Main differences between male and female astronauts (adapted from Ref. [30]).
\r\n\tThere will be a chapter on secondary causes of sexual dysfunction disorders related to diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and obesity. A chapter on remedial measures to enhance sexual activity and maintain human relationships will be discussed. As there is a growing number of cancer survivors a chapter on cancer-related sexual dysfunction will be welcomed for including it.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"b988fda30a4e2364ee9d47e417bd0ba9",bookSignature:"Dr. Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11889.jpg",keywords:"Sex, Sexual Response Cycle, Erection, Premature Ejaculation, Libido, Orgasm, Painful Intercourse, Psychological, Female, Lack of Desire, Erectile Disorders, Pain Disorders",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 8th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 6th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 5th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 23rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 22nd 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff is a life member of the European Society for Human Reproduction and Early Human Development, Association of Physiologists and Pharmacologists of India, member of the National Academy of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, and resource person for UNESCO for Medical and Bioethics. 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This multidimensional view of social capabilities is also involved in space flight. While technology plays a key role in a mission, how to solve and prevent problems by human beings is also relevant. Therefore, it is necessary to consider other variables such as expectations, prior knowledge, the intrinsic and extrinsic motivations, learning styles, coping strategy problems, algorithms for problem solving, how to resolve conflicts, as well as the ability to put yourself in the perspective of another person, among others. Space travel is going to become very important today. The world became interested in space watching other planets and stars as an escape route to perpetuate the human condition and spread their deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), new economic opportunities, or tourism for the simple desire to excel. So, space psychology is becoming more popular nowadays [2].
\nAlthough the concept of empathy has been widely developed on educational field, it has not happened the same on special contexts. There has been an approach to study how people behave under extreme stress and special contexts such as on captivity, an expedition to the Arctic, experiments on artificial biospheres on small places on small spaces with other people, or even on space stations. However, the number of studies is smaller than on education, for example. Obviously, neither the conditions nor the cost is the same. Coming back to the issue, empathy is crucial to carry out long space missions, and in this chapter, these aspects will be developed. Besides, a series of limitations on studies about space travels have been found: the lack of subjects to study, no control groups, and difficulty to compare tasks within different studies [3].
\nIn this line, psychological and cultural factors should be studied in the same way as physicists do, particularly for long-duration missions (e.g., Mars) [4]. There are different studies which shed light on how psychological aspects are involved on space travels. Due to that, it will be interesting and necessary to unify all of them to create a “corpus” of knowledge. This could be described as a branch of knowledge called “space psychology.” Several psychological variables must be considered to understand the adaptation of the astronaut in a mission such as affiliation motive, satisfaction, occupational success, aggressiveness, cooperation, conformity, and so on. It can depend on sociodemographic variables such as nationality or culture [5], as it will be shown during the chapter.
\nPsychological variables associated to personal on Earth must be considered as well. Historically speaking, the figure of Von Braun, a leather in his field, must be reminded. Ernst Stuhlinger (as cited in Ref. [6]) describes him as a person with superior intelligence, a person with the ability to make the team proud of themselves and participate in debates, and a person who is talkative and good at designing machines. To understand the social moment which caused the arrival of human being to the Moon, the same authors refer to the concept of astrosociological study. It involves the existence of determined social factors which contribute to the space race: social motivation, money, competition between countries, and so on.
\nHaving said that, the main aim of this chapter was to analyze the current situation of the study of empathy and other psychological variables concerning space travels. The specific objectives were (a) to find out the current situation of the issue concerning social skills, coexistence, empathy, and other psychological variables related to astronauts and space travels and (b) to propose key aspects for the design of an educational program to encourage people to solve social problems and develop social skills. For that, a review was made by using different databases and resources to get as many studies as possible (e.g., Web of Science, ScienceDirect, and Google Academic, mainly), by using descriptors such as “space psychology,” “empathy,” and “social skills.”
\nIn this chapter, it will begin by describing the concept of empathy and extreme environments. Next, the characteristics of a long-term mission and what is meant by “safe days” will be developed. After this, the effects of prolonged exposure to outer space as well as various psychological variables such as gender, culture, or type of work will be explored. Then, various countermeasures that can be carried out to improve the psychological aspects of workers will be discussed. Lastly, basic aspects, which should be considered to improve empathy, coexistence, and social relations before, during, and after the mission in a global and multidimensional program, will be exposed. For all this, this paper pretends to be a reflection on what kind of psychological variables can explain the reality of space race and how to improve the coexistence on space throughout the design of educational programs.
\nA first approach to the concept of empathy in English was studied by Edward Titchener, by using the German term “einfühlung” in order to mean “feeling into” [1]. The same author describes the concept as the social and cognitive ability to understand the feelings of the rest [1]. Empathy is a key piece for coexistence, and it is difficult to define it due to the complex relationship which may keep with other abstract concepts such as morality. Empathy and morality may be related to each other. Due to the fact which seems to be that empathy can address or influence morality, it has been proposed to use other determined terms such as “emotional sharing” or “affective perspective taking” [7]. It is of paramount importance because it involves cultural issues that can influence on the expression of more or less empathy.
\nSocial skills on twenty-first century require a series of aspects as Hesse, Care, Buder, Sassenberg, and Griffin (2015) claim (as cited in Ref. [8]). Concretely, the task is seen like a process in which action, interaction, and task completion are involved. Within social regulation aspects, negotiation, self-evaluation, and memory are found. The authors also expose some task regulations including resource management, tolerance for both ambiguity and tension, organization to be able to make the problem analysis, and setting goals. With this model, it is possible to create knowledge throughout knowledge acquisition, setting relationships, rules, hypothesis, and solutions. All these ideas involve both social and cognitive aspects [8]. Regarding the development of certain abilities, those people with “poor behavioral regulation skills,” “poor language skills,” and other characteristics are more likely to be less adapt and with less social outcomes [9]. Thus, the researchers emphasize the need for intervening both on language development and social skills since an early moment.
\nFinally, concerning crew members, Suedfeld, Brcic, and Legkaia (2009) (as cited in Ref. [10]) claim that the main coping strategy among astronauts is social support. So, it is possible to highlight the group living, coexistence, and harmony as variables closely related to the success of the mission.
\nHarrison, Clearwater, and McKay (1991) (as cited in Ref. [10]) describe how the ICEs (Isolated and Confined Environments) are a way to study extreme conditions of living. These communities must share privacy and space in EUEs (Extreme and Unusual Environments). These environments can be lethal, as for instance, undersea habitats, nuclear submarines, Antarctic stations, and so on. In this line, the environment in which the astronauts operate has a certain similarity with other tiny spaces such as nuclear submarines [11]. Psychological adaptation to confinement situation throughout a study on isolation chambers highlights the need for taking into account which coping strategies that are put in place to deal with this situation, since, by definition, people will be subjected to high levels of stress [12].
\nBefore going to explore Mars with humans, the own planet has been used for analyzing how the stress will influence on them. For this reason, different places have been chosen to recreate the conditions of a mission to another planet and, more concretely, how to stay on it once they have arrived. On Earth, there are weird and difficult regions to live—and survive—and thanks to that, it is possible to simulate an exploration [13]. The 105-day study represents a pilot study before a higher experiment. It was a previous research before the Mars-500 Project—the duration was eventually 520 days in that case. Having said that, its results interestingly add a little description about the habitat where crew members were confined: the place contained both living and laboratory areas. To make the experiment more real, there was a communication delay of 40 min as in a real mission on Mars. It included even a mock-up of the Mars surface for recreating geological tasks of astronaut. The crew was composed of a commander, a sports physiologist, a mechanical engineer, a medical doctor, and a pilot [14].
\nRecently, the psychosocial variables of space flight associated to aging have also been studied. According to this review, extreme conditions such as those associated with space flight can, to a greater or lesser degree, affect to health. The researchers raised several questions such as whether it was possible to learn to enjoy the confinement situation or extract positive experiences. However, the questions are beyond a simple analysis of the ability of adaptation [10].
\nObviously, it is not the same study on Earth than on space. Real situations in outer space lead to different results in some psychological variables compared to results obtained in simulated confinement situations or on planet Earth. In this line, changes in mood or perceived social climate in space crews in comparison with other simulation environments such as isolation chambers or bases in Antarctic have not been found. Scientists describe a possible explanation of the fact that in a real situation in space, the crew must be constantly attentive to aspects related to their survival, and there is a real danger. The same researchers claim it is not possible to ensure that astronauts will not have psychosocial problems in a long-term mission (e.g., Mars) when boredom, monotony, and greater autonomy conditions are present [4], being the ISS as a great habitat to study them [4]. There is no doubt that real environments can result more useful, though previous studies in “unreal conditions” are absolutely necessary to be prepared to face with conflicts and unpredictable situations. Actually, the “big” question is how confined people will be able to create a common culture and fix morale problems [10]. In this line, the way to manage social problems and conflicts is closely related to empathy which is the core of this chapter.
\n“Astronaut” is one of the main and more famous words used around the world, but it is not the one. The own name of the concept of “astronaut” depends on the culture and the country (e.g., astronaut in USA, cosmonaut in Russia, taikonaut in China, and so on). In the future, the name may be modified depending on the functions which are involved (for instance, commercial or exploration ending) and on social, legal, and ethical implications [15]. In this chapter, the concept of “astronaut” will be used to embrace different names, meanings and nationalities in general terms, to make the development of content easier. Having made this reflection, it is time to describe long-duration space missions.
\nFirst, it must be considered that there is a substantial difference between orbit missions and deep space ones: the feeling of support. Astronauts have got visual contact with the Earth, and it is possible to send help in a determined case. However, long-duration exploratory missions such as on Mars will not have these attractive conditions. Crew members will be physically alone [16]. Due to the fact that it is very difficult to set up real missions of long-term space trips, most of the studies analyze several factors involve in simulations or short-term missions and treat to extrapolate to the situation of the long-duration space travel. Therefore, analogy is the key to understand this field of study and predict what could happen [17].
\nAccurately, the relevance of psychosocial issues in a long-duration expedition to Mars will be even higher than now. On this trip, psychological, cultural, personal, and psychiatric effects on the astronauts are expected to be obvious and present. The need for fostering this kind of reviews is logical due to the fact that there are a small number of studies related to long and far expeditions, while there is more information on near-Earth missions. There is paucity knowledge about how long-duration space missions might affect psychological issues among astronauts [3]. Unknown stressors are supposed to appear during long missions. Curiously, some scientists suggest that the effects will be both negative and positive [18].
\nNow, it is time to study how the rise of autonomy can influence on long-duration space missions in real situations. The concept of autonomy applied for space travel has also been studied carefully. So, there are several and evident differences between short and long missions. In the first case, crew has got rigid schedules and an individualized support by mission control. However, in the second case, free time takes on a greater role. Therefore, longer missions will lead to greater autonomy for the astronaut, without so many short deadlines [19].
\nComing back to the mock mission in Mars for 105 days, during the first 10 weeks, the level of autonomy of the six men was low, while during the last 5 weeks, the level was higher. In the last situation, crews could plan their own work. Weekly, both mission control and crew members completed a battery of questionnaires about psychological issues. The results shed light on how the autonomy conditions affect the mood and performance at both groups. During the period of high autonomy, the objectives of the mission were achieved, there were no negative effects, and mood was better. Nonetheless, the personnel of mission control lived the situations with more anxiety due to the uncertainty derived from unknowing exactly what crew members were going to do [14]. Obviously, the autonomy of future astronauts in long-duration missions is expected to be higher [19]. Meanwhile, social experiments in real situation like in ISS will be useful [14].
\nThere is a serious problem in outer space: boredom [10]. Traditional space missions, due to the duration, have been very workload with little monotony. In contrast, long-duration space missions involve long period of time for spare time, leisure, and monotony [16].
\nThe lack of meaningful activities evokes monotony which is harmful to psychological health. The way to avoid it is to modify the environment, leave time to practice meaningful activities, and invest time on cultivating an artificial garden to connect with the nature [10]. In conclusion, monotony and habitability must be studied, and the information derived from it must be used for designing better conditions and introducing countermeasures [16].
\nAstronauts may suffer from uncertainty from space radiation exposure. During space missions, crew members are exposed to particles charged of energy which can penetrate inside the cells and modify DNA. This is related to an increased risk of cancer. For this reason, the knowledge of this fact is relevant not only for designing new protections against radiation (such as a double shield) but also for keeping a psychological balance during the mission. In this line, there is a concept used to express the period when levels of uncertainty and risk are considered acceptable: “safe days.” It involves several difficult situations, not only those produced by radiation [20].
\nInitially, the estimation of safe days was up to 900–1200 days (by studying the solar activities which is the main source of radiation). However, the number of safe days seems to depend on the type of statistical analysis. Specifically, when up to 95% confidence levels are applied, the account of days is reduced until 300–400 days [20]. To get an idea of the time that astronauts are in space, it is necessary to resort to a review, according to which, already in 2014, there had been more than 300 space missions. If all the days that the astronauts have been in maneuvers were added, the number would ascend to more than 32,000 days. In addition, two thirds were by astronauts who were in the space more than 21 days [3]. So, the time of exposure to radiation was considerable. For all these facts, it is necessary to carry on with research on safe days to get a better and safe space flight [20].
\nPsychological aspects must be taken into account in long-term missions to avoid negative effects [21]. Variables involve in a mission depend on the duration. So, short missions require high physics and technical demanding, while long missions need people with a balanced mood since conflicts are more likely to occur [10].
\nPersonality is one of the variables which is studied in the process of selection to become an astronaut [22]. The figure of the leader has also been analyzed. It seems that the way to manage and describe the role of the leader depends on the size of the crew. In consequence, in groups of two or three astronauts, each one is specialized in a field and assumes the leadership in their field. There is no exactly a typical leader. Besides, the relationships must be care because the cohesion is essential, overall by considering that the rest of humans are far. However, when the group is bigger, the social structure changes, and the traditional figure of leadership emerges [4].
\nRegarding the process of selection, social desirability has covered a great relevance due to the fact that the candidates may give a better image of themselves, and this affects the results of the tests [22]. On the other side, but within the recruitment, there is a meaning difference between a past negative psychology and a modern positive psychology about selection of astronaut. Specifically, people were selected for going out in space by prioritizing those skills aimed at achieving the mission though the astronaut could be less sociable. In this situation, it was important to select personnel with the ability to stay alone for a long time, with “excessive interpersonal intimacy.” However, according to this author, a positive psychology orientation pays attention to other characteristics such as familiarity, ability to improvisation, how aspirant faces with social problems, camaraderie, and the sense of belonging to the group [23].
\nOnce the relevance of considering the psychological variables in the astronaut selection process has been introduced, the main physical and psychological effects of space on the subject will be studied.
\nTo understand the psychological variables is necessary to have a global vision of the situation. For this reason, not only the working time and activity of the crew have been studied but also their breaks [13]. So, astronauts suffer from some symptoms like the elderly. In addition, many symptoms are eventually mediated by stress, and reactions can appear such as depression, anxiety, or social withdrawal [10]. In another vein, there is no evidence of changing on visual space perception. Contrary to the previous ideas of the researchers, a long period of confinement (e.g., Mars-500 Project) does not cause significant changes in three-dimensional perception [24]. In another vein, as was stated in defining the concept of “safe days”[20], traveling to Mars requires to go out from the magnetic field of the Earth and make a long-duration trip in which crew will be expose to radiation [20]. Thus, it is primordial to reduce the risks to the brain during the missions [3].
\nStress is another factor to consider. This cannot be considered wrong if it helps people develop new strategies and behaviors to adapt to the environment. Sometimes, living under extraordinary circumstances evokes the development of resilience and the establishment of a real and consistent social support network [10]. The own process of training can be stressful. Military has studied how to adapt to stressors in centrifuge training. The results show that there are elements such as the lightproof cockpit which can be a source of stress. The power of the pedal design as a stressor was studied too. There is no doubt that ergonomics play a relevant role in order to generate stress [25]. Other psychological variables have been studied to know how stress affects performance. So, it is known that anxiety levels evoked by the exposition to G forces throughout a centrifuge acceleration which can interfere with the ability to finish the training. However, anxiousness response can be taught and learned by coaching [26]. Anyway, it is possible to teach coping strategies to face with personal and work problems by considering that they are depending on sociodemographic variables such as gender and the kind of job [27].
\nSleep problems such as insomnia or a lack of sleep quality are also common among space travelers. They are caused by bad conditions and the own body: from interruptions, lack of privacy, noise, and social conflicts to circadian rhythms. The given solution is related to make an arrangement or try to foster the environmental conditions [10].
\nConcerning gravity, transitioning from a low-to-high state, can cause syncope due to the fact that the blood goes from the head to the feet. To combat this situation, it seems that a good idea is to stimulate the cardiovascular system through simple mental stressors. Thus, loss of consciousness or even syncope may be delayed giving margin to be able to ask for help and receive assistance. To analyze deeply the effect of mental stressors on cardiovascular system, an Aerobatic Single-Engine Cap-10B plane was used. It is a plane capable to replicate hyper- and hypogravity conditions throughout parabolic flights. The results showed that cardiovascular activity can be increased during the performance of stressful tasks that require a cognitive activation of the subject (e.g., mental calculation). Thanks to this, it is possible to rise and stimulate the cardiovascular activity and prevent blood from flowing out of the head sharply. This last study shows the importance of training astronauts to develop cognitive skills to use in space [28].
\nRadiation, less gravity, and the lack of feelings of risk are some limitations of the mock missions. However, there will be a common aspect between simulations and real conditions: the huge number of variables to measure. In consequence, the interference between different studies running simultaneously will be inevitable. In some occasions, there have been at least 90 protocols working at the same time [13].
\nEventually, it is also possible to find positive effects from the space flight experience such as more self-confidence, better quality of relationships, spirituality, and a higher respect of nature and Earth [10]. In fact, the analysis of the oral histories of 97 astronauts showed more positive than negative results across flight phases (before, during, and after) [29].
\nTo succeed on space travels throughout human missions, sex and gender must be considered in the equation. There are different risks and effects of the space depending on the sex and gender. So, more cases of visual impairment on males after a space flight in comparison with female astronauts have been found. However, it is also true that the number of female astronauts in long-duration missions is rather minor. In another vein, orthostatic intolerance is more common in females [30]. Moreover, differences regarding sex and safe days are found. So, the number of safe days for females was 300 and 400 days for males [20]. In the future, sex and gender variables will play an important role on personalized space medicine [30]. Researchers have made a resume of the main differences by sex and gender in several aspects (e.g., cardiovascular, immunologic, or behavioral adaptation to space flight) by finding the following data collected in \nTable 1\n.
\n\n | Male astronauts | \nFemale astronauts | \n
---|---|---|
They are more likely to | \nSuffer from hearing loss Suffer from calcium oxalate kidney stones Have visual impairment Have a worse immune response | \nHave a better immune response Suffer from struvite kidney stone Suffer from orthostatic intolerance Suffer from urinary tract infections | \n
They are less likely to | \nSuffer from urinary tract infections | \nSuffer from hearing loss | \n
Main differences between male and female astronauts (adapted from Ref. [30]).
With permission from authors.
Astronauts are considered different due to their nationality when they are in outer space. They feel that they are treated in a different way by depending on the nation instead of focusing on their abilities or personal factors. It is more usual when they are sharing a multicultural space in a mission, according to Suedfeld, Wilk, and Cassel (2011) (as cited in Ref. [10]). Differences can be observed even in the language used to refer the rest of coworkers. For example, when people are grouped by nationality, they create an in-group feeling and tell “us” for talking about themselves and “them” for the rest. Besides, relationships and contacts between ones and others are distant [31].
\nCultural differences were also observed by comparing Europeans and Russians when the level of autonomy was increased. An interesting effect was that the Russians felt more work pressure in high-autonomy situation than the Europeans. So, the Russians reported a rise in work pressure regarding the European. On the contrary, the Europeans increased their negative dysphoric mood [14, 19]. It has also been found that differences between the motivations of astronauts belong to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the Russian Federal Space Agency (FKA), being the first ones more motivated for the need for power [5].
\nHeterogeneity of the group can be a negative aspect for crew cohesion. In this line, a research in isolated situation was realized by analyzing variables such as culture and gender. The studied simulation was developed in hermetic chambers. The different groups in the study were composed of people (both male and female) from several places: Russia, Germany, Canada, Austria, and Japan. A conflict with physical force and some social incidents must be highlighted. The tensions between the groups caused the closure of the hatch so certain experiment had to be postponed at least for a month [31].
\nFrom these results, it is derived that the cultural variables influence in some way in the perception of the subjects. Even the way to cope with problems and face with stress may be different depending on national characteristics. This may reflect different trainings and ways to operate between astronauts and cosmonauts [4]. Thanks to this kind of studies, it is possible to understand with more detail intergroup dynamics [31].
\nNot only are there studies about astronauts. The mission control personnel is also an object of investigation. In this regard, less negative emotions and more vigor and innovation among crew members of the ISS than among ground control personnel have been found. The results may relate to different personalities depending on the job. Moreover, the own fact of staying at outer space may be a source of excitation [4]. In Mars 2013 study, a high motivation and less health problems were found in comparison with control mission [17]. Besides, during “Mars-500 Project,” it was found that the conflicts between crew members and ground control personnel were five times more frequent than among people in confinement [13]. Taking up the issue of autonomy, when these levels increased for crew members and they could set goals and organize their timetable, it was lived positively by them. In fact, results showed a greater mood, creativity, and the achievement of the aims. However, ground control personnel lived the rise of the autonomy of the crew members with uncertainty and confusion [19].
\nThe knowledge exposed is relevant for the selection, training, and teaching of countermeasures for future long-duration space exploration missions [13]. For all these reasons, it is necessary to enhance prosocial attitudes. In fact, empathy is strongly related to prosocial behavior [32]. The following will discuss what measures can be implemented.
\nA series of psychosocial countermeasures can be carried out to avoid or reduce the negative effects of ICEs such as spare time; hobbies, to modify the environment (light, temperature, etc…); sleep hygiene; autonomy over clothing or schedules, to encourage a culture of group; and funny activities [10]. These practical tips can be structured and used in different fields as it is set forth in \nTable 2\n [4].
\nAspect | \nAdvices or countermeasures depending on different variables | \n|
---|---|---|
Selection | \nCrew members | \nCount on people with ability to solve social problems in a fast way, personal maturity, and psychological balance | \n
Commander | \nLeadership, ability to support the crew, and capacity to consider the psychological aspects of the crew (overall if they are from different nations and cultures) | \n|
Training | \nWhat to teach | \nHow to manage social conflicts throughout “prelaunch psychosocial educational training” | \n
How to teach | \nAddressing the training for the crew and ground control personnel, where appropriate, all together | \n|
Specific topics to train | \nTime effects, leadership, cultural issues, and crew members-mission control personnel relationship | \n|
Goals | \nDetecting problems and fixing them (e.g., throughout the learning of problem-solving strategies) | \n|
Monitoring and support | \nWhat must both professions learn | \nTo understand the problem of the other To know what stressors can be influencing on their coworkers to be able to see the other points of view (the knowledge about other tasks and jobs is required) | \n
\n | How to do it | \nGiving the group time to interact each other and discuss and communicate ideas Throughout group dynamics Using a computer-based training during the mission | \n
\n | When to do it | \nDuring prelaunch and mission | \n
Family | \nTo encourage families to play an active role To help astronauts adapt the routine | \n
Countermeasures to improve psychological issues among astronauts and increase mission probability of success (adapted from Ref. [4]).
With permission from authors.
The design of “bull sessions” to manage psychosocial problems in group to make up decisions and propose collective solutions is also recommended. Besides, it is strongly recommended to teach these social strategies since the beginning, before starting the trip. This kind of activities should be taught to all the members implied in the mission what involves both crew members and mission control personnel [4]. In another vein, it must be highlighted that there are an unbalanced number of male and female astronauts. In the face of future long-term missions, it will be paramount to introduce mixed crews to ensure multi-diversity. Other recommendations given by the same experts are to foster those studies with a perspective of gender, to take into account individual issues, and so on [30].
\nFurthermore, having analyzed psychosocial variables in the Shuttle-Mir program, researchers expose a series of measures to consider. Concretely, they claim that a common language is essential, and it should be a requirement to be selected. Of course, the compatibility between the members of the crew should be looked for. All people should be trained in interpersonal conflicts, ways to support the rest, individual strategies and joint activities, how to manage spare time, how to discuss the play rolled by the family, and how to get the readaptation of the crew once they have come back home [21].
\nRecommendations will be useful for astronauts and future candidates for long missions in order to establish a Moon base or on Mars [33]. Disagreements and social problems are a reality in outer space. Fortunately, as it will be exposed in the next section, it is possible to prevent from conflicts throughout the training of social skills [34].
\nOnce the main psychological issues related to space psychology and isolated situations have been treated, it is time to make a proposal of aspects to include in an educational program to develop social skills, emphasizing empathy, and to enhance the coexistence within crew members and between them and mission control personnel (see \nTable 3\n). The development of empathy is a way to improve social and functional behaviors [32]. The program has been designed under an educational perspective. Social abilities can be taught, and, for this reason, it is possible to train them.
\nMain points | \nDevelopment | \n|
---|---|---|
Need analysis | \nSocial conflicts can cause the failure of the mission or hinder the correct relationships among coworkers | \n|
Receiver | \nCrew members, mission control personnel, and families of astronauts | \n|
Goal and specific goals | \n\n
| \n|
Content or topics | \nEmpathy, coexistence, creativity, prosocial behavior, problem-solving, leadership, viewpoints, relaxing techniques, proactive and retroactive strategies, social skills, self-esteem, self-concept, assertiveness, coping strategies, spare time, life satisfaction, decision-making, awareness emotion, and performance | \n|
Activities | \nPersonal interviews, monitoring, peer tutoring, working in small groups (e.g., size like the crew), working in big groups, and so on (see \nTable 4\n) | \n|
Methodology | \nHuman resources | \nExpert in space and educational issues | \n
Material and technological resources | \nTests completed either on paper or digitally. The second type is essentially important during the mission to save space to carry out | \n|
Temporalization | \nPrelaunch, during the mission and post-mission | \n|
Physical space | \nPrelaunch and post-mission on Earth | \n|
Grouping | \nInitial group explanation | \n|
Evaluation | \nInitial | \nPretest to draw a baseline | \n
Continuous assessment | \nDuring all the program by adjusting, especially in the mission situation, during the trip itself, where unforeseen conflicts may arise | \n|
Final | \nPosttest, tracing and monitoring | \n
Structure of a proposal of program for developing empathy and coexistence on space travels.
To design educational programs, individual differences must be considered. For example, different levels of self-esteem have been found between men and women [35]. There are also differences in coping strategies [27]. As it can be seen in \nTable 3\n, there are two main goals. Concerning specific goals (by receiver) are to understand other viewpoints (all), to respect other cultures (all), to know a protocol to act in case of conflict (crew and control), to use a minimum of social skills to ensure coexistence (crew and control), and to support relatives and help them solve social problems (families).
\nRegarding aspects to train, a key concept to develop is creativity since this ability is involved in the process of solving problems [36]. Another relevant content is life satisfaction. It seems to exist a relationship between social problem solving and life satisfaction. Concretely, it has been found that life satisfaction is an antecedent of social problem solving. So, it is logical to conclude that if one is improved, the other will get better. For this reason, both concepts must be considered to include it within future prevention and intervention of educational programs [37]. In another vein, topics such as decision making and awareness are also relevant to future Mars travels [2]. Besides, it must be highlighted that the group dynamics are involved in all the phases and practically among the different collective professionals (see \nTable 4\n). Depending on the moment, it is possible to propose a series of activities to get the goals of the program.
\nPhase | \nActivities | \n
---|---|
Prelaunch | \nRole playing, discussion groups, brainstorming, change of roles (crew members-control mission personnel), emotional recognition dynamics, digital storytelling, case study, social problem-solving games, and discussion of dilemmas | \n
During the mission | \nMonitoring, peer tutoring, discussion groups, online discussions, change of roles (within crew members), rotational leadership, boredom prevention, setting an ephemeris—to create a common culture, mediation, and protocol of interaction and to create the figure of justice of peace | \n
Post-mission | \nStrategies for readaptation, new routines, and feedback activities | \n
Activities depending on the phase of the mission.
Concerning the activities, online discussion can be used for encouraging people to interact with each other [38]. This aspect is more important during the mission. Regarding technological resources, digital storytelling (DST) is a method which can be useful for fostering relationships and assimilation of norms and culture [39]. Mobile technology has been successfully used for teaching behavioral skills [40]. Besides, in the educational field, discussion activities by using images have been very useful for developing leadership, confidence, self-control, problem-solving skills, and emotional intelligence [41]. It would not be difficult to extrapolate this methodology to space psychology. In addition, the application of a language protocol for using very specific conflicts could avoid misunderstanding.
\nPrograms should set up not only before the mission but also during the travel to resolve social problems and avoid conflicts [13]. It has been showed on research that the motivation of the astronaut can change at three stages of their expedition, finding differences from preflight to in-flight stages [5]. For this reason, the application of different group dynamics depending on the phase (including the post-flight and readaptation) is essential [33]. The other aspect to consider is the arousal. The ability to feel relaxed is critical to face with social problems and conflicts [34]. Astronauts must learn how to increase their activity and when to decrease it by looking for the optimum operating point.
\nIt is important to create a feeling of group. Astronauts can develop a feeling of “intragroup” and “out-group” during the mission and feel displacement as a defensive mechanism to face with dysphoria. Concretely, they can consider that they do not have enough support from people outside of the group [4]. These feelings must be detected and worked. Finally, regarding the abilities of the trainer, the development of empathy of the expert with people who will be taught is essential to make the relationship work. So, it will be easier to teach them healthy strategies and skills [42].
\nIn this chapter, the implications of the concept of empathy on isolated situations and the main psychological variables involve in the space travel have been analyzed. Besides, countermeasures have also been proposed. Finally, a proposal has been made to design educational programs for training empathy and other psychological aspects. It has been seen that empathy is a key aspect of the human space flight, and due to the negative consequences that can cause its absence, it is necessary to improve it. Common goals and culture should also be fostered [31].
\nThe space race must be seen as a whole, including both technical and psychosocial aspects [2]. It is about a gear where everything must be embedded, a synergetic system where its elements are interconnected: crew members, control mission personnel, families, government, space agencies, economy of the country, political issues, etc. Social aspects are also involved. Society must want to go further. So, when the Apollo program was developed, there was a determined social context [6]. Maybe, a new space age is beginning. The humanity seems to want to go to Mars, the number of documentaries and research increases, private enterprise is also interested, and there are various projects for the next years.
\nRegarding the new challenges in the near future, the longer the mission lasts, the more problems arise [11]. And, there is no doubt that space agencies (e.g., NASA, European Space Agency (ESA), FKA, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), and Chinese National Space Administration (CNSA), among others) are worried about the astronauts’ health, and they keep them as healthy as possible. The solution to improve security will go through a multiaxial approach [2]. Maybe, when establishing the first permanent colonies on the Moon or on Mars, strong feelings of inbreeding may arise. The way to manage these feelings and the relationship that are maintained, within the
Concerning limitations, this article is a literature review. Therefore, the conclusions are based on the theoretical level. In another vein, one implicit goal of this chapter is to foster the collaboration with practitioner and researcher of aeronautics and space fields. A multidisciplinary approach is the key to the advancement of science. My specialty’s education (including social skills, the field of behavior, and coping strategies) is contributed to develop in this new academic area, and this article is sprout and pathbreaking review in such area. It must be assumed that there are principles in learning that are common so that each area of knowledge can and should contribute its grain of sand.
\nTo conclude, further research is needed to understand how empathy works [32]. Aerospace psychology can benefit from information from other branches of psychology such as education to train the crew. A mission can be affected by the lack of social skills. Human error may lead to a cancelation of the mission, loss of human lives, high economic costs, etc. For this, future mission should consider these factors in the selection. In another vein, the number of articles based on the chosen issue is low so that it is necessary to encourage scientific community to depth on this point. Therefore, educational programs to encourage candidates to improve their competences, by considering both gender and nationality, will be required. These programs will be able to set up not only before the mission but also during the travel to resolve social problems and avoid conflicts.
\nHeat is a type of energy that is in transit between a hot body (source at a higher temperature) and a cool body (receiver at a lower temperature). The driving force for heat energy transport between two points is the temperature difference between them. Calorie and joule are the most frequent units for expressing heat energy [1].
Heat transfer is the branch of science concerned with determining the rates of heat energy transfers. Conduction, convection and radiation are three modes, by which the transfer of heat occurs from a hot source to a cold recipient. In the conduction mode of heat transfer, the heat energy is generally transferred within the substance or to another substance in physical contact and is caused by lattice vibration and free electron movement. Convection is the transmission of heat due to the macroscopic motion of molecules within the medium. In general, conduction heat transfer is observed within solid mediums and convection occurs within fluids (gases or liquids) mediums by the mixing of hot and cold portions of the fluid. In the radiation mode, heat is transferred through electromagnetic waves produced by a hot body. Radiation heat can be transferred over the medium within vacuums and space [2].
Sensible heat is the heat that must be transferred to raise or lower the temperature of a system when no phase change is observed within the medium. The latent heat of phase change is the thermal energy associated with a unit amount of matter at a fixed temperature and pressure when it experiences a phase transition (from solid to liquid and vapour to liquid or vice versa) [2].
Boiling and condensation both are under the convection heat transmission process in which the system undergoes a phase transition and are opposite to each other. These processes include the involvement of both sensible and latent heat.
Boiling is the process of transferring a medium from a liquid to a vapour state by applying heat. When a liquid medium is applied to heat, then the medium will start to boil at a certain temperature (boiling point temperature). At this particular temperature, the liquid phase changes to the vapour state, known as the boiling phenomenon.
In reverse, condensation is the process of transferring a medium from a vapour to a liquid by removing the heat from the medium. When a medium initially in the vapour state is cooled, then its phase will change from vapour to liquid state, known as the condensation phenomenon. Vapours are generated by boiling, and liquid droplets are formed by condensation [1, 3].
Boiling phenomenon is generally observed in unit operations such as evaporation, distillation and steam generation and is the opposite of the condensation phenomenon. When the liquid medium is exposed to a surface, at a temperature above the saturation temperature of the liquid, the phase of the medium changes from liquid to vapour.
Suppose a liquid medium is kept within a solid vessel, to which heat is supplied to boil the liquid. Let the temperature of the solid surface be ‘Ts’ and the liquid medium have the saturation temperature of ‘Tsat’. Initially, let the solid surface temperature be below the saturation temperature of the liquid. The boiling will start, when the temperature of the supplied liquid increases from ‘Ts’ to the saturation temperature ‘Tsat’. Further on increasing the temperature of the supplied liquid, the boiling rate will also increase.
According to Newton’s law of convection, heat transferred from a solid surface to the liquid (through convection mode) is
Here,
According to the bulk fluid motion and the bulk fluid temperature, the boiling phenomenon can be classified into two basic categories.
Based on the bulk fluid motion within the liquid medium
Pool boiling: Boiling phenomenon within a liquid medium, which is at a stationary or non-flow condition, is called pool boiling. In pool boiling, heat is generally supplied through a submerged solid surface (by placing a heating coil inside the liquid) or boiling water within a solid container from external heat. Bubbles generate during the heating process travel in the liquid medium, due to buoyance, and the heat gets transferred through the natural convection process.
Flow boiling: Boiling phenomenon within a liquid medium, which is at flowing condition, is called flow boiling. In the case of flow boiling, heat is generally transferred to a flowing liquid medium through the forced convection process. Boiling in a liquid medium when it is flowing over a hot surface or within a heated pipe is an example of flow boiling [3, 5].
Based on the bulk liquid temperature within the liquid medium
Subcooled or local boiling: The boiling phenomenon is said to be subcooled or local boiling if the temperature of the bulk liquid medium above the heating surface is less than the saturation temperature of the liquid.
Saturated boiling: The boiling phenomenon is said to be saturated if the temperature of the liquid medium above the heating surface is about the saturation temperature of the liquid.
At the early stages of pool boiling, the liquid adjacent to the hot solid surface vaporises and the bubbles are formed by absorbing heat from the hot solid surface. The bubbles contain more heat energy and travel within the liquid medium due to the convection phenomenon.
But during the initial stage of boiling, the bulk fluid (a certain height above a hot solid surface) will be at a temperature much less than the liquids saturation temperature. These bubbles when they move away from the hot surface and come in contact with cold liquid, they condense and collapse by transferring the absorbed heat (from the hot surface) into the liquid medium. This phenomenon happens when the bulk liquid is at a temperature much lower than the saturation temperature (subcooled or local boiling).
Further, when the temperature of the entire liquid medium reaches about the saturation temperature, the bubbles will not condense and will start rising to the top (saturated boiling) (Figures 1 and 2) [3, 6].
Pool and flow boiling phenomena [
Subcooled and saturated boiling phenomena [
Boiling process in the pool of a liquid medium will start, when the supplied temperature exceeds the saturation temperature (ΔTexcess >0). Depending on this excess temperature ΔTexcess supplied to the liquid medium, different types of boiling regimes are observed in a pool of liquid [1, 3, 4]. Those regimes are
Natural convection boiling
Nucleate boiling
Transition boiling
Film boiling
To demonstrate these boiling regimes for a pool of liquid, a plot between boiling heat flux (rate of heat transfer per unit area) versus the excess temperature supplied is shown and known as the boiling curve (Figure 3).
Boiling curve with the boiling regimes for a pool of liquid [
Boiling or saturation temperature of a pure liquid substance depends on the applied pressure. But in practice, the bubbles are forming on the heating surface only after being heated to a few more degrees above its saturation temperature (up to 6°C for water).
The transfer of heat within the fluid (from the heating surface to the bulk fluid) in this step is by natural convection, and hence the heat flux curve increases slowly. During this condition, the liquid will be at a slightly superheated state and the superheated liquids will evaporate when it rises to the free surface.
Upon further increasing the excess temperature (ΔTexcess), the bubbles will start forming at the temperature with respect to point A of the boiling curve. With further increase in excess temperature, the rate of formation of bubbles and hence the heat flux will increase till the point C in the boiling curve.
The nucleate boiling regime (from A to C) can be further divided into two separate regions (from A to B and from B to C). In the region from A to B, with excess heat supplied beyond point A, isolated bubbles will start forming on the heated surface. As soon the bubbles start to move, these bubbles will dissolute in the liquid (subcooled boiling). The formation and dissolution of the bubble will be repeated till the temperature of the liquid reaching to saturated temperature. During nucleate boiling, the movement of the bubbles is responsible for the increase in heat transfer coefficient and heat flux.
In the region from B to C, with excess heat supplied beyond point B, the bubbles form at a great rate and a continuous column of vapour in the liquid will be observed. These bubbles move to the free surface (saturated boiling) where the vapour got released from the bubbles. The heat flux observed in this region will be larger due to the combined effect of liquid entrainment and evaporation.
High heat transfer rates are observed in the case of the nucleate boiling regime compared to other regimes; hence, it is the most desirable boiling regime in practice. For water, it can be achieved with ΔTexcess within about 30°C. The correlation for the boiling heat flux for this region was proposed by Rohsenow, which is [6, 7, 8, 9].
WithΔ Texcess value near reaching the point C, the rate of evaporation of bubbles at the heater surface will be at a very high rate throughout the entire solid surface. These bubbles may cover the heater surface; hence, the contact between solid surface and liquid will be difficult. This formed vapour film acts as an insulation due to the low thermal conductivity of the vapour relative to that of the liquid, and hence the heat flux decreases beyond point C.
The heat flux till point C reaches a maximum value and is called the
During the transition boiling, the heater surface will be completely covered by a continuous stable layer of vapour film (with increasing ΔTexcess). As the vapour film separates the liquid from the heater surface and will be responsible for transferring less heat flux, the heat flux will reach a minimum value (point D), called the
As the ∆Texcess further increases, the heat transfer will start due to the radiation from hot solid surface to liquid through the vapour medium. The heat flux will again rise slowly and as the heating takes place over a film of vapour, it is known as film boiling. The correlation for the boiling heat transfer coefficient for this region for boiling above a horizontal tube was proposed by Bromley, which is given as follows [6, 7, 8]. However, for a vertical plate, the constant 0.62 and D will be replaced by 0.7 and L, respectively:
Burnout point: As the heat flux is decreasing beyond point C, the boiling process will not be advised to continue further. Beyond point C, the power that needs to be provided to the heater surface will be more (as the heat flux decreases). However, in this condition of excess power supply, the temperature of the nichrome wire (heater) immersed in the liquid will abruptly rise to the melting point of the wire, resulting in burnout. Burnout can be avoided by using platinum wire, which has a much higher melting point.
Condensation is a convection process of changing a vapour medium to a liquid state and generally occurs when a saturated vapour comes into contact with a cold solid surface at a temperature less than the saturation temperature of the vapour. The latent heat of vaporisation must be removed during the condensation.
Condensers are widely used in the chemical industry. The process of condensation occurs by two distinct mechanisms/modes and at different rates of heat transfer. Those are film-wise and drop-wise condensation [2, 3].
When a saturated vapour comes into contact with a cold solid surface (a surface at a lower temperature than the saturated temperature of vapour), it condenses to liquid form. If condensate does not wet the surface, then the droplets of liquid are formed on the surface.
The size of droplets expands with time and eventually drops down the surface in a random pattern (due to the effect of gravity), leaving the metal surface bare on which further condensation develops.
When a saturated vapour comes into contact with a cold surface (a surface at a lower temperature than the saturated temperature of vapour), it condenses to liquid form. If condensate wets the surface, then it forms a continuous film of condensate.
These condensates completely cover the solid surface, and then heat must be transported through the condensed liquid layer. Then the vapours have to condense into the liquid film rather than direct contact with the surface. Under the action of gravity, the condensate eventually flows down the surface. The condensation caused by this technique is termed as film-wise condensation [2, 3].
The film covering the solid surface serves as a heat transmission barrier in film-wise condensation, but in drop-wise condensation, a considerable section of the surfaces is exposed directly to the vapour. Hence, the heat transfer coefficients (and thus the heat transfer rates) in drop-wise condensation are generally four to eight times greater than in film-wise condensation. The presence of dirt on the surfaces (where condensate drops develop), which appear to favour drop-wise condensation, is known as nucleation sites. Because most surfaces become wet after being exposed to the condensing vapours, film-wise condensation is very common (Figure 4) [2, 3, 6].
Drop-wise condensation | Film-wise condensation |
---|---|
In drop-wise condensation, the condensate liquids partially wet the complete solid surface by forming droplets of condensate on the surface. | In film-wise condensation, the condensed liquid wets the solid surface by forming a continuous film of condensate on the surface. |
These droplets then fall down the surface under the action of gravity, leaving the bare solid surface to condense further. | Condensate flows down the surface under the action of gravity by forming a continuous film, and further heat transfer takes place through this layer. |
As the bare solid surface is further available to condense, the heat transfer coefficients and thus heat transfer rate are very high compared to film-wise condensation. The heat transfer coefficient value is difficult to predict. | Due to the presence of a continuous liquid film of condensate between the vapour and solid surface, the heat transfer coefficients and thus heat transfer rate are very low compared to drop-wise condensation. The heat transfer coefficient value can be predicted easily. |
Drop-wise condensation is difficult to achieve and generally occurs on oily or greasy surfaces. | Film-wise condensation is easily obtainable and generally occurs on smooth, clean and uncontaminated surfaces. |
Drop-wise condensation condition is difficult to maintain and is unstable. Drop-wise condensation is commonly not used industrially. | Film-wise condensation conditions can be easily maintained and stable. Film-wise condensation is commonly used industrially. |
Drop-wise and film-wise condensation phenomena [
Let us consider a vertical plate maintained at a constant surface temperature ‘Ts’ with a height ‘L’ and width ‘b’. Let us consider a single vapour medium, at the saturation temperature ‘Tsat’, exposed to this surface. The surface temperature of the solid surface is below the saturation temperature (Ts < Tsat). When this saturated vapour comes in contact with the cold surface, then the vapour will condense on it.
In the case of film-wise condensation, it will form a continuous film of condensate on the surface of the vertical plate. The condensate liquid film layer ultimately flows down and will obtain a state as shown in the figure under the influence of viscosity and gravity.
Let the downward direction is taken as the positive x-direction with the origin placed at the top of the plate where condensation initiates, as shown in Figure 5. The film thickness of condensate ‘δ’ and thus the mass flow rate of the condensate increase with respect to the length of plate ‘x’.
Heat transfer phenomena for film condensation on vertical plate [
Heat must be transferred from the vapour to the plate through the film, which provides heat transfer resistance. The greater the thermal resistance of the film, the slower the rate of heat transfer will be. Nusselt first derived the analytical relationship between the heat transfer coefficient throughout the length of the plate in film condensation on a vertical plate in 1916, using the following assumptions:
The surface temperature of solid surface (‘Ts’) and the vapour is at saturation temperature (‘Tsat’) and is more than solid surface temperature (Ts < Tsat).
The temperature of condensate liquid varies linearly across the liquid film.
The flow within the condensate liquid layer is laminar and the acceleration of the condensate liquid layer is negligible.
Heat transfer within the condensate liquid film is through conduction mode only (no convection phenomenon in the film).
All the properties of the condensate liquid are constant throughout the film.
The viscous shear on the liquid–vapour interface is negligible (velocity of the saturated vapour is maintained very low to avoid drag on the condensate film).
The rate of heat transfer from the vapour phase to the solid surface with respect to vertical direction x can be expressed as:
The heat transfer coefficient value for the heat transfer from the vapour to the plate is changing along the length of the plate due to the thermal resistance offered by the varying thickness of condensate liquid film. If the thickness of the film is more, then more will be the thermal resistance for the flow of heat from vapour to solid and thus lower the rate of heat transfer.
Let us consider a small selected volume element of condensate in the vertical x-direction. Since the acceleration of the small section fluid is assumed zero, then according to Newton’s second law of motion, it can be written as:
The forces that act on this small elemental volume will be the weight of the liquid element (acting downward), viscous shear or fluid friction force (acting upward) and buoyancy force (acting upward).
Thus,
Integrating the aforementioned equation from y = 0 to y, we will have the relationship between the velocity along the length of the vertical pipe:
[At y = 0; u = 0 (no-slip boundary condition) and at y = y; u = u (y) (not zero)]
Then, the mass flow rate of the condensate with the boundary layer thickness is ‘δ’, at any location ‘x’ over the solid surface will be
Again, the rate of heat transfer from the vapour to the solid surface through the liquid film layer will be equal to the amount of heat released when vapour is condensed and is expressed as:
Equating the aforementioned two Eqs. (2) and (3), we have
The liquid film thickness at any location x can be determined by integrating the aforementioned equation from x = 0 (
Then the heat transfer rate from the vapour to the solid plate surface at any location x along the length of the plate can be expressed as (from Eq. (1)):
Upon integrating the aforementioned equation for the local heat transfer coefficient over the entire length of the plate (L), the value average heat transfer coefficient value is determined:
Note: In general, the density of the vapour medium will be negligible compared to the density of the liquid:
Note 1: In case, the vertical plate is inclined at an angle Θ. The heat transfer coefficient is
Note 2: In the case of the horizontal tube or sphere with diameter D, the heat transfer coefficient is
Note 3: The aforementioned equations are applicable for a single-tube system, in case N number of tubes are arranged in the system or a stack of tubes are present.
Enhancement of boiling heat transfer: Different advanced techniques that can be used to improve heat transfer in pool boiling are classified as active or passive techniques. Active approaches regulate the fluid movement by different techniques such as mixing the fluid using mechanical agitation, pumping the fluid, vibrating the surface of the container, rotating the container continuously, and adding an external electrostatic or magnetic field [6, 7, 10]. On the other hand, passive heat transfer enhancement techniques focus on changing fluid characteristics and/or heat transfer surfaces, such as increasing the number of active nucleation sites and the rate of bubble formation at each site [11, 12]. A rough, dirt-covered surface produces more nucleation sites than a smooth surface. The rate of nucleation can also be promoted by applying a thin porous layer to the surface or constructing mechanical voids on the surface to allow for continuous vapour production.
Different surface modification approaches for improving channel flow boiling heat transfer were reviewed by Liang et al. [12] and Kim et al. [13]. It covers macroscale (the use of cylindrical pins, macro ribs and twisted tape inserts), microscale (the use of micro-fins, micro-pin-fins, artificial cavities porous coating) and nanoscale (the use of nanotubes or nanowires to coat a heating surface) [13, 14] techniques to enhance the rate of heat transfers. Nanostructure approaches are reported to be less effective than macroscale and microscale improvement techniques.
Shah et al. [15] investigated the flow pattern, nucleate boiling, bubble growth, void fraction, liquid layer thickness, critical heat flux, pressure drop and heat transfer models for boiling fluid in microchannels. Adnan et al. [16] investigated the usage of nanofluids (h-BN/DCM and SiO2/DCM) to improve heat transmission in pool boiling. These nanoparticles were found to greatly improve the thermal properties of the base fluid, with a 27.59% improvement in the rate of heat transfer coefficient for saturation boiling. Heat transfer enhancement employing ZnO-water, TiO2-water, and Al2O3-water nanofluids has also been reported [17, 18, 19]. Amiri et al. [20] reported that multi-walled carbon nanotubes treated with cysteine, silver nanoparticles and Gum Arabic exhibited significant enhancement in the pool boiling heat transfer coefficients and critical heat fluxes when added with different concentrations to the aqueous media. Chen et al. [21] reported a recent and detailed review on the boiling heat transfer enhancement using different nanofluid solutions [22].
Enhancement of condensation heat transfer: Many recent reviewed research articles [23, 24, 25] are reported for advanced condensation phenomenon techniques. For condensation, the two major conditions that are nucleation on the surface and departure of liquid droplets are greatly influenced by the hydrophilicity and hydrophobicity properties of solid surfaces. Similar to boiling, numerous surface modification techniques are used to improve the heat transfer rate for condensation. Among them, constructing low free energy surfaces and building micro-nano structure surfaces are two possibilities to enhance the nucleation of liquid droplets [26].
Metallisation, ion implantation and organic polymer coating are available reported methods for lowering surface free energy. Some precious metals, such as gold, silver, palladium, rhodium, and chromium, can be plated on solid surfaces to produce metallisation. Ion implantation procedures involve the ionisation of gases such as nitrogen, argon, helium, and hydrogen using a high-voltage electric field before bombarding them into a metal surface. A thin covering of organic polymer such as fluorocarbon polymer, silica gel polymer, hexamethyldisiloxane polymer, fluorinated propylene polymer, polyhexafluoropropylene polymer and poly(p-xylene) polymers can also be used to induce drop-wise condensation on a solid metal surface [27, 28, 29, 30].
In micro-nano structure surfaces techniques, different micro-nano structures like nanowires, nanocons, nanosheets, nanoblocks of carbon nanotube, nanographene particles, ZnO, Ni and polystyrene are fabricated on the solid surfaces that provide the nucleation sites and promoting drop-wise condensation [22, 26, 30, 31].
This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the boiling and condensation phenomenon. These are the two opposite phenomena related to convective heat transfer which is the heat transfer involved during changing phase from liquid to vapour and from vapour to liquid, respectively. Boiling occurs when the temperature of liquids raises above its saturation temperature. Boiling can be classified as pool and flow boiling and as subcooled and saturated boiling. Depending on the value of the excess temperature supplied (above saturation temperature) to the liquid medium, different types of boiling regimes are observed in a pool of liquid. Those regimes include natural convection boiling, nucleate boiling, transition boiling, and film boiling.
Again, the condensation process deals with changing a vapour to a liquid state with two distinct mechanisms, that is, film-wise condensation and drop-wise condensation. The heat transfer coefficients (and thus the heat transfer rates) in drop-wise condensation are greater than in film-wise condensation. Drop-wise condensation is difficult to achieve and generally occurs on oily or greasy surfaces. Film-wise condensation is easily obtainable and generally occurs on smooth, clean uncontaminated surfaces.
k = 0.67 W/m.K; ρ = 972 kg/m3; λ = 2310 kJ/kg; μ = 3.55 х 10−04 (N.s)/m2.
Answer:
We know that the heat transfer coefficient over a vertical surface will be
L = height of the vertical plate = 1 m; D = diameter of the vertical plate = 40 mm = 0.04 m; g = gravitational acceleration = 9.81 m/s2;
Then
We know that the rate of heat transfer from the vapour to the solid surface through the liquid film layer will be equal to the amount of heat released when vapour is condensed and is expressed as:
Area of heat transfer = π х D х L = π х 0.04 х 1 = 0.12564 m2
k = 0.67 W/m.K; ρ = 972 kg/m3; λ = 2310 kJ/kg; μ = 3.55 х 10−04 (N.s)/m2.
Answer:
We know that the heat transfer coefficient over a horizontal surface will be
L = height of the horizontal plate = 1 m; D = diameter of the vertical plate = 40 mm = 0.04 m; g = gravitational acceleration = 9.81 m/s2;
Then
We know that the rate of heat transfer from the vapour to the solid surface through the liquid film layer will be equal to the amount of heat released when vapour is condensed and is expressed as:
Area of heat transfer = π х D х L = π х 0.04 х 1 = 0.12564 m2
k = 0.57 kcal/hr-m-oC; ρ = 950 kg/m3; λ = 540 kcal/kg; μ = 1.02 kg/m.hr.
Answer:
We know that the heat transfer coefficient over a vertical surface will be
L = height of the vertical plate = 30 cm = 0.3 m; D = diameter of the vertical plate = 20 mm = 0.02 m; g = gravitational acceleration = 9.81 m/s2;
Then
Area of heat transfer = π х D х L = π х 0.002 х 0.3 = 0.018846 m2.
We know that
k = 0.67 W/m.K; ρ = 972 kg/m3; λ = 2310 kJ/kg; μ = 3.55 х 10−04 (N.s)/m2.
Answer:
Given data, L = height of the vertical plate = 1 m; D = diameter of the vertical plate = 40 mm = 0.04 m; g = gravitational acceleration = 9.81 m/s2;
Area of heat transfer = A = π х D х L = π х 0.04 х 1 = 0.12564 m2
We know that the heat transfer coefficient over a vertical surface will be
We know that
Heat transfer coefficient over a horizontal surface will be
We know that
Heat transfer coefficient for the inclined angle of 45°C will be
We know that
Heat transfer coefficient for 10 number horizontal tubes in the vertical direction will be
We know that
Mass of condensate and the heat transfer rate will be maximum for the arrangement with 10 horizontal tubes in the vertical direction.
Data: The saturation temperature of Tsat = 100°C and the properties of water at this condition are.
hfg = 2257 х 103 J/kg | ||
---|---|---|
n = 1 |
Answer:
The rate of heat transfer will be equal to the product of heat flux and heat transfer area.
Here,
Excess temperature resembles the stage of nucleate boiling of liquid. Hence, the heat flux at this nucleate boiling condition will be (Rohsenow, [9])
Heat transfer area or the surface area of the bottom of the pan:
The rate of heat transfer will be = Q = q х A =
Again, the rate of evaporation of water (
Q | Amount of heat transferred from a solid surface to the fluid, W |
ax | Acceleration of small selected volume element of condensate, m/s2 |
hN | Average heat transfer coefficient for N tubes, W/m2.K |
h1 | Average heat transfer coefficient for top horizontal tube, W/m2.K |
havgorh | Average heat transfer coefficient value, W/m2.K |
hInclined | Average heat transfer coefficient value for inclined surface, W/m2.K |
hHorizontal | Average heat transfer coefficient value for horizontal surface, W/m2.K |
hVertical | Average heat transfer coefficient value for vertical surface, W/m2.K |
qmax | Critical (or maximum) heat flux, W/m2 |
D | Diameter of the horizontal tube or sphere, m |
x | Distance along the length of the solid surface, m |
y | Distance along the width of the condensate, m |
ρl | Densities of the condensed liquid, kg/m3 |
ρV | Densities of the condensed vapour, kg/m3 |
hfg or λ | Enthalpy or latent heat of vaporisation, J/kg |
Csf | Experimental constant depends on the fluid-surface combination |
n | Experimental constant depends on the fluid |
∆Texcess | Excess temperature supplied to fluid, °C, K |
δ | Film thickness of condensate, m |
δx | Film thickness of condensate along the L direction, m |
Fx | Force on small selected volume element of condensate, kg/m.s2 |
g | Gravitational acceleration, m/s2 |
q | Heat flux, W/m2 |
hx | Heat transfer coefficient along the L direction, W/m2·°C, W/m2·K |
L or H | Height of the solid surface, m |
Θ | Inclination angle of a solid surface, 0 |
ṁ | Mass flow rate of condensate along the length of condensate, kg/s |
m | Mass of small selected volume element of condensate, kg |
N | Number of horizontal tubes arranged in stacks |
Prl | Prandtl number of liquid |
Cpl | Specific heat of the liquid, J/kg. oC |
Cpv | Specific heat of the vapour, J/kg. oC |
A | Surface area of solid surface, m2 |
σ | Surface tension in the vapour-liquid interface, N/m |
Tsat | Saturation temperature of the condensing fluid, °C or K |
Ts | Surface temperature of the solid surface, °C or K |
kl | Thermal conductivity of the condensed liquid, W/m·°C or W/m·K |
kv | Thermal conductivity of the vapour, W/m·°C or W/m·K |
u | Velocity rate of condensate along the length of condensate, m/s |
μl | Viscosity of the condensed liquid, kg/m·s |
μv | Viscosity of the vapour, kg/m·s |
b | Width of the solid surface, m |
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
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\n\nAfter approval, you will proceed in submitting your full-length manuscript. 50-130 pages for compacts, 130-500 for Monographs & Edited Books.Your full-length manuscript must follow IntechOpen's Author Guidelines and comply with our publishing rules. Once the manuscript is submitted, but before it is forwarded for peer review, it will be screened for plagiarism.
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Thirumalai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6242.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",middleName:null,surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5891",title:"Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry Researches of Metal Compounds",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7201c7d0481358aa6aabe036eb9ff095",slug:"descriptive-inorganic-chemistry-researches-of-metal-compounds",bookSignature:"Takashiro Akitsu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5891.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"147861",title:"Dr.",name:"Takashiro",middleName:null,surname:"Akitsu",slug:"takashiro-akitsu",fullName:"Takashiro Akitsu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:6,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"57176",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71063",title:"Hydroxyapatite-Based Coating on Biomedical Implant",slug:"hydroxyapatite-based-coating-on-biomedical-implant",totalDownloads:1992,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"The use of metallic biomaterials for replacement of biomedical implants has been traced back from the nineteenth century. These metallic biomaterials have been declared as clinical success as their mechanical properties that satisfy the prerequisite of the human bone. Nevertheless, critical issues of the materials when they are utilised as implants; including the releasing toxic and harmful metal ions through wear and corrosion processes after longer implantation. Besides that, the bonding strength between bone and implants itself is considered weak due to the different components of human bone and metal implants. Hence, developing hydroxyapatite (HAp) coating on metallic biomaterials is expected to overcome the problems faced by biocompatible metallic biomaterials. As far as this, various commercial techniques have been introduced to develop the HAp coating on metallic biomaterials. The techniques are including plasma-spraying method, sol-gel dip-coating, electrochemical deposition and high-velocity suspension plasma-spraying. The formation of HAp coating on metallic biomaterials improved the corrosion resistance together promoting its load-bearing ability and enhanced substrate-coating adhesion.",book:{id:"6242",slug:"hydroxyapatite-advances-in-composite-nanomaterials-biomedical-applications-and-its-technological-facets",title:"Hydroxyapatite",fullTitle:"Hydroxyapatite - Advances in Composite Nanomaterials, Biomedical Applications and Its Technological Facets"},signatures:"Wan Sharuzi Wan Harun, Rahil Izzati Mohd Asri, Abu Bakar Sulong,\nSaiful Anwar Che Ghani and Zakri Ghazalli",authors:[{id:"209398",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Wan Sharuzi",middleName:null,surname:"Wan Harun",slug:"wan-sharuzi-wan-harun",fullName:"Wan Sharuzi Wan Harun"},{id:"209805",title:"Ms.",name:"Rahil Izzati",middleName:null,surname:"Mohd Asri",slug:"rahil-izzati-mohd-asri",fullName:"Rahil Izzati Mohd Asri"},{id:"209806",title:"Dr.",name:"Saiful Anwar",middleName:null,surname:"Che Ghani",slug:"saiful-anwar-che-ghani",fullName:"Saiful Anwar Che Ghani"},{id:"209807",title:"Dr.",name:"Zakri",middleName:null,surname:"Ghazalli",slug:"zakri-ghazalli",fullName:"Zakri Ghazalli"},{id:"209808",title:"Prof.",name:"Abu Bakar",middleName:null,surname:"Sulong",slug:"abu-bakar-sulong",fullName:"Abu Bakar Sulong"}]},{id:"54610",doi:"10.5772/67835",title:"Metal Oxide Polymer Nanocomposites in Water Treatments",slug:"metal-oxide-polymer-nanocomposites-in-water-treatments",totalDownloads:2150,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"Recently, several pollutants such as dyes, pharmaceuticals and phenolic compounds, which can cause toxic effects to human health, have identified in water resources. Water pollution has extensively studied and several conventional techniques, such as chemical treatment, adsorption, biological treatment, and membrane-based separation, have adopted for pollutants removal from wastewater/ water resources. However, these techniques had led to the production of soluble refractory organic compounds and health-threatening bacteria that are hard to be removed. Recently, photocatalysis has considered as one of the most viable technology for water treatment using sunlight to eliminate harmful bacteria and pollutants owing to its cost-effectiveness and high efficiency. Metal oxide and polymers have become promising materials for water treatment owing to their properties, such as surface mobility, large surface area and superb magnetic and optical properties. This book chapter discusses recent design and synthesis of visible light response polymer/metal oxide nanocomposite through several synthetic strategies for water treatment. The results show that the polymer-metal oxide nanocomposite possesses a superior photodegradation activity toward pollutants under simulated visible light. Major challenges in polymer-metal oxide nanocomposite synthesis and future research perspectives for developing alternate synthesis methodologies are also discussed.",book:{id:"5891",slug:"descriptive-inorganic-chemistry-researches-of-metal-compounds",title:"Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry Researches of Metal Compounds",fullTitle:"Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry Researches of Metal Compounds"},signatures:"Francis Opoku, Ephraim M. Kiarii, Penny P. Govender and Messai\nAdenew Mamo",authors:[{id:"195237",title:"Dr.",name:"Messai",middleName:"A.",surname:"Mamo",slug:"messai-mamo",fullName:"Messai Mamo"},{id:"196466",title:"Dr.",name:"Penny",middleName:null,surname:"Govender",slug:"penny-govender",fullName:"Penny Govender"},{id:"205367",title:"Mr.",name:"Francis",middleName:null,surname:"Opoku",slug:"francis-opoku",fullName:"Francis Opoku"},{id:"205368",title:"Mr.",name:"Ephraim",middleName:null,surname:"Kiarii",slug:"ephraim-kiarii",fullName:"Ephraim Kiarii"}]},{id:"57556",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71604",title:"Hydroxyapatite-Based Materials for Potential Use in Bone Tissue Infections",slug:"hydroxyapatite-based-materials-for-potential-use-in-bone-tissue-infections",totalDownloads:1684,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"Hydroxyapatite materials, due to their high biocompatibility, play a crucial role in orthopaedics and bone surgery as alternatives to autologous bone grafts. It was also found that coatings of metallic implants with hydroxyapatite layer improve significantly their osseointegration. Due to its bioactivity, osteoconductivity and non-toxicity, hydroxyapatite is also widely used as a component of hybrid biomaterials. The implantation of “foreign” materials brings one major concern that is the risk of potential bone tissue infections or chronic osteomyelitis. In turn, the main problem concerning bacterial infection treatment is to obtain an adequate, bactericidal drug concentration maintained for a sufficient period of time in the bone tissue. Therefore, recent developments of materials engineering are focused on delivery antibiotics directly into the affected bone. To achieve this goal, hydroxyapatite-based materials are frequently studied as carriers for antibacterial drugs. For effective support of antibiotic therapy, the antibacterial activity of certain ions (including silver, zinc or copper) may be applied. In our work, we present recent developments on ceramic materials for bacterial bone infections: hydroxyapatite-based carriers for antibiotics and modifications of hydroxyapatite with antibacterial ions. In this review, state-of-the-art and current applications of such materials are presented and discussed. We want to also present our recent results.",book:{id:"6242",slug:"hydroxyapatite-advances-in-composite-nanomaterials-biomedical-applications-and-its-technological-facets",title:"Hydroxyapatite",fullTitle:"Hydroxyapatite - Advances in Composite Nanomaterials, Biomedical Applications and Its Technological Facets"},signatures:"Katarzyna Szurkowska, Aleksandra Laskus and Joanna Kolmas",authors:[{id:"210646",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Joanna",middleName:null,surname:"Kolmas",slug:"joanna-kolmas",fullName:"Joanna Kolmas"},{id:"210895",title:"Ms.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Szurkowska",slug:"katarzyna-szurkowska",fullName:"Katarzyna Szurkowska"},{id:"210956",title:"MSc.",name:"Aleksandra",middleName:null,surname:"Laskus",slug:"aleksandra-laskus",fullName:"Aleksandra Laskus"}]},{id:"57211",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71062",title:"Gene Delivery by Hydroxyapatite and Calcium Phosphate Nanoparticles: A Review of Novel and Recent Applications",slug:"gene-delivery-by-hydroxyapatite-and-calcium-phosphate-nanoparticles-a-review-of-novel-and-recent-app",totalDownloads:1279,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"Gene therapy is a targeted therapy which can be used in the treatment of various acquired and inherited diseases. Inhabitation of a gene function, restoring or improving a gene, or gaining a new function can be achieved by gene therapy strategies. The most crucial step in this therapy is delivering the therapeutic material to the target. Nanosized calcium phosphates (CaPs) have been considered as promising carriers due to their excellent biocompatibility. In this chapter, the delivery of DNA, siRNA, and miRNA by using CaP nanocarriers were compiled in detail and the main parameters which can affect the carrier properties and thus the gene transfer efficiency were also discussed.",book:{id:"6242",slug:"hydroxyapatite-advances-in-composite-nanomaterials-biomedical-applications-and-its-technological-facets",title:"Hydroxyapatite",fullTitle:"Hydroxyapatite - Advances in Composite Nanomaterials, Biomedical Applications and Its Technological Facets"},signatures:"Feray Bakan",authors:[{id:"210002",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Feray",middleName:null,surname:"Bakan",slug:"feray-bakan",fullName:"Feray Bakan"}]},{id:"60425",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74758",title:"Mechanisms of Arsenic-Induced Toxicity with Special Emphasis on Arsenic-Binding Proteins",slug:"mechanisms-of-arsenic-induced-toxicity-with-special-emphasis-on-arsenic-binding-proteins",totalDownloads:1606,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"The importance of different arsenic forms in public health is well recognized owing to its distinct physical characteristics and toxicity. Chronic arsenic exposure has left a trail of disastrous health consequences around the world. However, the mechanisms behind the toxicity and the consequential diseases occurring after acute or chronic exposure to arsenic are not well understood. The toxicity of trivalent arsenic primarily occurs due to its interaction with cysteine residues in proteins. Arsenic binding to protein may alter its conformation and interaction with other functional proteins leading to tissue damage. Therefore, there has been much emphasis on studies of arsenic-bound proteins, for the purpose of understanding the origins of toxicity and to explore therapeutics. This book chapter illustrates the molecular mechanisms of arsenic toxicity with a special emphasis on arsenic binding to proteins and its consequences in alteration of tissue homeostasis.",book:{id:"6690",slug:"arsenic-analytical-and-toxicological-studies",title:"Arsenic",fullTitle:"Arsenic - Analytical and Toxicological Studies"},signatures:"Afaq Hussain, Vineeth Andisseryparambil Raveendran, Soumya\nKundu, Tapendu Samanta, Raja Shunmugam, Debnath Pal and\nJayasri Das Sarma",authors:[{id:"56752",title:"Dr.",name:"Jayasri",middleName:null,surname:"Das Sarma",slug:"jayasri-das-sarma",fullName:"Jayasri Das Sarma"},{id:"237283",title:"Mr.",name:"Afaq",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"afaq-hussain",fullName:"Afaq Hussain"},{id:"242002",title:"Mr.",name:"Vineeth",middleName:null,surname:"A R",slug:"vineeth-a-r",fullName:"Vineeth A R"},{id:"242003",title:"MSc.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Kundu",slug:"soumya-kundu",fullName:"Soumya Kundu"},{id:"242004",title:"MSc.",name:"Tapendu",middleName:null,surname:"Samanta",slug:"tapendu-samanta",fullName:"Tapendu Samanta"},{id:"242005",title:"Dr.",name:"Raja",middleName:null,surname:"Shunmugam",slug:"raja-shunmugam",fullName:"Raja Shunmugam"},{id:"242006",title:"Prof.",name:"Debnath",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"debnath-pal",fullName:"Debnath Pal"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"55440",title:"Solubility Products and Solubility Concepts",slug:"solubility-products-and-solubility-concepts",totalDownloads:3090,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"The chapter refers to a general concept of solubility product Ksp of sparingly soluble hydroxides and different salts and calculation of solubility of some hydroxides, oxides, and different salts in aqueous media. A (criticized) conventional approach, based on stoichiometry of a reaction notation and the solubility product of a precipitate, is compared with the unconventional/correct approach based on charge and concentration balances and a detailed physicochemical knowledge on the system considered, and calculations realized according to generalized approach to electrolytic systems (GATES) principles. An indisputable advantage of the latter approach is proved in simulation of static or dynamic, two-phase nonredox or redox systems.",book:{id:"5891",slug:"descriptive-inorganic-chemistry-researches-of-metal-compounds",title:"Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry Researches of Metal Compounds",fullTitle:"Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry Researches of Metal Compounds"},signatures:"Anna Maria Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk, Aneta Spórna-Kucab and\nTadeusz Michałowski",authors:[{id:"35273",title:"Prof.",name:"Tadeusz",middleName:null,surname:"Michalowski",slug:"tadeusz-michalowski",fullName:"Tadeusz Michalowski"},{id:"203867",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk",slug:"anna-maria-michalowska-kaczmarczyk",fullName:"Anna Maria Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk"},{id:"203868",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneta",middleName:null,surname:"Spórna-Kucab",slug:"aneta-sporna-kucab",fullName:"Aneta Spórna-Kucab"}]},{id:"61143",title:"Arsenic in Water: Determination and Removal",slug:"arsenic-in-water-determination-and-removal",totalDownloads:2129,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Depending on the physical, chemical and biogeochemical processes and condition of the environment, various arsenic species can be present in water. Water soluble arsenic species existing in natural water are inorganic arsenic (iAs) and organic arsenic (oAs) species. All acidic species, according to the chemical equilibrium, have well-recognized molecular and ionic forms in water. The distribution of iAs and oAs species is a function of pH value of water traces of arsenic that are found in groundwater, lakes, rivers and ocean. The WHO provisional guideline value for arsenic in drinking water is 10 μg L−1. The most selective and sensitive methods for determination of total arsenic and its species in water are coupled techniques including chromatography, optical methods and mass spectrometry. Determination of arsenic species is of crucial importance for selection of arsenic removal technology. Best available technologies are based on absorption, precipitation, membrane and hybrid membrane processes. Adsorption is considered to be relatively simple, efficient and low-cost removal technique, especially convenient for application in rural areas. Sorbents for arsenic removal are biological materials, mineral oxides, activated carbons and polymer resins.",book:{id:"6690",slug:"arsenic-analytical-and-toxicological-studies",title:"Arsenic",fullTitle:"Arsenic - Analytical and Toxicological Studies"},signatures:"Ljubinka Rajakovic and Vladana Rajakovic-Ognjanovic",authors:[{id:"141214",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladana",middleName:null,surname:"Rajakovic-Ognjanovic",slug:"vladana-rajakovic-ognjanovic",fullName:"Vladana Rajakovic-Ognjanovic"},{id:"235766",title:"Prof.",name:"Ljubinka",middleName:null,surname:"Rajakovic",slug:"ljubinka-rajakovic",fullName:"Ljubinka Rajakovic"}]},{id:"61286",title:"Ozone Dosage is the Key Factor of Its Effect in Biological Systems",slug:"ozone-dosage-is-the-key-factor-of-its-effect-in-biological-systems",totalDownloads:1532,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The applications of ozone are not only restricted to environmental remediation or industrial areas. This gas has been applied in medicine to treat several diseases, where positive effects have been confirmed by many clinical studies. According to the European Medical Society of Ozone and the National Center of Scientific Investigation in Cuba, it has not been possible to validate ozone’s effectiveness by traditional analytical methods. Thus, this investigation proposed evaluating the effect that ozone has on biological substrates (murine models with induced carcinogenic tumors, inflammation, and wounds), studying the variations that ozone (dissolved in physiological solution or ozonated vegetable oils) provokes over the total unsaturation of lipids (TUL), and by using the so-called method double bond index (DB-index), make a correlation with the dynamic reactions obtained by several analytical methods according to each experimental stage considered in this study.",book:{id:"6255",slug:"ozone-in-nature-and-practice",title:"Ozone in Nature and Practice",fullTitle:"Ozone in Nature and Practice"},signatures:"Tatyana Poznyak, Pamela Guerra Blanco, Arizbeth Pérez Martínez,\nIsaac Chairez Oria and Clara-L. 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It is widely distributed in nature with an average concentration of 10.5 ppm Th in the upper earth’s crust. In general, thorium occurs in relatively small number in Th-enriched minerals: thorite, thorianite, monazite, bastnaesite, and thorogummite. However, the main world resources of thorium are coupled with monazite and bastnaesite. Monazite-enriched placer deposits occurring mainly in India, Brazil, Australia, and the USA form the recently available resources of thorium. Other commercially interested concentrations of thorium are coupled with bastnaesite mined from carbonatite deposits, especially from Bayan Obo deposit in China. Currently, the worldwide thorium resources by major deposit types are estimated to total about 6.2 million tons of Th. Issues associated with thorium’s natural radioactivity are a significant deterrent to its commercial use. The monazite concentrates are recently produced only in India, Brazil, Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam, with a total amount of about 7000 tons. Consequently, experimental nuclear reactors based on thorium fuel cycle are operated recently only in India. In the long term, consumption of thorium could increase substantially if its use as a nuclear fuel becomes commercialized.",book:{id:"5891",slug:"descriptive-inorganic-chemistry-researches-of-metal-compounds",title:"Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry Researches of Metal Compounds",fullTitle:"Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry Researches of Metal Compounds"},signatures:"Miloš René",authors:[{id:"142108",title:"Dr.",name:"Miloš",middleName:null,surname:"René",slug:"milos-rene",fullName:"Miloš René"}]},{id:"57176",title:"Hydroxyapatite-Based Coating on Biomedical Implant",slug:"hydroxyapatite-based-coating-on-biomedical-implant",totalDownloads:1996,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"The use of metallic biomaterials for replacement of biomedical implants has been traced back from the nineteenth century. These metallic biomaterials have been declared as clinical success as their mechanical properties that satisfy the prerequisite of the human bone. Nevertheless, critical issues of the materials when they are utilised as implants; including the releasing toxic and harmful metal ions through wear and corrosion processes after longer implantation. Besides that, the bonding strength between bone and implants itself is considered weak due to the different components of human bone and metal implants. Hence, developing hydroxyapatite (HAp) coating on metallic biomaterials is expected to overcome the problems faced by biocompatible metallic biomaterials. As far as this, various commercial techniques have been introduced to develop the HAp coating on metallic biomaterials. The techniques are including plasma-spraying method, sol-gel dip-coating, electrochemical deposition and high-velocity suspension plasma-spraying. The formation of HAp coating on metallic biomaterials improved the corrosion resistance together promoting its load-bearing ability and enhanced substrate-coating adhesion.",book:{id:"6242",slug:"hydroxyapatite-advances-in-composite-nanomaterials-biomedical-applications-and-its-technological-facets",title:"Hydroxyapatite",fullTitle:"Hydroxyapatite - Advances in Composite Nanomaterials, Biomedical Applications and Its Technological Facets"},signatures:"Wan Sharuzi Wan Harun, Rahil Izzati Mohd Asri, Abu Bakar Sulong,\nSaiful Anwar Che Ghani and Zakri Ghazalli",authors:[{id:"209398",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Wan Sharuzi",middleName:null,surname:"Wan Harun",slug:"wan-sharuzi-wan-harun",fullName:"Wan Sharuzi Wan Harun"},{id:"209805",title:"Ms.",name:"Rahil Izzati",middleName:null,surname:"Mohd Asri",slug:"rahil-izzati-mohd-asri",fullName:"Rahil Izzati Mohd Asri"},{id:"209806",title:"Dr.",name:"Saiful Anwar",middleName:null,surname:"Che Ghani",slug:"saiful-anwar-che-ghani",fullName:"Saiful Anwar Che Ghani"},{id:"209807",title:"Dr.",name:"Zakri",middleName:null,surname:"Ghazalli",slug:"zakri-ghazalli",fullName:"Zakri Ghazalli"},{id:"209808",title:"Prof.",name:"Abu Bakar",middleName:null,surname:"Sulong",slug:"abu-bakar-sulong",fullName:"Abu Bakar Sulong"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"489",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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She has been a faculty member at the University of California, Riverside in the School of Education since 2016. Her research focuses on translational studies to explore the reward system in ASD, as well as how anxiety contributes to social challenges in ASD. She also investigates how behavioral interventions affect neural activity, behavior, and school performance in children with ASD. She is also involved in the diagnosis of children with ASD and is a licensed clinical psychologist in California. 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She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"41",type:"subseries",title:"Water Science",keywords:"Water, Water Resources, Freshwater, Hydrological Processes, Utilization, Protection",scope:"