribution. The marketing channel for dates includes initial processing at farm level after harvest, transport to the local market directly (especially for the highly perishable fruits) or to the packing plant, processing and packaging at factory level and transport to the final consumers. There are no universal set of marketing channels because each country is unique, and institutions involved operate differently under different sets of regulations. Therefore, in the GCC countries, the differences in the marketing channels are minima’s, and include on-farm selling, retailers, local markets, date factories, and consumers markets.
\nThe KSA is an important stage in both the traditional and modern methods of marketing. There is packing for long-distance transportation (local and export) and packing for the final consumers at supermarkets. Dates can be sold at the farm gate and from there dates are marketed either directly to the final consumer at the local market or to the local wholesale market. In practice, four existing/dominant channels for the commercialization of dates are dominant is KSA and are presented as follows:
\nIn Oman, the marketing channels for dates include on-farm selling, retailers, local markets, date factories, and export. There are therefore mainly three channels through which date flow from the farm to local and foreign consumers/export market:
Dates can be sold at the farm gate and from there dates are marketed either directly to the final consumer at the local market or to the local wholesale market.
Dates can be marketed directly to wholesalers and from there to retailers either before reaching the local market or directly to the local market.
Dates can be marketed directly to wholesalers and from there to the processing factories for processing and packaging before being shipped to the retailers’ trader and then to the final consumer (local or export).
The trade matrix of dates for the GCC countries is represented through a list of exported quantities from each of these countries to different destinations in the world. However, due to the high number of destinations, Table 1 summarized only the number of countries to which each of the respective GCC countries are exporting to. Results outlined in Table 1 reveals that KSA and UAE are the most active in terms of market diversification expressed by the number of countries to which they are exporting dates. In 2016, UAE was exporting to 110 countries, while Saudi Arabia was exporting to 64 countries.
\nCountries | \n2012 | \n2016 | \n||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
\n | Number of countries | \nExported quantities (tons) | \nValue of export (1000 US$) | \nNumber of countries | \nExported quantities (tons) | \nValue of export (1000 US$) | \n
Oman | \n23 | \n5814.9 | \n7745.6 | \n44 | \n15,699.836 | \n12,650.393 | \n
Bahrain | \n2 | \n43.8 | \n33.1 | \n3 | \n16.716 | \n2868 | \n
Kuwait | \n19 | \n363.9 | \n337.7 | \n14 | \n405.777 | \n542.958 | \n
Qatar | \nna | \nna | \nna | \nna | \nna | \nna | \n
KSA | \n60 | \n64,299.0 | \n74,859.5 | \n64 | \n117,017.911 | \n141,564.174 | \n
UAE | \n98 | \n304,090.5 | \n129,177.2 | \n110 | \n275,862.901 | \n160,215.460 | \n
Number of dates exporting markets for each of the GCC countries.
Source: UN COMTRADE data base; (na: not available). Number of countries shows the number of countries to which each of the respective GCC countries is exporting dates; Exported quantities are expressed in tons; value of export is expressed in 1000 US$.
The analysis of the intensity of date imports-exports, particularly among the GCC countries (Figure 1) based on the availability of recent data, shows again that KSA and UAE are the most active in terms of date exports to the different GCC countries. On the GCC market, UAE is mostly exporting to Oman, followed by KSA and Qatar. KSA is mostly exporting to UAE followed by Kuwait and Qatar. Most of the Omani dates is also exported in the destination of UAE, which is showing that UAE is the biggest exporter and importer partner of Oman.
\nExport trade of dates among the GCC countries (UAE: United Arab Emirates, SAU: Saudi Arabia; OMN: Oman; and KWT: Kuwait). Source: Own elaboration from COMATRADE UN database [5].
In the export channel, dates are sold directly to the processing factories for processing and packaging before being shipped to export markets. It is indicated that this channel is taking a considerable share in some countries, such as KSA and UAE, in comparison to the rest of GCC countries. The dates are produced, harvested, sorted, graded, processed, packaged, and transported in an efficient, safe, and with high quality management. This process determines the final market value of the dates, as shown in Figure 2.
\nOmani date marketing channels with date export supply chain indicated by circle. Source: Mbaga [6].
The GCC is considered as an important component of the regional and international date trading; the trend of the international marketing of dates shows clearly the weight of the quantity of date exported by GCC countries in the international market [3]. The fluctuation of the trend of the dates trading in the GCC countries is mainly due to the instability of volumes exported by the UAE and KSA. The analysis of date trade reveals that in 2016, GCC and North African countries are capturing more than 70% of the international market of dates from the Arab countries. Figure 3 shows how this market is shared among the GCC countries and their direct competitors from North Africa, such as Tunisia, Algeria, and Egypt. In addition to Israel, who constantly holds more than 10% of the international market of dates, Tunisia is dominating in terms of market share, with an average value of around 20% over the last decade. Algeria and Egypt are simultaneously holding around 3.6 and 3.8% of the market.
\nMarket share of selected dates exporting countries, including GCC countries and their competitors during the period 2005–2016. Source: Own elaboration from FAOSTAT (2018).
As shown in Figure 4, the international market share of GCC countries in 2016 was about 28.26%. In terms of growth, it was clear that all GCC countries, including the least present on the international market are progressing quite positively with increasing shares from 1 year to another Such result confirm that these countries together have strong potential for dominating the international dates market if additional efforts (concentrating on their dates international markets) are made mainly in the important as well as growing date importing countries.
\nTrend of the aggregated GCC market share (sum of Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and United Arab Emirates) during the period 2005–2016. Source: Own elaboration from FAOSTAT (2018).
In addition to the above, this share of the GCC countries has been increasing over the period from 2005 to 2016, from a value of 22.98% in 2005 to 28.26% in 2016. This change especially refers to the rapid increase of the shares of KSA, UAE, and Oman, as shown inFigure 5.
\nMarket share of GCC countries on the international date market: (a) Bahrain, Kuwait and Qatar; (b) Oman, Saudi Arabia, and Emirates. Source: Own elaboration from FAOSTAT (2018).
In terms of progress, all GCC countries, including the smallest share countries present on the international market are progressing quite positively with increasing shares over the period 2005–2016. This is especially true for Kuwait and UAE. Oman and KSA, also have the same trend with market shares increasing respectively from 0.34 and 8.64% in 2005 to 1.13 and 12.70% in 2016.
\nDuring this period (2005–2016), the gap between GCC and its competitors on the international market is progressively narrowing, mainly with North African countries (Tunisia and Algeria), Iran, Pakistan and Israel. This might be due to the important increase in the demand for dates at the international level through expanding to new markets (Asia and Africa).
\nAlthough date trading share of GCC is increasing in the global market, they are still facing an important competition from the countries outlined above (Tunisia, Algeria, Iran, Pakistan, and Israel). To deal with this increasing competition, regional cooperation and partnerships among these countries should be reinforced, given that their challenges, constraints and problems on facing the global date market are similar, and interventions to address and resolve these complex and interrelated challenges and problems are difficult for a single country to solve on its own. Thus, coordination between the different trade strategies of the GCC countries, through specialization, division of tasks, and strengthened coordination can generate important opportunities for gaining and sustaining their share on the world market of dates.
\nThe data for this study have been collected through semi-structured questionnaires targeting the main actors in the date palm sector. Data were gathered for three countries: Saudi Arabia, Oman and Kuwait. Table 2 illustrate the number of surveys conducted in each country mentioned above.
\nNature of the survey | \nKSA (number of interviewed stakeholders) | \nOman (number of interviewed stakeholders) | \nKuwait (number of interviewed stakeholders) | \n
---|---|---|---|
Date palm growers | \n40 | \n38 | \n62 | \n
Date palm consumers | \n09 | \n— | \n11 | \n
Date palm retailers | \n08 | \n04 | \n10 | \n
Date palm wholesale traders | \n08 | \n\n | \n |
Date palm processors | \n08 | \n— | \n— | \n
Date palm transporters | \n08 | \n14 | \n— | \n
Date palm importers (production inputs) | \n09 | \n18 | \n— | \n
Decision makers | \n07 | \n— | \n— | \n
Researchers and extension staff | \n10 | \n47 | \n— | \n
Date palm input providers | \n20 | \n— | \n— | \n
Total interviewed stakeholders | \n127 | \n121 | \n83 | \n
Nature and number of surveys conducted in each country.
Source: Own elaboration form surveys implemented in the GCC countries (2017).
The method used in this analysis is an assessment of the data gathered from two different sources.
\nFirst, an exhaustive literature review from various types of documents, both published and unpublished, related to date palm value chain in the GCC countries. Documents includes scientific reports, books, journal articles, working papers, research reports, web-based publications (including national and international databases), workshop proceedings, national policy documents, programme frameworks, etc.
\nSecond, a participatory and consultative approach comprising multi-stakeholder consultations and surveys implemented in three potential GCC countries: Saudi Arabia, Oman, and Kuwait. The surveys targeted the following date palm stakeholders: growers, consumers, retailers, wholesale traders, processors, transporters, importers, decision makers, research and extension staff, and input providers. The method was based on a synthesis summarizing the key messages issuing from each one of the indicated actors. The framework consisted of the following two processes. The first ones focused on data collection from surveys through involving the main value chain stakeholders. The second one focused on the validation of the identified results with special attention to the key development strategies and interventions.
\nThis process, which was developed and implemented by a large number of actors actively involved in the three selected countries date sector (Table 3), led to three development strategies: (i) Date palm supply chain development and management; (ii) market and marketing development, and (iii) agribusiness development.
\nItems | \nAssessment indicators | \n
---|---|
Fresh dates for local consumption | \nHigh in all GCC countries | \n
Fresh dates for exports | \nAlmost high in KSA and UAE | \n
Industrial dates for exports | \nLow in Oman, Kuwait, and Bahrain | \n
Industrial dates for domestic consumption | \nLow in Oman, Kuwait, and Bahrain | \n
Animal feeding dates | \nImportant in Oman, Kuwait and UAE | \n
Utilization of by-products | \nLow in all countries | \n
Farm management | \nLow in all countries | \n
Date palm supply value chain synthesis.
Source: Own evaluation from survey database (2017).
The analysis of the data collected reveal several problems and constraints that might affect the future of the GCC date palm sector. Such problems include:
Low quality varieties, low product quality and consequently low returns.
Poor farm Management (Inefficient use of date products and by-products).
Pests and diseases and inadequate Integrated Pest Management (IPM) control.
Harvesting, processing and marketing (high post-harvest losses)
Lagging processing sector.
Low quantity of exports.
Shortage in national qualified and trained staff & labors.
Insufficient research and development activities.
The assessment of the date palm supply value chain, on the basis of the data collected from the different actors, allowed us to identify the following indicators related to each GCC country (Table 3).
\nAccording to Table 3, the date palm supply value chain assessment indicates a high level in local consumption of fresh dates although per capita consumption is declining in most of the GCC countries because of the new habits dominating the new youth generation. The industrial dates for domestic consumption remain low mainly in Oman, Bahrain and Kuwait given the consumers preferences for the GCC countries in general and these countries in particular is more towards fresh dates. With respect to trade, KAS and UAE are the leading date exporting countries both for industrial and fresh dates. Oman, Kuwait, and Bahrain are the lowest exporting countries compared to their production (i.e., Oman).
\nFindings reveal also that part of date production is used as feed, mainly in Oman, Kuwait and UAE. Up to 30% of production was served as feed to animals in UAE during 2013 [3]. In addition, most of the date by-products are produced in traditional manner and mainly limited to the production of date paste, Jam, and date syrup. The introduction of new potential uses of dates and date products is modest, and consequently the utilization of by-products is low in all GCC countries.
\nFinally, the results of date palm supply chain assessment indicate a lack of an improved and advanced management and lack of knowledge of good agricultural practices applied to palm date farming systems in almost all GCC countries.
\nImproved production and the whole production farming system is an essential part of any successful agribusiness program for the date palm sector in the GCC countries. The main challenges facing the production of date palm mainly relate to the weakness of the productive capacity of small farmers due to the lack of good pollen and low productivity of cultivated varieties compared to other varieties.
\nThe lack and the reduction of the skilled labor for date palm practices affect tremendously the production and the quality of the dates. Therefore, a holistic extension system is more than needed, mainly for the non-commercial farms, to provide training, advices, monitoring, and know-how for the date farming system. Staff should be trained in processing techniques to improve efficiency and quality and to produce on a larger scale. In addition, staff needs to be capacitated in post-processing quality assurance and control, better marketing and accessibility to market and improving quality standards and quality extension certification. In addition, capacity building of extension institutions, including the staff of local extension departments is more than needed. Capacities of such staff need to be built to better (more effectively, larger coverage, more permanent support) support producers and promote good agricultural management, pest and disease management using participatory training approaches (learning by doing and action field schools). This program should provide affordable and simple small-scale tools for the key tasks in this farming system (pollination, irrigation, fertilization, harvest, and post-harvest techniques). Such program could start at small scale level and later extended at large scale.
\nIn the GCC countries, farmers grow more than 600 varieties of dates. Some varieties, given their own special set of characteristics, such as size, shape, color, and skin texture, are well appreciated by the consumers (at the national and international markets). Even if it is considered as an advantage for the date palm growers, in general, this variability creates obstacles in the sector, particularly during the harvest and post-harvest activities. This leads to many problems in processing and marketing (grading, sorting, quality, etc.) given the non-uniformity of such products. GCC producers are mainly recommended to focus on producing the high added values varieties to meet national and international market demands. In addition, date palm producers are advised to improve the date palm productivity through the cultivation of new higher yielding varieties.
\nGCC countries should produce the most important and commercial varieties. These as an example include: Mejdoul in KSA, Fard and Khalas in Oman, Barhi, Sukkari, in Kuwait. Nowadays, international markets are very demanding both for the industrial sectors and for the final users (consumers) such standards and norms. Mejdoul is at the top of the list, followed by Khalas, Fard. Since GCC countries have abundant production of these varieties, an effective effort should be made by all the actors to propagate them within the Gulf region. This effort should mainly focus on the producers as they are the ones who influence the future plantation. The decisions makers are also requested to play a major role in this strategy by providing support and enhancing the propagation of plantation of these varieties. Finally, these varieties, and other potential ones, can be also produced to satisfy the local market needs from these products. This could be enhanced through the facilitation of the establishment, in each country and even at the most regional level, of a national palm plant nursery, a pollen collection center, and a tissue culture laboratory in coordination with the Ministry of Agriculture and research institutions to develop better, shorter and productive varieties. In addition, this laboratory can also be building solid relationships with input/service providers to supply red palm weevil detection devices, to introduce automated pollination mechanisms, and industrial maturation equipment.
\nThe biggest challenge for the date palm sector in the GCC countries is the large volume of dates that arrive at the same time on the market (which is around harvest time), resulting in low prices. Indeed, to have a good and decent market price, the date value chain should be strong. This is possible when the post-harvest handling capabilities: post-harvest handling of fruit is efficient. According to the assessment we made, in the majority of the GCC countries, the post-harvest handling is considered as the weakest node of the date palm value chain where greatest loss occurs.
\nPost-harvest handling of dates currently in some GCC countries (Oman) is generally very poor. The majority of small scale date farmers are absent and foreigner laborers are managing the farming system. These “new managers” are with minimal education, who must be taught proper post-harvest techniques from beginning to the end. Thus, farmer education to these laborers should be a long-term program requiring constant training, oversight, and compliance. Efforts on monitoring control by the owners, and funding for improving farming methods and equipment and building a processing plant to produce product meeting international standards will prove a major disappointment if owner’s farmer’s monitoring, control and investment in best practices is not seriously and continuously addressed.
\nThis is will influence, some posteriori, the date industry that will not move up the value chain if the fruit is not properly handled from harvest to final processing, and consequently there is little that can be done in terms of processing if fruit arrives at the processing plant infested with insects and full of dirt and sand. Such fruit cannot be processed into an added value or commercial product to meet the minimum marketing requirements.
\nThere is no doubt that value added products for date palm sector is the future of this industry in the GCC. Low quality dates are mostly absorbed by the local market at very low price for the consumers. There is also the use of the very low quality as feed for the livestock sector. The local markets already absorb all of the low-quality dates at a low price. Therefore, for the high date palm quality, a high quantity of waste is generated at various stages of date fruit value—chain/marketing. This date solid waste could be valorized from different perspectives and for several uses (pharmaceutical industries, confectionaries, handcrafts and furniture, etc.).
\nThese suggested value-added products (date palm by-products such as leaves and wood for furniture and handicrafts, sweet sap, date sugar, date palm-based confectionaries products, etc.) should be produced in modern, efficient processing facilities capable of making a wide variety of industrial grade and retail products demanded by the local and the international markets. This is possible if the facilities are installed close to the production areas, regrouping farmers around agricultural cooperatives, which offer opportunities that date palm small holders could not achieve individually, such as providing good quality of (as fruits and, consequently a strong bargaining power and resource share that leads to win-win situation.
\nA systemic change that encompass the independence of external inputs, that promote better palm tree management and harvesting, improve storage, processing and packaging and work on creating higher value products for the local and international markets, is encouraged. This systemic change should be started by facilitating the linkages between decision makers (ministries) and research institutions, with producers and other key date palm chain actors, through promoting the use of applied scientific research methods to improve processing quality and develop new processing and storage techniques. There is also a need to build a trustable relationship with input/service providers to introduce new processing and packaging technologies and techniques.
\nSeveral constraints and challenges are facing the local marketing channels of the date palm fruits. Such challenges are decreasing demand for date fruits, weak post-harvesting transactions, lack of appropriate and attracting boxes, no appropriate existing storage system till the marketing of fruits, lack of by-products markets, use of unimproved technologies for fruit packaging, no linkage between all key processing date palm actors, lack of expertise and technical staff for date palm manufacturing industries, rural-urban migration, urbanization, no feasibility studies regarding the profitability of the manufacturing industries of date palm products, and reluctance of investors to invest in the date palm sector. To overcome these constraints and to improve the marketing at the local level, it is crucial to provide the pertinent, complete and in time marketing information to date palm producers; activate the role of the marketing cooperatives; and development of coordination committees, associations, cooperatives, public and private companies for producers, manufacturers, and exporters of dates to prevent duplication and waste resources. Another strategy could be by including date fruits by the Ministry of Health, Education in the hospital, schools, etc. Furthermore, initiating local consumer’s campaign, which will be set up to promote a “buy-local” products, would enhance consumer trust and pertinence in/to local produce. Government institutions, private sector organizations, and the Chamber of Commerce and other stakeholders might be encouraged to launch targeted marketing campaigns linked to new potential consumers/customers [3].
\nAs it was stated above, the international markets are becoming very demanding in terms of standards and norms, mainly for the perishable products such as dates (as fruits) This will be a challenge for local producers to be competitive in the international markets. In 2015, since about 30% was the share of the GCC countries in the international date market, there is a strong potential for dominating the international date market. This is feasible if there is a strong coordination on trade strategies between the GCC countries in terms of providing safe and secure products; adopting standard specifications and norms in the producing countries to reach the world market with distinct varieties reflecting the position of these countries in the production of date fruits; conducting studies to understand the international markets (volume, size, main competitors, marketing strategies, etc.), their needs, laws, regulations, and providing the information on the national key actors (producers, manufacturers, exporters, etc.), supporting and encouraging the participation of producing companies in the international trade fairs and with supporting exports policies, and finally conducting campaign on advertising and promotion of dates and its nutritional and healthy benefits through international meetings, conferences, festivals, and Attaché offices.
\nThis study analyzed the value chain of date palm fruit in the GCC Countries. The value chain development, sustainability and competitiveness are very crucial issues facing the agribusiness sector of the GCC economy, particularly for the small holder’s growers. The GCC agribusiness is been noted for the sale of raw agricultural products palm fruits is one of the major cash crops in the majority of these countries. Dates could provide a greater contribution to the GCC economy if producers paid more attention to its production and marketing. Date palm production is no longer a way of life but nowadays is considered as an investment option and source of revenues for many stakeholders.
\nThe assessment of the supply date palm value chain in the GCC countries suggests the following:
Reduction in the consumption of dates.
Decreasing trends on the exports of fresh dates.
A low consumption level for the industrial dates.
An important level on dates used for animal feeding.
A low level of utilization of date by-products.
Moreover, several constraints and challenges affecting the date palm value chain in the GCC including are revealed and are summarized as follows:
Low quality varieties, low product quality, low exported quantity, and consequently low returns.
Poor farming management (Inefficient use of date products and by-products).
Pests and diseases and inadequate integrated pest management (IPM) control.
Harvesting, processing and marketing.
High post-harvest losses.
Lack of efficient processing system (storage, transportation, etc.).
Inefficient use of dates products and by-products.
Low exported quantity and low competitiveness of processed date palm products on the international markets.
Shortage in national qualified and trained staff & labors.
Insufficient research and development activities in the date palm sector.
Therefore, to enhance the growth of the date palm value chain in the GCC countries, three development strategies are to be considered towards a dynamic and systemic change:
Supply chain development and management
Improving date palm farming practices and initiation of better post-harvest handling procedures;
Processing and production of value-added products by focusing on added value varieties;
Export premium date products with consistency in supply of high-quality varieties.
Market and marketing development
Establishing a basic data on the local and export date marketing sector;
Improve the efficiency of the marketing process to guarantee good prices to the farmers and to decrease the final market prices by limiting the number of intermediate operators;
Producing in-demand products at competitive prices;
A Pre-harvest Best Management Practices (BMPs) will certainly ensure that the quality standards for export are met.
Agri-business development
Introducing of new potential uses of dates and date products in the pharmaceutical industries, confectionaries, agro-food industries, handcrafts and furniture,
Support the investment for the Small Business Enterprises (SBE’s);
Promoting the use of applied scientific research methods to improve processing quality and develop new processing and storage techniques.
We would like to express our sincere gratitude and appreciation to the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) Secretariat for funding this research conducted in the framework of the “Development of sustainable date palm production systems in the GCC countries of the Arabian Peninsula” project.
\nWe are very grateful to the Ministries of Agriculture, Agricultural Authorities, and Agricultural Research Institutions and Universities in the GCC countries of the Arabian Peninsula for their continuous support and great collaboration in the implementation of the project activities.
\nSpecial thanks go to the all stakeholders (date palm growers, consumers, wholesale retailers, decision makers, date palm processors, date palm transporters, date palm importers for production inputs, researchers and extension staff) in KSA, Oman, and Kuwait for their great collaboration during the data collection process.
\nIncrease in global temperature had major impact on crop productivity especially in tropical and sub tropical regimes. Based on climate model predictions, around 1.8–4.0°C rise in air temperature was expected in 21st century [1]. The increase in temperature beyond a certain threshold level tends to induce detrimental effects in plant growth and development. In general, the elevation in temperature of 10–15°C above ambient triggers heat shock in crop plants. The extent of induced heat stress depends on the duration, intensity and rate of increase in global air temperature [2]. Indian lowlands share 15 per cent of global wheat production. The change in global climate would shift these fertile lowlands into heat stressed unproductive environment [3]. Similarly, the cultivation of cereals in Southern Africa and South East Asia was predicted to be heat stressed zone in near future [4]. Around 4–14% yield decline in rice was encountered due to elevated temperature of 1°C in South-East Asia [5]. The declined productivity due to elevated temperature imposes the urgent need for development of climate resilience genotypes. Evolving heat tolerant cultivars would highly benefit the livelihood of developing countries as around 70–80% of population relies on agriculture. Understanding the effect of heat stress on crop plants and its adaptation mechanisms would help in framing out the breeding strategies for high temperature tolerance.
\nHeat tolerance in crop plants is a complex mechanism involving adaptations through altered physiological process, morpho-anatomical features and induction of several biochemical pathways. On exposure to high temperature, several signal transduction pathways were triggered leading to changes in gene expression. As a result, varied stress related proteins were synthesized contributing heat tolerance in plants [6]. The tolerance mechanism to high temperature stress varies within genotypes of a plant species. The existing variation between and within species provide scope for evolving heat tolerant lines through conventional breeding approaches [7]. Dissecting out genetic information through molecular tools would hasten the development of climate resilient cultivars contributing to food security in near future. A brief review on plant response, adaptation mechanisms and genetic approaches to combat heat stress were presented in this chapter.
\nHeat stress had varying impact on different phenological stages viz., germination, seedling, vegetative, flowering and reproductive of crop plants [8]. The plant response to heat stress depends on the duration, degree of rise in temperature and plant type. Under tropical regimes, high temperature with intense solar radiation poses a major limiting factor for yield by inducing leaf abscission, leaf senescence, scorching of leaves, branches and stems, growth inhibition, pollen infertility and poor seed formation [9, 10]. A significant decline in relative growth rate, shoot dry weight and net assimilation rate was recorded in sugarcane, maize and pearl millet on exposure to high temperature stress [11]. High reduction in grain quality was recorded in most of the cereal crops grown under heat stress environments [12]. Several physiological processes such as partitioning of assimilates, plant-water relations and shoot growth was affected due to heat stress in common bean [13]. In general, the susceptibility to heat stress was found higher at reproductive stage of plant development. An excessive yield loss is recorded in legumes on exposure to high temperature (30–35°C) during anthesis stage [14]. Drastic reduction in grain number and weight was observed in wheat at high temperature regimes [15]. Heat stress affects several metabolic pathways leading to accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) which is a major component for oxidative stress in crop plants [16]. The photosystem centres (PS I and PS II) of chloroplast, mitochondria and peroxisomes are the major sites for generation of ROS in plants [17]. High temperature stress disrupts the stability of cell membrane through protein denaturation [18]. The induction of ROS due to high temperature stress was correlated with premature leaf senescence in Gossypium sp. [19]. Accumulation of ROS in root cells was evidenced in wheat on exposure to high temperature for two days [20].
\nPlants tend to adapt several complex mechanisms through phenological and morphological changes to combat high temperature stress (Figure 1). On heat stress regimes, plants exhibit varied short term escape/avoidance mechanisms viz., altered leaf orientation, transpirational cooling, altered membrane lipid properties, early maturation and so on for its survival. Plants show varied degree of leaf rolling upon intensity of solar radiation. A significant tolerance to high temperature was observed in wheat by maintenance of water potential in flag leaf through adoption of leaf rolling under heat shock conditions [21]. Increase in trichomatous and stomatal densities, waxy layer on leaves, and larger xylem vessels are the common features induced during heat stress [22]. On contrary, plants also evolve long term tolerance mechanisms for its effective survival and productivity under high temperature. Induction of osmoprotectants, antioxidants, late embryogenesis abundant proteins, dehydrins, and heat shock proteins are the major factors involved in counteracting the heat shocks. Accumulation of osmolytes such as proline, trehalose, and glycine betaine plays a vital role in imparting tolerance via cellular osmotic adjustment, detoxification of ROS, stabilization of enzymes and membrane proteins [23]. Several enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant defense components are also involved in protection against oxidative stress induced by free radicals [24]. The activities of ROS scavenging enzymes are temperature specific. In general, most of the antioxidant enzymes show increased activity with elevation in temperatures. It is also influenced by genotype, growing season and phenological stages of plant [25]. Under high temperature conditions, several signaling molecules such as nitrous oxide, Ca-dependent protein kinases, Mitogen mediated protein kinase, sugars, and phytohormones play a role in stimulation of stress responsive genes via transduction pathways [26]. Evolving adaptation mechanisms (either tolerance or avoidance) to high temperature and drought would be more rewarding at arid conditions as it is often correlated.
\nAdaptation mechanisms for high temperature tolerance in crop plants.
Breeding for high temperature tolerance requires an essential knowledge on plant adaptation response to heat shocks. In general, the genotypes exhibiting less detrimental effect on photosynthesis and reproductive development tend to survive well under heat prone areas [27]. Involvement of these two components in selection criteria would be beneficial in evolving thermo tolerant cultivars. Tolerant genotypes evolve several morphological, physiological and biochemical alterations in response to heat shocks. Knowledge on sensitivity of several phenological stages to high temperature will pave way for trait specific improvement. High temperature is often correlated with other environmental factors which poses a major limitation for selection under field conditions. At present, varied selection criteria has been developed by scientists, which favors delineation of superior variety at prevailing environment [28]. Heat tolerant index has been evolved for sorghum which depicts the proportion of growth recovery after exposure to high temperature stress. It is the ratio of increase in coleoptile growth in a heat stress environment [50°C] to the enhancement in coleoptile length under normal environment (non-stress) [29]. It proves cost effective and rapid method to screen a large population size within shorter period. A proper validation of such technique would facilitate the development of tolerant lines in other crop species. Pollen viability and fruit set was considered as major selection criteria to predict yield under high temperature stress in tomato [30]. Physiological based trait selection such as harvest index, photosynthetic efficiency, respiration rate, delayed senescence and canopy architecture will also contribute towards increased tolerance to heat stress [31, 32].
\nInter-mating among closely related individuals for improvement of economic traits resulted in decline of genetic variability in a crop species [33]. Characterization of gene pool including land races and wild relatives would offer several tolerant genes for abiotic tolerance. Extensive efforts were made in screening of heat tolerant genotypes which can be directly introduced as a cultivar or utilized to introgress gene into new genetic background [34]. Thermo-tolerant lines were successfully isolated from wild gene pool in wheat [35]. High magnitude of variation was observed in wild progenitor “Aegilops tauschii” of wheat for cell viability and membrane stability [36]. Similarly, a heat tolerant source for reproductive stage was identified in A. geniculata and A. speltoides Tausch which would pave way in development of thermo-tolerant hexaploid wheat cultivars in near future [37]. A higher growth rate and improved photosynthetic efficiency was observed in wild relative “Oryza meridionalis” of rice at high temperature [38]. Indirect selection on pollen viability led to identification of thermo-tolerant accessions in soybean (DG 5630RR) [39], chickpea (ICC15614 & ICC1205) [40], maize (AZ100) [41], and several other crop species. Direct selection based on yield under target environment (heat stress) resulted in development of tolerant lines in many tropical grain legumes. Four tolerant genotypes/accessions viz., SRC-1-12-1-48, SRC-1-12-1-182, 98012-3-1-2-1 and 98020-3-1-7-2 were isolated in common bean by employing stress tolerant indices [42]. Nine thermo-tolerant wild accessions were delineated in USDA upland cotton germplasm by employing chlorophyll fluorescence technique [43].
\nEvolving thermo-tolerance through conventional breeding approach proves promising in many crop species. Breeding for early maturing genotype in broccoli had improved head quality by avoiding heat stress at flowering stage [44]. In general, breeding programmes are carried out in hotter regions which promote selection of thermo-tolerant traits. Physiological based trait breeding was practiced at International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) for development of heat tolerant cultivars in wheat. The parental genotypes were characterized through various crossing schemes and appropriate breeding programme was framed for improvement of thermo related traits [45]. A wild ancestor “T. tauschii” was utilized as a gene donor for achieving increased grain size and filling percent under high temperature through recurrent selection [46]. Similarly, three cycles of recurrent selection had led to improved yield under heat stress regimes in potato [47]. Thermo tolerant alleles were introgressed into heat sensitive cultivar “Paymaster 404” from a donor accession “7456” of G. barbadense through backcross breeding [48]. A significant improvement in yield was realized under heat stress environment by adoption of gametic selection in maize [41]. A deep rooted cultivar “Nagina 22 (N22)” of aus rice exhibited high pollen viability and spikelet fertility (64–86%) under heat stress [49]. The thermo-tolerance of N22 was successfully introgressed into Xieqingzao B line through backcross method [50]. Dissecting out the genetic and physiological basis of thermo-tolerance will hasten up the development of resilient cultivars suited to hotter regions.
\nThe genetic basis of thermo-tolerance is not clearly understood because of complex trait inheritance. Advances in molecular approaches such as DNA marker identification and genotyping assay had paved way in determination of several QTL’s associated with high temperature tolerance [51]. In wheat, QTL’s were identified for canopy temperature, and chlorophyll fluorescence imparting tolerance to heat stress [52]. A major QTL “Htg 6.1” in lettuce was involved in enhancement of seed germination capacity at high temperature [53]. A recessive QTL for increased spikelet fertility under high temperature was dissected out in rice at chromosome 4. The identified QTL were found in several populations of heat tolerant rice cultivars [54]. Six QTL’s were involved to enhance fruit set at high temperature in tomato [55]. Five thermo tolerant QTL’s were identified in Brassica campestris by employing random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers [56]. In maize, eleven major QTL’s for increased pollen germination and pollen tube growth under high temperature was mapped using restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) markers [57]. Identification of candidate QTL’s would pave way in precise introgression of heat tolerant genes into superior cultivars through marker assisted breeding approach.
\nThe closely associated markers with targeted QTL will hasten the recovery of superior genotypes with heat tolerant traits in a population. A marker assisted breeding approach was employed in rice to derive heat tolerant line with superior grain quality. Two flanking markers viz., ktIndel001 and RFT1 enclosing 1.5 Mb chromosomal region was transferred from tolerant cultivar “Kokoromachi” to Tohoku 168. Significant improvement in grain quality under high temperature was observed in the derived NIL’s compared to susceptible cultivar “Tohoku 168” [58]. Fourteen SSR markers linked to heat susceptibility index of grain filling per cent and single kernel weight was identified in bread wheat which was employed in marker assisted selection (MAS) to screen genotypes for thermo tolerance [59]. Utilization of MAS approach for heat tolerance remains less efficient because of high gene x environment and epistatic interactions. The low breeding efficiency can be resolved by genomic selection (GS) approach which involves wide number of molecular markers exhibiting high genome coverage. High genetic gain is realized in GS approach due to close association between predicted and true breeding value over generations [60].
\nAt present, transgenic approach also proves to be desirable tool for designing thermo tolerant lines via introgression of genes from diverse gene pools [61]. The genetic transformation was focused primarily on transcription factors, induction of heat shock proteins, molecular chaperones, osmolytes, antioxidant components and growth regulators [62]. Heat shock proteins play a primary role in imparting thermo tolerance in crop species. It is functionally associated with diverse group of molecular chaperones that is involved in restoration of degraded proteins to their native structure under high temperature. Induction of heat shock proteins through genetic manipulation was achieved in arabidopsis [63], maize [64], rice [65], soybean [66], and pepper [67]. The DREB gene family was also reported to impart heat tolerant response in many crop species. Over expression of ZmDREB2A in maize [68] and GmDREB2A in soybean [69] was associated with increased survival and adaptation under high temperature. Transgenic techniques were employed to alter membrane lipid properties for thermo-tolerance in crop species. High proportion of saturated fatty acid in membrane had increased tolerance under heat stress. Suppression of omega-3 fatty acid desaturase gene in chloroplast had reduced the accumulation of trieonic fatty acid in transgenic tobacco [70] and tomato [71] leading to thermo-tolerance. A significant accumulation of glycine betaine (osmolyte) was achieved in arabidopsis through transfer of “cod gene” from Arthrobacter globiformis [72]. High proportion of glycine betaine protects the PSII component by inhibiting the ROS activities under heat stress. Implementation of transgenic approaches in other crop species will accelerate the development of resilient genotypes suited to high temperature regimes.
\nDevelopment of thermo-tolerant lines has to be prioritized to meet out the future climatic change coupled with food demands. Knowledge on plant response and adaptation mechanisms to heat stress is required for framing out breeding strategies. It remains a challenging task in evolving resilient genotypes suited to high temperature because of less efficient screening protocols at field conditions. The existence of low genetic variation for heat response related traits limited the progress of conventional breeding approach in many crop species. Use of molecular breeding strategies had opened up several heat tolerant related QTL’s in crop species. However, still precise research work involving huge marker data is needed for attaining high breeding efficiency for thermo tolerance. Recently, the involvement of transgenic approach paved way for utilization of tolerant source from diverse gene pools. Study on induction of heat shock proteins led to increased thermo tolerance in many crop species. Similarly, other heat response related traits such as induction of antioxidant components, osmolytes, and chaperones were also included in transgenic approach for inducing heat stress tolerance. Thus, high economic yield could be realized at elevated temperature regimes with the involvement of combined breeding approaches.
\nThe authors are highly thankful to Dr. V. Geethalakshmi, Director, Directorate of Crop Management, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU) for her valuable suggestions towards this chapter. We also acknowledge Dr. P. Jayamani, Professor and Head, Department of Pulses, TNAU; Dr. M. Raveendran, Professor and Head, Department of Biotechnology, TNAU; and Dr. K. Ganesamurthy, Professor and Head, Department of Rice, TNAU for rendering supportive documents on high temperature tolerance.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest towards this chapter.
The authors express their gratitude to the Directorate of Crop Management for providing scientific support on high temperature tolerance.
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