\r\n\tBoth diagnosis and clinical manipulation of the patient with vasospasm is a unique and challenging situation. Multi-clinical approach is extremely mandatory. The patient must be treated in a center, which requires a experienced team with both neurological surgeons, interventional radiologists, neurologists and neuroanesthesiologists. Moreover, a well-equiped, isolated neurointensive care is needed for all patients suffering form subarachnoid hemorraghe. \r\n\tIn their daily practice, both neurological surgeons, interventional radiologists, neurologists, neuroanesthesiologists, and even intensive care providers have to deal and challenge of vasospasm. Numerous studies relevant to pathophysiological mechanisms underlying vasospasm had been published, but we still know little about the exact mechanisms causing vasospasm. In the last decades of modern medical era, despite the technological developments concerning the neurological care of the patients with vasospasm, we still have no effective treatment and preventive care of this devastating entity. \r\n\tThe aim of this book project is to provide in detailed knowledge to both physicians and scientists dealing with cerebral vasospasm. This book will attract interest of both students, residents, specialists and academics of neurological sciences.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1a824e678bcab74178b208a6bb6f6bb5",bookSignature:"Dr. Bora Gürer",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9448.jpg",keywords:"vasospasm, cellular responses, vascular tone, blood breakdown products, biogenic amins, electrolytes, transcranial doppler, digital subtraction angiography, cerebral blood flow studies, nitrovasodilators, free radical scavengers, calcium channel blockers, endothelin based approaches, balloon angioplasty, medical angioplasty, microneurosurgery, intraoperative manipulations",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 19th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 9th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 8th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 27th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 27th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a year",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"95341",title:"Dr.",name:"Bora",middleName:null,surname:"Gürer",slug:"bora-gurer",fullName:"Bora Gürer",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/95341/images/system/95341.jpg",biography:"Bora Gurer is currently affiliated to Department of Neurosurgery, University of Health Sciences, Fatih Sultan Mehmet Education and Research Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey. He graduated from Dokuz Eylul University, Faculty of Medicine. Besides being the youngest associate professor of neurosurgery in this country, he has a keen interest in complex neurovascular, neurooncological and skull base surgeries. He has authored numerous papers in peer-reviewed national and international journals.",institutionString:"Fatih Sultan Mehmet Education and Research Hospital",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"304289",firstName:"Rebekah",lastName:"Pribetic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/304289/images/13255_n.png",email:"rebekah@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8204",title:"Vascular Malformations of the Central Nervous System",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2b6a8a26a78af3ac73731663a494fbad",slug:"vascular-malformations-of-the-central-nervous-system",bookSignature:"Bora Gürer and Pinar Kuru Bektaşoğlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8204.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"95341",title:"Dr.",name:"Bora",surname:"Gürer",slug:"bora-gurer",fullName:"Bora Gürer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6374",title:"Hydrocephalus",subtitle:"Water on the Brain",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b431d113b9d7fca7e67c463f0970ed04",slug:"hydrocephalus-water-on-the-brain",bookSignature:"Bora Gürer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6374.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"95341",title:"Dr.",name:"Bora",surname:"Gürer",slug:"bora-gurer",fullName:"Bora Gürer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. 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\n\t\t\t
1. Introduction
\n\t\t\t
Since Iijima’s report on carbon nanotubes (CNTs) [1], which consist of graphene sheets rolled up into a cylindrical shape, many researchers have focused on CNTs due to their superior mechanical, electrical and thermal properties. Depending on the arrangement of aromatic rings along the cylindrical surface, specifically for single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs), CNTs can possess two distinguished properties such as metallic and semiconducting. In spite of many advantages, the practical applications of CNTs have been limited by their poor processability and dispersability in solvents, polymers, ceramics and metallic matrices. Indeed, the pristine CNTs are insoluble in any solvent, due to strong van der Waals interactions between CNTs and lack of chemical affinity to organic solvents. To overcome this limitation, many chemical (covalent) and physical (noncovalent) modification methods to functionalize CNTs have been developed during last decades for improved compatibilities with both liquid and solid matrices [2-3]. Among them, chemical approaches using various chemical reactions are considered to be the most promising protocol for enhancing dispersability and processability of CNTs. However, CNTs are chemically inert for efficient chemical modifications, and thus reactions have to be carried out in harsh conditions, causing significant structural damages to CNT frameworks. As a results, a sharp decrease in their intrinsic properties is inevitable [2-3]. In this regard, physical modifications of CNTs have been considered to be more favorable methods for electronic applications, because electronic structures can be largely preserved due to the noncovalent approaches for modified CNTs [4-6]. However, homogeneous dispersion using the physical method accompanied with sonication often damages CNTs due to the effects of dose time and strength. Furthermore, they also have some disadvantages such as limited utilization of materials and insufficient modification levels for practical applications. Thus, the development of nondestructive and efficient chemical modification of CNTs is highly desirable.
\n\t\t\t
Since the pioneering work from Baek et al., [7], direct Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction to inherent defective sp2C-H sites on the surface of CNTs have been widely investigated [8-13], because it has several advantages such as nondestructive reaction nature, sufficient modification level, utilization of diverse materials and suitable for mass production. Furthermore, it can be expanded to all types of carbon-based nanomaterials such as fullerenes [14], carbon nanosfibers [7, 15-17], nanodiamonds [18] and graphene [19-22]. Therefore, direct Friedel-Crafts acylation reactions could be one of ideal chemical modifications for carbon based materials, specifically CNTs. This chapter will focus on and discuss about the various aspects of direct Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction onto CNTs such as fundamental mechanisms, potential applications and perspectives. Of particular importance, this chapter is highly beneficial to general readers in research community of carbon based materials.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
2. Direct Friedel-Crafts acylation of Carbon Nanotubes
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.1. Overview and mechanism
\n\t\t\t\t
Although various chemical and physical modifications for enhancing the dispersability and processability of CNTs have been utilized for last decades, both methods have their own drawbacks depending on the platform as discussed earlier. The advantages and disadvantages of various modifications of CNTs are summarized in Table 1 [23].
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Method
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Principle
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Possible damage to CNTs
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
East to use
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Interaction with polymer matrixa\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Re-agglomeration of CNTs in matrix
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Chemical Method
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Side wall
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Hybridization of C atoms from sp2 to sp3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
√
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n ×\n
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
S
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
√
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Defect
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Defect transformation
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
√
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
√
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
S
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
√
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Physical Method
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Polymer wrapping
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
van der Waals force, - stacking
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n ×\n
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
√
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
V
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n ×\n
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Surfactant adsorption
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Physical adsorption
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n ×\n
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
√
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
W
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n ×\n
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Endohedral Method
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Capillary effect
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n ×\n
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n ×\n
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
W
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
√
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 1
Advantages and disadvantages of various modification methods of CNTs [23].
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\ta S: Strong; W:Weak; V: Variable according to the miscibility between matrix and polymer on CNT
\n\t\t\t\t
Additionally, the most chemical modifications are initiated by chemical oxidation of CNTs in strong acids [2-3]. Therefore, dramatic structural damages of CNTs can be easily happened during harsh oxidation reaction, which results in significant weakening of many useful intrinsic properties of CNTs. To overcome these problems, the development of alternative functionalization routes, which can not only introduce homogeneous surface functional groups with high density to enhance the compatibility of CNTs and various foreign matrixes, but also minimize the structural damages of CNTs during reactions to optimize their properties in various applications, are highly demanding.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 1.
A summary of reaction mechanism of direct Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction using pyrene as a model compound in poly(phosphoric acid)/phosphorous pentoxide medium [24].
\n\t\t\t\t
Recently, Baek et al., [8-11, 13] have reported an efficient route to covalently functionalize CNTs via simple reaction called as direct Friedel-Crafts acylation. Interestingly, simple benzoic acid (-COOH) and benzamide (-CONH2) groups are directly used in this newly developed synthetic strategy instead of an expensive, inconvenient and corrosive carboxylic acid chloride (COCl), which is normally utilized in Friedel-Crafts acylation. The detailed reaction mechanism of this reaction using pyrene as a model compound is shown in Figure 1 [24]. The reaction normally takes place between benzoic acid derivatives and CNTs in a mild polyphosphoric acid (PPA)/phosphorous pentoxide (P2O5) medium. PPA used in this study is a viscous polymeric acid and expected to play two important roles. Its mild acidic nature (pKa ≈ 2.1) could still be enough to protonate the surface of CNTs for deaggregation without structural damage, which is frequently observed from the oxidation reaction of CNTs using strong acids such as nitric acid (pKa ≈ -1.5), sulfuric acid (pKa ≈ -3.0) and their mixture. Thus, the outstanding properties of CNTs such as electrical, thermal and mechanical properties can be preserved. Additionally, viscous nature of PPA would help to impede reaggregation of CNTs after dispersion of CNTs with strong shear forces while mechanical stirring. Another component of reaction medium, P2O5, is used as a dehydrating agent to promote Friedel-Crafts reaction efficiently. In this reaction condition, defective sp2C-H groups inherently presented on the surfaces or edges of CNTs are reactive sites for electrophilic substitution reaction with newly generated carbonium ions (C=O+) from benzoic acid and benzylamide derivatives in PPA/P2O5 [25]. As a result, an efficient homogeneous introduction of various functional groups onto CNTs without structural damage has been obtained from the newly developed direct Friedel-Crafts acylation in PPA/P2O5. Furthermore, simple and scalable features of this approach could be regarded as additional advantages. In optimized reaction conditions, the fixed weight ratio of PPA/P2O5 (4/1) has been used as a reaction medium and the reaction takes place using high-torque mechanical stirrer at 130 °C for 48 – 72 h under dry nitrogen purge. After reaction, the solid was transferred to an extraction thimble and extracted with water for 3 days and methanol for 3 days, and finally freeze-dried for 48 h to obtain final products.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.2. Applications
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
2.2.1. Functionalization of carbon nanotubes with small molecules
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Recently, the functionalization of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) with small molecules containing benzoic acid [9, 13, 26] via direct Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction in PPA/P2O5 have been successfully demonstrated by Baek et al. For providing a fundamental concept on the relationship between structure and reactivity, a reactivity hierarchy of 4-substituted benzoic acids with multi-walled carbon nanoubes (MWCNTs) in the reaction condition has been systematically investigated [9]. Accordingly, 10 different kinds of benzoic acids with various different functionalities to 4-position of benzoic acids such as amine, hydroxyl, ethoxy, methoxy, fluoro, chloro, bromo, iodo and nitro groups were selected for the functionalization (Figure 2-left). The functionalization of MWCNTs with all benzoic acid derivatives used in this study has been efficiently occurred via a simple direct Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction in PPA/P2O5. For examples, the photograph taken of the 4-ethoxybenzoic acid and MWCNTs reaction mixture without flashlight was shiny black as shown in Figure 2-right-a. When the mixture was illuminated by flashlight, the shiny-greenish-brown color became prominent (Figure 2-right-b). The precipitated in of the mixture after reaction in distilled water was deep green as it was in the reaction mixture under the flashlight (Figure 1-right-c). The green suspension might be due to the charge complex in acidic medium. The uniformly decorated 4-ethoxybenzoyl moiety on the surface of MWCNTs and the charge complexes formed on the ether linkage could possibly display green color. These photographs provided strong visual evidence that the MWCNTs could be effectively functionalized with 4-ethoxybenzoic acid moiety. After complete purification procedures, overall yields for all cases were in the range of 53-78%. As a result, the reactivity of compounds in direct Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction in PPA/P2O5 could be greatly attributed to the ‘electron-donating’ and ‘electron-accepting’ natures of 4-substituted groups to the carboxylic acid [13]. The former displayed better reactivity than the latter.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Figure 2.
(left) Functionalization of MWCNTs with various 4-substituted benzoic acids using direct Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction, (right) a - reaction mixture of 4-ethoxybenzoic acids and MWCNTs without flashlight, b - reaction mixture of 4-ethoxybenzoic acids and MWCNTs with flashlight and c - precipitation of reaction mixture of 4-ethoxybenzoic acids and MWCNTs in distilled water [13].
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Figure 3.
SEM images of MWCNTs: (a) pristine MWCNTs, (b) 4-aminobenzoic, (c) 4-ethoxybenzoic, (d) 4-hydroxybenzoic, (e) 4-bromobenzoic and (f) 4-nitorobenzoic acid functionalized MWCNTs. Scale bars are 100 nm [13].
\n\t\t\t\t\t
The dispersability of MWCNTs was greatly enhanced by functionalization and debundling of MWCNTs with small molecules via direct Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction in PPA/P2O5, but the surface properties of functionalized MWCNTs could be altered significantly due to different functional groups were introduced [13]. For examples, the polar 4-hydroxybenzoyl substituted MWCNTs displayed the best solubility and they were easily dispersed in polar solvents such as tetrahydrofuran (THF), dichloromethane and N,N-dimethylacetamide (DMF).\n\t\t\t\t\tHowever, 4-bromobenzoyl functionalized MWCNTs were proved to be insoluble in all tested solvents. In addition to dispersability, the polarity of surface group on MWCNTs has also great influence on their size and morphology. The pristine MWCNTs show the clean and smooth surface with an average diameter of 10-20 nm (Figure 3a), while the surfaces of functionalized MWCNTs with 4-substituted benzoic acids reveal structurally intact with a larger diameter in the rage of 40-70 nm (Figure 2b-f). Assuming the length of 4-substituted benzoyl units to be approximately 1 nm, the diameters of functionalized MWCNTs should be within the range of 12-22 nm. However, all functionalized MWCNTs showed larger diameters, at least twice that of pristine MWCNTs. This implies that they were in the bundled state. The size of bundles was closely related to the polarity of the surface groups and the degree of functionalization. When there is enough lateral interaction among tubes to overcome axial rigidity, the larger number of tubes are aggregated to form bundle, and thus the diameters are increased. The SEM images in Figure 3 show that the average diameters of samples with polar surface groups such as amino, hydroxyl and nitro benzoic acids were larger than those of samples with non-polar surface groups such as ethoxy and bromo. Furthermore, the surface morphologies of functionalized MWCNTs with non-polar surface groups appeared to be soft and puffy (Figure 3c and d), while functionalized MWCNTs with polar surface groups showed shiny and rigidly sooth morphologies (Figure 3b, d and f).
\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t
Furthermore, this unique synthetic strategy can be applied to different types of CNTs like single- [10], few- [27-28] and multi-walled CNTs [8-13]. Recently, it has been reported that few-walled carbon nanotubes (FWCNTs), defined as nanontubes with sidewalls typically of 2 to 6 layers, diameters ranging from 3 to 8 nm, have particularly distinguished from other types of CNTs [29]. Therefore, the functionalization of FWCNTs without structural damages to generate nanocomposites hybrid materials or even thin film has attracted great attentions for their various potentials in device applications. In this purpose, Baek et al., demonstrated that the functionalization of FWCNTs with two different surface groups using a direct Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction in a nondestructive PPA/P2O5 medium [27]. The less polar 4-ethylbenzoic acid and more polar 4-(aminomethyl)benzoic acid have been used for the surface modification of FWCNTs. Interestingly, 4-ethylbenzoic acid functionalized FWCNTs can absorb water more than 28 times its own weight, indicating that the nature of surface functional groups was significantly attributed to the sponge behavior of functionalized FWCNTs. In addition the electrical capacitance of functionalized FWCNTs was also significantly affected by the nature of surface groups [27]. Furthermore, it has been also reported that an efficient route to prepare highly conducting and flexible FWCNTs thin film by Baek et al., (Figure 4) [28]. The free standing thin films were fabricated by functionalizing FWCNTs with 4-ethoxybenzoic acid via a direct Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction in a similar condition. The resulting 4-ethoxybenzoic acid functionalized FWCNTs (EBA-f-FWCNTs) were readily dispersed in water and the films were simply casted from the filtration of the dispersed solution. Room temperature electrical conductivity of the thin flexible film of EBA-f-FWCNTs shows a value as high as 29,400 S/cm-1, while the tensile strength and modulus of it were found to be about 80 MPa and 15 Gpa, respectively. In addition cyclic voltamogram reveals a rectangular shape with superior capacitance of 133 F/g for the thin film [28]. This study demonstrated the simple and efficient preparation methods to produce highly flexible and conductive thin film of FWCNTs using a direct Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction in a mild reaction condition.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Figure 4.
(a) Schematic cartoon depicting the functionalization of FWCNTs with 4-ethoxybenzoic acid. Digital photographs of (b) reaction flask, (c) EBA-f-FWCNTs dispersed in water without light, (d) EBA-f-FWCNTs dispersed in water light, (e) thin film made of EBA-f-FWCNTs (f) 180 °C folded thin film and (g) carbonized EBA-f-FWCNTs thin film at 600 °C for 2h [28].
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Hitherto, a various aspects of direct Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction in PPA/P2O5 between 4-substituted benzoic acids and CNTs have been discussed. Interestingly, this strategy can be expanded to 4-substituted benzamides instead of 4-substituted carboxylic acids. The benzamide could also be directly attached to the surface of CNTs. As a model compound, 4-(2,4,6-trimethylphenoxy)benzamide (TMPBA) was reacted with single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) in PPA/P2O5 as a mild direct Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction condition to afford TMPBA functionalized SWCNTs (Figure 5a) [10]. The covalent attachment of TMPBA onto the surface of SWCNTs was proved by elemental analysis (EA), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), Raman spectroscopy and thermogravimatric analysis (TGA). In addition, the SEM image of TMPBA-g-SWCNT shows that the surface of SWCNTs is apparently decorated with covalently bonded moieties (Figure 5b). From the results, direct Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction in PPA/P2O5 could be one of powerful tools for the covalent modification of CNTs with small molecules containing various functional moieties.
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Figure 5.
(a) Functionalization of SWCNTs with 4-(2,4,6-trimethylphenoxy)benzamide (TMPBA) and (b) SEM image of TMPBA-g-SWCNTs. Scale bar is 100 nm [10].
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Due to the efficient modification of CNTs with a covalent attachment of small molecules with various functionalities, the functionalized CNTs are very useful for the preparation of composites via both solution and melt processes. For examples, 4-ethyoxybenzoic acid modified MWCNTs could be homogeneously dispersed in ethylene glycol (EG) and in situ polymerized with terephthalic acid. The pilot scale preparation of polyethyleneterephthalate (PET)/4-ethyoxybenzoyl modified MWCNTs composited was successfully demonstrated [30]. Various systems such as polycarbonate/4-hydroxybenzoyl modified MWCNTs, polyester thermoplastic elastomer/4-chlorobenzoyl modified MWCNTs [31], epoxy (EPON 828)/4-aminobenzoyl modified MWCNTs [32], poly(3-hexylthiophene)/4-hydroxybenzoyl modified MWCNTs [33] and Nylon 610/4-chlorobenzoyl modified MWCNTs composites were prepared via either in situ or interfacial polymerizations [26]. Furthermore, various conducting polymers such as polyaniline [11, 34-35] and polypyrrole [36] have also been successfully grafted onto 4-aminobenzoyl modified MWCNTs as an anchoring sites via\n\t\t\t\t\t\tin situ polymerization. These composite materials with conducting polymers grafted to MWCNTs show the enhanced conductivity and unique electrocatalytic activities. In addition to polymers, inorganic materials such as gold nanoparticles (GNPs) can also be immobilized onto the surface 4-mercaptobenzoyl functionalized MWCNTs as a platform (Figure 6) [37]. Firstly, the functionalization of MWCNTs with 4-mercaptobenzoic acid by a direct Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction to afford MWCNTs containing thiol groups was carried out in a nondestructive condition. Then, the separately prepared citrate stabilized GNPs were mixed with MWCNTs containing thiol moieties. Due to the strong interactions between thiol and GNPs, they can be stably immobilized onto the surface of MWCNTs covered by thiol groups without agglomeration. These hybrid inorganic-CNTs composites exhibit high electrocatalytic activity and electrochemical stability [37]. These numerous findings of CNTs based composite materials using functionalized CNTs prepared by a simple direct Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction in a mild reaction medium reveal various utilizations of them for application-specific purposes.
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Figure 6.
(a) Functionalization of MWCNTs with 4-mercaptobenzoiic acid and preparation of hybrid composites with gold nanoparticles (TMPBA) and SEM images of (b) pristine MWCNTs, (c) 4-mercaptobenzoic acid modified MWCNTs and (d) their hybrid composites with gold nanoparticles. Scale bar is 200 nm [37].
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2.2.2. In situ grafting of linear or hyperbranched polymers onto carbon nanotubes
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Due to the unique features of CNTs, they have been actively investigated for uses as reinforcing components to deliver outstanding properties to various matrixes such as polymers [38-39], ceramics [40] and low melting metals [41]. The resultant nanocomposites are expected to display enhanced properties providing various potential applications for light-weight and multifunctional materials. Unfortunately, CNTs usually exist in ropes and bundles due to strong lateral interactions between the tubes, causing difficulty in homogeneous dispersing them in a multi-component system. Therefore, various physical and chemical modifications to afford homogeneous dispersion of CNTs are required for the effective transfer of their outstanding properties to the matrix materials. However, chemical approach using strong acids and physical approach with sonication treatment can easily cause significant damages such as sidewall opening and tube breakage on their structures. In addition to dispersion, the strong interfacial adhesion between CNTs and matrix is also one of crucial factors in nanocomposites. It is also well known that noncovalent interactions between CNTs and matrix in nanocomposites are not expected to have any synergic effect even after homogeneous dispersions of CNTs could be achieved. Thus, it is highly desirable to covalently link desired polymers to the surface of CNTs. As a result, the development of efficient covalent polymer grafting to the surface of CNTs without structural damages is highly demanding to meet the above mentioned two important requirements for nanocomposites, i.e., homogeneous dispersion and strong adhesion interaction with matrix. In this context, the chemical modification methods of CNTs with various linear and hyperbranched polymers using less destructive direct Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction in a mild PPA/P2O5 medium have been demonstrated by Baek, et al., [8, 12, 25, 42-43]. In situ covalent attachments of linear and/or hyperbranched poly(ether-ketone) onto the surface of CNTs were successfully performed in a mild reaction medium. AB and AB2 types of monomers was used for the grafting of linear and hyperbranched polymers, respectively, to the surface of CNTs. The linear poly(ether-ketone) grafted CNTs show the dramatic increase in solution viscosity due to the formation of giant molecules during polymerization and the polymer chains are uniformly coated on the surface of CNTs. The resulting nanocomposites were easily fabricated using a simple compression molding technique and the possibility of aligning the CNTs in their nanocomposites via solution spinning to significantly enhance the anisotropic tensile properties along the fiber axial direction was also demonstrated [42]. Compared to linear counterpart, the unique highly branched structures and available surface functionalities of hyperbanched polymers offer unusual properties such as low viscosity and enhanced solubility [44-45]. After covalent attachment of three-dimensional globular hyperbranched polymer molecules to the surface of CNTs (Figure 7) [43], the resultant hyperbranched polymer grafted (HBP-g-CNTs) nanocomposites are expected to display both enhanced dispersion and interfacial interaction. The former would be originated from impeding the lateral interaction between CNTs when hyperbranched polymers grafted to the surface of them and the latter is enhanced by the topological roughness contributed from the broad size distribution of the hyperbranched macromolecules. Furthermore, the numerous periphery surface groups and fractal molecular architecture of rigid hyperbranched polymers could provide additional chemical interactions and mechanical interlocking between HBP-g-CNTs nanocomposites and supporting matrix.
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Figure 7.
Grafting of hyperbranched poly(ether-ketone) onto the surface of CNTs from AB2 monomer (a: PPA/P2O5) [43].
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The hyperbranched poly(ether-ketone) has been attached onto the surface of both SWCNTs and MWCNTs [43]. The diameter range of pristine SWCNTs bundles is 40-60 nm (Figure 8a), while hyperbranched polymer grafted SWCNTs (HBP-g-SWCNTs) bundles show much smaller diameter range of 5-25 nm than that of pristine SWCNTs (Figure 8c). In addition, the shape of them resembles fractal structures. Some HBP-g-SWCNTs fibrils are stemmed out like tree branches and imbedded into hyperbranched matrix. The overall state of dispersion is homogeneous. Therefore, it could be hypothesized that once split is occurred at the edge of SWCNTs bundle when mechanical stirring shear force is applied, viscous polymeric reaction medium containing AB2 monomer, which is readily react, is penetrated in between split and finally wedged by hyperbranched poly(ether-ketone). As a result, the splits are started from the tips of SWCNTs bundles and propagated further into the bundles (Figure 6c). In case of MWCNTs, the pristine MWCNTs show the seamless and smooth surfaces (Figure 8b). However, heavy amount of hyperbranched poly(ether-ketone) attached to MWCNTs could be clearly seen from the SEM images after grafting of hyperbranched poly(ether-ketone) (Figure 8d). The resultant hyperbranched polymer grafted MWCNTs (HBP-g-MWCNTs) have the diameter range of 40-150 nm, which is strong indication that the covalent attachment of hyperbranched poly(ether-ketone) to the surface of MWCNTs. Furthermore, the surfaces of nanocomposites are appeared to be puppy and bumpy compared to pristine MWCNTs.
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Figure 8.
SEM image of (a) SWCNTs, (b) MWCNTs, (c) HBP-g-SWCNTs and (d) HBP-g-MWCNTs. All images are captured under the same magnification (100,000×) [43].
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Similarly, the grafting of hyperbranched poly(ether-ketone) to the surface of MWCNTs could be realized in alternative way using unique self-controlled polycondensation methodology directly from the mixture of commercially available A3 and B2 monomers in the same reaction medium of PPA/P2O5 without gelation problem [8]. In addition, linear and hyperbranched poly(ether-ketone) containing flexible oxymethylene spacers grafted MWCNTs were also prepared by a direct Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction [25]. The resultant nanocomposites are soluble in most strong acids such as trifluoroacetic acid, methanesulfonic acid and sulfuric acid, and they are expected to display enhanced melt processability due to the flexible spacers in structural unit. It is worth to note that the semimetallic nanocomposites, linear or hyperbranched poly(phenylene sulfide) (PPS) grafted MWCNTs, could be successfully prepared by two-step reaction sequences [12]. Firstly, MWCNTs were functionalized with 4-chlorobenzoic acid using a direct Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction in PPA/P2O5 to afford 4-chlorobenzoyl functionalized MWCNTs (CB- MWCNTs). A subsequent nucleophilic substitution reaction between CB- MWCNTs and 4-chlrobenzenethiol as an AB monomer or 3,5-dichlrobenzenethiol as an AB2 monomer was conducted to graft the linear PPS (LPPS) or hyperbranched PPS (HPPS) in NMP/toluene in the presence of sodium carbonate to afford LPPS grafted MWCNTs (LPPS-g-MWCNTs) or HPPS grafted MWCNTs (HPPS-g-MWCNTs), respectively (Figure 9). The covalent attachment of corresponding polymers onto the surface of MWCNTs was indirectly confirmed by a model study without MWCNTs.
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Figure 9.
Grafting of (a) LPPS and (b) HPPS onto CB-g-MWCNTs, (c) Synthesis of LPPS and HPPS [12].
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The SEM image of pristine MWCNTs shows that the tubes have seamless and smooth surfaces with an average diameter of 10-20 nm (Figure 10a). However, the average diameter of CB- MWCNTs is approximately 40 nm, which is 2-4 times thicker than that of pristine MWCNTs (Figure 10b). Interestingly, the shape of tube could be discerned by two parts. Opaque inner-hard core is covered by translucent outer-shadow-like part. The diameter of inner part in a rage of 10-20nm agrees well with that of the parent MWCNTs. Out-shadow-like part could be due to the 4-chlorobenzoyl moieties that have uniformly covered the surface of CB- MWCNTs. The SEM images of LPPS-g-MWCNTs reveal that the diameter approximately 100 nm, which is much larger than that of pristine MWCNTs and CB- MWCNTs (Figure 10c). Therefore, it is estimated that LPPS is heavily grafted to the CB- MWCNTs. In case of HPPS-g-MWCNTs, although the diameter dimension is close to that of CB-g-MWCNTs, the original outer-shadow-like part of CB- MWCNTs appears to be completely covered with newly attached HPPS (Figure 10d).
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For the verification of structural integrity of MWCNTs during reaction sequences and the covalent attachment of the relevant polymers, transmission electron microscopic (TEM) analysis was conducted. The TEM images of LPPS-g-MWCNTs and HPPS-g-MWCNTs show that the tubes are heavily decorated with polymers (Figure 11). Furthermore, the clear wall-to-wall stripes of MWCNTs framework with its structural integrity suggest that the structural stability of MWCNTs under the two-step reaction sequence. The resultant nanocomposites show the enhanced dispersability and melt-processability, and they could be easily compression molded. Due to the synergetic effect originated from two components of MWCNTs and PPS, even without chemical doping, the surface conductivities of LPPS-g-MWCNTs and HPPS-g-MWCNTs molded samples could be reached to the semimetallic transport region at 11.76 and 3.56 S/cm, respectively [12].
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Figure 10.
SEM image of (a) pristine MWCNTs, (b) CB-g-MWCNTs, (c) LPPS-g-MWCNTs and (d) HPPS-g-MWCNTs. All images are captured under the same magnification (100,000×) [12].
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Figure 11.
TEM images of (a) LPPS-g-MWCNTs and (b) HPPS-g-MWCNTs.
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2.3. Other carbon-based nanomaterials: fullerene (C60), carbon nanofiber, and graphene
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In addition to CNTs, the covalent modification method of direct Freidel-Crafts acylation reaction in a mild PPA/P2O5 medium can be expanded to other carbon-based nanomaterials such as fullerene (C60) [14], carbon nanofiber [7, 15-17] and graphene [19-22]. Buckminster fullerene, C60, which is of the most abundant carbon sphere, is generally considered as a stable electron deficient material. Due to the electron affinity, C60 is considered as to be more susceptible to nucliophilic reaction than to electrophilic one. However, Baek et al., firstly reported the covalent electrophilic functionalization of C60\n\t\t\t\t\tvia direct Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction in a mild PPA/P2O5 medium using 4-(2,4,6-trimethylphenoxyl)benzamide (TMPBA) as a substituent (Figure 12) [14]. After careful characterizations, it is suggested to that multiple destructive covalent attachments of TMPBAs onto C60 has successfully occurred and an average of 6.4 carbons was regioselectively detached from C60 framework to give C 53.6(TMPBA)6.
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Figure 12.
Synthesis of 4-(2,4,6-trimethylphenoxy) benzoyl functionalized fullerene. (a: PPA/P2O5) [14].
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In comparison to CNTs, vapor-grown carbon nanofibers (VGCNFs), which are structurally hollow and multi-walled but several orders of magnitude larger in diameter and length than those of CNTs, are more attractive from a standpoint of practicality in terms of their relatively low cast and availability in larger quantities as a result of their more advanced stage in commercial production. These carbon nanofibers (CNFs) are typically produced by a vapor-phase catalyst process in which a carbon-containing feedstock (e.g. CH4, C2H4, etc.) is pyrolyzed in the presence of small metal catalyst (e.g. ferrocene, Fe(CO)5, etc.) and have an outer diameter of 60-200 nm, a hollow core of 30-90 nm, and length in the order of 50-100 μm [15-16]. Furthermore, VGCNFs have been widely used for tailoring properties in their polymer composites via cost-effective way, because of their inherent electrical and mechanical properties. To enhance compatibility and dispersability of VGCNF in polymeric matrix, various covalent grafting methods including ring-opening, atom-transfer radical and self-condensing polymerizations have been developed [17]. However, these approaches generally require multi-step synthetic procedures and limited species of materials can be utilized. To overcome these problems, Baek et al., developed efficient functionalization and grafting methods onto the surface of VGCNF in a mild PPA/P2O5 medium, called as a direct Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction (Figure 13) [15-17]. As a result, the dispersion, interfacial adhesion and solution processabiliy of VGCNF have been greatly improved, which is quite beneficial for the development of high performance polymer-based nanocomposites.
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Figure 13.
Synthesis of 3,5-diphenoxybenzoic acid functionalized VGCNF. (i: PPA/P2O5) [16].
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Similarly to CNTs, the functionalization of VGCNF via direct Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction in PPA/P2O5 with various materials such as small molecules [7, 32], linear [15] and hyperbranched poly(ether-ketone) [16-17] have been successfully demonstrated. Specifically, the covalent attachment of hyperbranchedhyperbranched poly(ether-ketone) onto the surface of VGCNF has been clearly verified by TEM analysis. The TEM image of pristine VGCNF shows a smooth surface (Figure 14a). However, the nanofiber surfaces of VGCNF containing 20 wt % of grafted hyperbranchedhyperbranched poly(ether-ketone) polymers show a rough and fuzzy surface (Figure 14b). Furthermore, there is an obvious increase in the diameter due to the heavy coating by the attached hyperbranched poly(ether-ketone) with a thickness range of 10-20 nm [17]. Due to intrinsic nature of hyperbranched polymers such as a reduced viscosity, for example, the hyperbranched poly(ether-ketone) grafted VGCNF would be amenable to applications where speed and large-area coverage are required, such as spraying and painting techniques.
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Figure 14.
TEM images of (a) prisitne VGCNF and (b) hyperbranched poly(ether-ketone) polymer grafted VGCNF [17].
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Graphene as a one of carbon-based nanomaterials, is currently the focal point for research into condensed matter due to its promising properties such as exceptional mechanical strength (~ 1100 GPa), high thermal conductivity (~ 5000 Wm-1K-1), large specific surface area (~ 2630 m2g-1) and ultra high electron transport properties (200,000 cm2V-1s-1) [46]. There are two major approaches used in the preparation of graphene. The first method is the exfoliation of pristine graphite into graphene, which involves physical and chemical methods [47-48]. The second method is where graphene can be directly grown using chemical vapor deposition (CVD) on a metal substrate [49] or from single crystal carbide [50]. For mass production, the chemical methods belong to the first approach is more preferred, but they still need to be optimized. In this regard, graphene oxide (GO) are widely investigated for the various applications of graphene, however GO has larger structural damages during the harsh preparation methods using strong acids and requires reduction, which has a limited conversion to reduced graphene oxide (rGO). Hence, the original graphitic structures cannot be efficiently restored in final graphitic structure, when GO is used as a starting material.
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Figure 15.
(a) Schematic presentation of graphite exfoliation mechanism and (b) schematic representation of the reaction between graphite and 4-aminobenzoic acid as amoelcualr wedge via Friedel-Crafts acyaltion in PPA/P2O5 medium [20].
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Therefore, the development of less destructive and highly efficient method to exfoliate graphite into two-dimensional graphene and/or graphene-like sheets is highly required for the graphene research community. To meet this strong demand, Baek et al., developed a new approach to chemical exfoliation of graphite by grafting organic moleculear wedges to the defect sites (mostly sp2C-H) located mainly on the edges of graphite via a direct Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction in a mild PPA/P2O5 medium [19-22]. The reaction condition has been previously optimized for the functionalizaiton of carbon-based nanomateirals such as fullerene [14], CNTs [8-13] and VGCNF [7, 15-17]. This method is the first attempt at large-scale direct chemical exfoliation of graphite not involving strong acid and sonication that are known to damage graphitic carbon framework. The schematic presentation of graphite exfoliation mechanism and the reaction between graphite and 4-aminobenzoic acid as a molecular wedge via direct Friedel-Crafts acylation are shown in Figure 15 [20].
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Figure 16.
(a) TEM images with electron diffraction pattern (inset) of EFG and (b) AFM image with topological height profiles [20].
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The resultant edge-selectively functionalized graphene (EFG) becomes dispersible without damaging the inner crystalline graphitic structure. The TEM image for EFG dispersion in NMP and dip-coated on an aperture carbon-grid, along with the corresponding selected-area electron diffraction (SAED) pattern is shown in Figure 16a. The graphene sheet is wrinkled due to its flexibility, and its surface is clean without noticeable flaws. Most of EFG consists of less than five graphene sheets. AFM images obtained from EFG on a silicon wafer clearly show EFG with approximately ~ 2 μm width and a few micron lengths (Figure 16b). Many bright spots on the edges of graphene are seen due to the covalent attachment of organic wedges. The thickness of graphene is 0.8 nm, whose value indicates single layer graphene. All topological height profiles clearly show that the interior (basal plane) are lower than the edges, implying that edge-functionalization is exclusively occurred at edges, where presumably sp2C-H defects are located [20]. Thus the efficient exfoliation of graphite and edge-selective functionalization of graphene for improving dispersability and processabiliy have been successfully achieved by simple one-pot reaction using a direct Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction in a mild PPA/P2O5 medium. In addition to small molecular wedges, various macromolecular wedges using linear [51] or hyperbranched [21] polymer have also been introduced to graphene. Due to the enhanced dispersability and compatibility without structural damages, the resultant EFG has huge potentials in various applications such as polymer nanocomposites [51-52], fuel cells [22] and optoelectronic devices [19].
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3. Conclusion
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“Direct” Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction of electron-deficient CNTs in a mild PPA/P2O5 medium is a simple but less destructive functionalization method. Numerous results envision that various functional materials such as small molecules, linear and hyperbranched polymers could be covalently attached to the surface of CNTs without or with minimal damages to their carbon framework. The dispersability and compatibility of the functionalized CNTs have been greatly improve keeping their intrinsic properties, which could be regarded as a feasible approach to hybridization of CNTs and organic materials such as polymers. Furthermore, this nondestructive synthetic strategy can be expanded to other carbon-based nanomaterials such as fullerene, carbon nanofiber and graphene. Therefore, a direct Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction in a mild PPA/P2O5 medium possesses indeed significant potentials for the development of functional materials in various fields from all types of carbon-based nanomaterials.
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Acknowledgments
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This research work was supported by World Class University (WCU), US-Korea NBIT, and Basic Research (MCR) programs through the National Research Foundation (NRF) of Korea funded by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MEST) and the U.S.Air Force Office of Scientific Research (AFOSR).
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\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/37759.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/37759.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/37759",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/37759",totalDownloads:2896,totalViews:390,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"March 4th 2012",dateReviewed:"June 19th 2012",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"February 27th 2013",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/37759",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/37759",book:{slug:"physical-and-chemical-properties-of-carbon-nanotubes"},signatures:"Dong Wook Chang, In-Yup Jeon, Hyun-Jung Choi and Jong-Beom Baek",authors:[{id:"31369",title:"Prof.",name:"Jong-Beom",middleName:null,surname:"Baek",fullName:"Jong-Beom Baek",slug:"jong-beom-baek",email:"jbbaek@unist.ac.kr",position:null,institution:{name:"Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"41448",title:"Mr.",name:"In-Yup",middleName:null,surname:"Jeon,",fullName:"In-Yup Jeon,",slug:"in-yup-jeon",email:"inyup@unist.ac.kr",position:null,institution:null},{id:"152523",title:"Prof.",name:"Dong Wook",middleName:null,surname:"Chang",fullName:"Dong Wook Chang",slug:"dong-wook-chang",email:"dwchang@cu.ac.kr",position:null,institution:null},{id:"163180",title:"Ms.",name:"Hyun-Jung",middleName:null,surname:"Choi",fullName:"Hyun-Jung Choi",slug:"hyun-jung-choi",email:"hjchoi@unist.ac.kr",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Direct Friedel-Crafts acylation of Carbon Nanotubes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Overview and mechanism",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Applications",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.2.1. Functionalization of carbon nanotubes with small molecules ",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.2.2. In situ grafting of linear or hyperbranched polymers onto carbon nanotubes",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.3. Other carbon-based nanomaterials: fullerene (C60), carbon nanofiber, and graphene",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"3. 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H.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMirau\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC. Y.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBaek\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. B.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tSolubilization of carbon nanofibers with a covalently attached hyperbranched poly (ether ketone)\n\t\t\t\t\tChemistry of Materials\n\t\t\t\t\t20\n\t\t\t\t\t1502\n\t\t\t\t\t15\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B18",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD. H.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL. 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S.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPark\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2011\n\t\t\t\t\tLarge-Area Graphene Films by Simple Solution Casting of Edge-Selectively Functionalized Graphite\n\t\t\t\t\tACS Nano.\n\t\t\t\t\t5\n\t\t\t\t\t4974\n\t\t\t\t\t80\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B20",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJeon\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI. Y.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBae\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. Y.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLee\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tShin\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDai\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBaek\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. B.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tHigh-yield exfoliation of three-dimensional graphite into two-dimensional graphene-like sheets\n\t\t\t\t\tChemical Communications\n\t\t\t\t\t46\n\t\t\t\t\t6320\n\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B21",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJeon\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI. Y.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChoi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBae\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. Y.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD. W.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBaek\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. B.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2011\n\t\t\t\t\tWedging graphite into graphene and graphene-like platelets by dendritic macromolecules\n\t\t\t\t\tJournal of Materials Chemistry\n\t\t\t\t\t21\n\t\t\t\t\t7820\n\t\t\t\t\t6\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B22",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJeon\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI. Y.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBae\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. Y.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChoi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD. W.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDai\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2011\n\t\t\t\t\tFormation of Large-Area Nitrogen-Doped Graphene Film Prepared from Simple Solution Casting of Edge-Selectively Functionalized Graphite and Its Electrocatalytic Activity\n\t\t\t\t\tChemistry of Materials\n\t\t\t\t\t23\n\t\t\t\t\t3987\n\t\t\t\t\t92\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B23",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMa\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSiddiqui\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP. C.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMarom\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tN. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKim\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. K.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tDispersion and functionalization of carbon nanotubes for polymer-based nanocomposites: A review\n\t\t\t\t\tComposites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing\n\t\t\t\t\t41\n\t\t\t\t\t1345\n\t\t\t\t\t67\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B24",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJeon\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI. Y.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChoi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE. K.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBae\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. Y.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBaek\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. B.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tEdge-Functionalization of Pyrene as a Miniature Graphene via Friedel-Crafts Acylation Reaction in Poly (Phosphoric Acid)\n\t\t\t\t\tNanoscale Research Letters\n\t\t\t\t\t5\n\t\t\t\t\t1686\n\t\t\t\t\t91\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B25",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJeon\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI. Y.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBaek\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. B.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tNanocomposites derived from in situ grafting of linear and hyperbranched poly (ether‐ketone) s containing flexible oxyethylene spacers onto the surface of multiwalled carbon nanotubes\n\t\t\t\t\tJournal of Polymer Science Part A: Polymer Chemistry\n\t\t\t\t\t46\n\t\t\t\t\t3471\n\t\t\t\t\t81\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B26",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJeong\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. Y.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLee\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. W.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBaek\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. B.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tNylon 610/functionalized multiwalled carbon nanotube composite prepared from in‐situ interfacial polymerization\n\t\t\t\t\tJournal of Polymer Science Part A: Polymer Chemistry\n\t\t\t\t\t46\n\t\t\t\t\t6041\n\t\t\t\t\t50\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B27",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKumar\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBaek\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. B.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tSponge Behaviors of Functionalized Few-Walled Carbon Nanotubes\n\t\t\t\t\tThe Journal of Physical Chemistry C.\n\t\t\t\t\t114\n\t\t\t\t\t14868\n\t\t\t\t\t75\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B28",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKumar\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tN. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJeon\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI. Y.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSohn\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG. 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B.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCho\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG. W.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tEnhancement of the field-effect mobility of poly (3-hexylthiophene)/functionalized carbon nanotube hybrid transistors\n\t\t\t\t\tOrganic Electronics\n\t\t\t\t\t9\n\t\t\t\t\t317\n\t\t\t\t\t22\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B34",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJeon\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI. Y.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBaek\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. B.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tSynthesis and electrical properties of polyaniline/polyaniline grafted multiwalled carbon nanotube mixture via in situ static interfacial polymerization\n\t\t\t\t\tJournal of Polymer Science Part A: Polymer Chemistry\n\t\t\t\t\t48\n\t\t\t\t\t1962\n\t\t\t\t\t72\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B35",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChoi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJeon\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI. Y.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. W.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBaek\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. B.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2011\n\t\t\t\t\tElectrochemical activity of a polyaniline/polyaniline-grafted multiwalled carbon nanotube mixture produced by a simple suspension polymerization\n\t\t\t\t\tElectrochimica Acta\n\t\t\t\t\t56\n\t\t\t\t\t10023\n\t\t\t\t\t31\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B36",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJeon\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI. Y.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChoi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBaek\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. 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L.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYao\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJames\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2002\n\t\t\t\t\tOzonation of single-walled carbon nanotubes and their assemblies on rigid self-assembled monolayers\n\t\t\t\t\tChemistry of Materials\n\t\t\t\t\t14\n\t\t\t\t\t4235\n\t\t\t\t\t41\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B39",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMitchell\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBahr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. 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T.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tArshad\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. N.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMo\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC. B.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHong\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. H.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2005\n\t\t\t\t\tExtraordinary Strengthening Effect of Carbon Nanotubes in Metal‐Matrix Nanocomposites Processed by Molecular‐Level Mixing\n\t\t\t\t\tAdvanced Materials\n\t\t\t\t\t17\n\t\t\t\t\t1377\n\t\t\t\t\t81\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B42",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPark\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. Y.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBaek\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. B.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2006\n\t\t\t\t\tMultiwalled carbon nanotubes and nanofibers grafted with polyetherketones in mild and viscous polymeric acid\n\t\t\t\t\tPolymer\n\t\t\t\t\t47\n\t\t\t\t\t1132\n\t\t\t\t\t40\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B43",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChoi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. 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S.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tProbing epitaxial growth of graphene on silicon carbide by metal decoration\n\t\t\t\t\tApplied Physics Letters\n\t\t\t\t\t92\n\t\t\t\t\t104102\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B51",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChoi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE. K.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJeon\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI. Y.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tOh\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBaek\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. B.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\t“Direct” grafting of linear macromolecular “wedges” to the edge of pristine graphite to prepare edge-functionalized graphene-based polymer composites\n\t\t\t\t\tJournal of Materials Chemistry\n\t\t\t\t\t20\n\t\t\t\t\t10936\n\t\t\t\t\t42\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B52",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKim\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJeon\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI. Y.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAhn\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. N.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKwon\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY. D.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBaek\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. B.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2011\n\t\t\t\t\tEdge-functionalized graphene-like platelets as a co-curing agent and a nanoscale additive to epoxy resin\n\t\t\t\t\tJournal of Materials Chemistry\n\t\t\t\t\t21\n\t\t\t\t\t7337\n\t\t\t\t\t42\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Dong Wook Chang",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Chemical Systematic Engineering, Catholic University of Daegu, S. Korea
Interdisciplinary School of Green Energy/Low-Dimensional Carbon Materials Center, Ulsan; National University of Science and Technology (UNIST), South Korea
Interdisciplinary School of Green Energy/Low-Dimensional Carbon Materials Center, Ulsan; National University of Science and Technology (UNIST), South Korea
Interdisciplinary School of Green Energy/Low-Dimensional Carbon Materials Center, Ulsan; National University of Science and Technology (UNIST), South Korea
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Ahmad",authors:[{id:"25298",title:"Dr.",name:"Mou'ad",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Tarawneh",fullName:"Mou'ad Al-Tarawneh",slug:"mou'ad-al-tarawneh"}]},{id:"44507",title:"Mixtures Composed of Liquid Crystals and Nanoparticles",slug:"mixtures-composed-of-liquid-crystals-and-nanoparticles",signatures:"Vlad Popa-Nita, Valentin Barna, Robert Repnik and Samo Kralj",authors:[{id:"26773",title:"Prof.",name:"Vlad",middleName:null,surname:"Popa-Nita",fullName:"Vlad Popa-Nita",slug:"vlad-popa-nita"}]},{id:"38124",title:"Toward Greener Chemistry Methods for Preparation of Hybrid Polymer Materials Based on Carbon Nanotubes",slug:"toward-greener-chemistry-methods-for-preparation-of-hybrid-polymer-materials-based-on-carbon-nanotub",signatures:"Carlos Alberto Ávila-Orta, Pablo González-Morones, Carlos José\nEspinoza-González, Juan Guillermo Martínez-Colunga, María\nGuadalupe Neira-Velázquez, Aidé Sáenz-Galindo and Lluvia Itzel\nLópez-López",authors:[{id:"26217",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Avila Orta",fullName:"Carlos Alberto Avila Orta",slug:"carlos-alberto-avila-orta"},{id:"157784",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez Colunga",fullName:"Juan Guillermo Martínez Colunga",slug:"juan-guillermo-martinez-colunga"},{id:"157785",title:"Dr.",name:"Aidé",middleName:null,surname:"Sáenz Galindo",fullName:"Aidé Sáenz Galindo",slug:"aide-saenz-galindo"},{id:"157786",title:"Dr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"González Morones",fullName:"Pablo González Morones",slug:"pablo-gonzalez-morones"},{id:"157787",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"José",surname:"Espinoza González",fullName:"Carlos Espinoza González",slug:"carlos-espinoza-gonzalez"},{id:"163394",title:"Dr.",name:"María",middleName:null,surname:"Neira-Velázquez",fullName:"María Neira-Velázquez",slug:"maria-neira-velazquez"},{id:"164529",title:"Dr.",name:"Lluvia Itzel",middleName:null,surname:"López López",fullName:"Lluvia Itzel López López",slug:"lluvia-itzel-lopez-lopez"}]},{id:"43806",title:"Carbon Nanotubes and Their Composites",slug:"carbon-nanotubes-and-their-composites",signatures:"Veena Choudhary, B.P. 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Mahalingam",authors:[{id:"152767",title:"Dr.",name:"Srinivasan",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",fullName:"Srinivasan Karthikeyan",slug:"srinivasan-karthikeyan"},{id:"163383",title:"Prof.",name:"Ponnusamy",middleName:null,surname:"Mahalingam",fullName:"Ponnusamy Mahalingam",slug:"ponnusamy-mahalingam"}]},{id:"37894",title:"Toroidal and Coiled Carbon Nanotubes",slug:"toroidal-and-coiled-carbon-nanotubes",signatures:"Lizhao Liu and Jijun Zhao",authors:[{id:"152412",title:"Prof.",name:"Jijun",middleName:null,surname:"Zhao",fullName:"Jijun Zhao",slug:"jijun-zhao"},{id:"153352",title:"Dr.",name:"Lizhao",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",fullName:"Lizhao Liu",slug:"lizhao-liu"}]},{id:"39387",title:"Carbon Nanotubes for Use in Medicine: Potentials and Limitations",slug:"carbon-nanotubes-for-use-in-medicine-potentials-and-limitations",signatures:"Wei Shao, Paul Arghya, Mai Yiyong, Laetitia Rodes and Satya\nPrakash",authors:[{id:"153775",title:"Prof.",name:"Satya",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",fullName:"Satya Prakash",slug:"satya-prakash"},{id:"153777",title:"Ms.",name:"Wei",middleName:null,surname:"Shao",fullName:"Wei Shao",slug:"wei-shao"},{id:"153778",title:"Mr.",name:"Arghya",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",fullName:"Arghya Paul",slug:"arghya-paul"}]},{id:"38951",title:"Carbon Nanotube Transparent Electrode",slug:"carbon-nanotube-transparent-electrode",signatures:"Jing Sun and Ranran Wang",authors:[{id:"153508",title:"Prof.",name:"Jing",middleName:null,surname:"Sun",fullName:"Jing Sun",slug:"jing-sun"},{id:"153596",title:"Ms.",name:"Ranran",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Ranran Wang",slug:"ranran-wang"}]},{id:"39971",title:"Latest Advances in Modified/Functionalized Carbon Nanotube- Based Gas Sensors",slug:"latest-advances-in-modified-functionalized-carbon-nanotube-based-gas-sensors",signatures:"Enid Contés-de Jesús, Jing Li and Carlos R. Cabrera",authors:[{id:"31314",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"R",surname:"Cabrera",fullName:"Carlos Cabrera",slug:"carlos-cabrera"}]},{id:"44512",title:"Carbon Nanotube Composites for Electronic Interconnect Applications",slug:"carbon-nanotube-composites-for-electronic-interconnect-applications",signatures:"Tamjid Chowdhury and James F. Rohan",authors:[{id:"153161",title:"Dr.",name:"James",middleName:null,surname:"Rohan",fullName:"James Rohan",slug:"james-rohan"}]},{id:"37698",title:"Carbon Nanotubes Influence on Spectral, Photoconductive, Photorefractive and Dynamic Properties of the Optical Materials",slug:"carbon-nanotubes-influence-on-spectral-photoconductive-photorefractive-and-dynamic-properties-of-the",signatures:"Natalia V. Kamanina",authors:[{id:"28159",title:"Dr.",name:"Natalia",middleName:"Vladimirovna",surname:"Kamanina",fullName:"Natalia Kamanina",slug:"natalia-kamanina"}]},{id:"38952",title:"Interconnecting Carbon Nanotubes for a Sustainable Economy",slug:"interconnecting-carbon-nanotubes-for-a-sustainable-economy",signatures:"Steve F. A. Acquah, Darryl N. Ventura, Samuel E. Rustan and Harold\nW. Kroto",authors:[{id:"28886",title:"Prof.",name:"Harold",middleName:"Walter",surname:"Kroto",fullName:"Harold Kroto",slug:"harold-kroto"},{id:"28974",title:"Dr.",name:"Steve",middleName:"Francis Albert",surname:"Acquah",fullName:"Steve Acquah",slug:"steve-acquah"},{id:"153200",title:"Dr.",name:"Darryl",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura",fullName:"Darryl Ventura",slug:"darryl-ventura"},{id:"153201",title:"Mr.",name:"Samuel",middleName:null,surname:"Rustan",fullName:"Samuel Rustan",slug:"samuel-rustan"}]},{id:"38918",title:"Carbon Nanotube-Enzyme Biohybrids in a Green Hydrogen Economy",slug:"carbon-nanotube-enzyme-biohybrids-in-a-green-hydrogen-economy",signatures:"Anne De Poulpiquet, Alexandre Ciaccafava, Saïda Benomar, Marie-\nThérèse Giudici-Orticoni and Elisabeth Lojou",authors:[{id:"152665",title:"Dr.",name:"Elisabeth",middleName:null,surname:"Lojou",fullName:"Elisabeth Lojou",slug:"elisabeth-lojou"},{id:"152720",title:"Mrs.",name:"Anne",middleName:null,surname:"De Poulpiquet",fullName:"Anne De Poulpiquet",slug:"anne-de-poulpiquet"},{id:"152722",title:"Mr.",name:"Alecxandre",middleName:null,surname:"Ciaccafava",fullName:"Alecxandre Ciaccafava",slug:"alecxandre-ciaccafava"},{id:"152723",title:"Dr.",name:"Marie-Thérèse",middleName:null,surname:"Giudici-Orticoni",fullName:"Marie-Thérèse Giudici-Orticoni",slug:"marie-therese-giudici-orticoni"},{id:"153707",title:"Mrs.",name:"Saïda",middleName:null,surname:"Benomar",fullName:"Saïda Benomar",slug:"saida-benomar"},{id:"165560",title:"Mr.",name:"Alexandre",middleName:null,surname:"Ciaccafava",fullName:"Alexandre Ciaccafava",slug:"alexandre-ciaccafava"}]},{id:"38119",title:"Adsorption of Methylene Blue on Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes in Sodium Alginate Gel Beads",slug:"adsorption-of-methylene-blue-on-multi-walled-carbon-nanotubes-in-sodium-alginate-gel-beads",signatures:"Fang-Chang Tsai, Ning Ma, Lung-Chang Tsai, Chi-Min Shu, Tao\nJiang, Hung-Chen Chang, Sheng Wen, Chi Zhang, Tai-Chin Chiang,\nYung-Chuan Chu, Wei-Ting Chen, Shih-Hsin Chen, Han-Wen Xiao,\nYao-Chi Shu and Gang Chang",authors:[{id:"24891",title:"Dr.",name:"Chi-Min",middleName:null,surname:"Shu",fullName:"Chi-Min Shu",slug:"chi-min-shu"},{id:"31076",title:"Dr.",name:"Fangchang",middleName:null,surname:"Tsai",fullName:"Fangchang Tsai",slug:"fangchang-tsai"},{id:"34387",title:"Dr.",name:"Lungchang",middleName:null,surname:"Tsai",fullName:"Lungchang Tsai",slug:"lungchang-tsai"},{id:"34388",title:"Ms.",name:"Ning",middleName:null,surname:"Ma",fullName:"Ning Ma",slug:"ning-ma"},{id:"62382",title:"Prof.",name:"Tao",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",fullName:"Tao Jiang",slug:"tao-jiang"},{id:"79289",title:"Dr.",name:"Sheng",middleName:null,surname:"Wen",fullName:"Sheng Wen",slug:"sheng-wen"},{id:"84164",title:"Dr.",name:"Han-Wen",middleName:null,surname:"Xiao",fullName:"Han-Wen Xiao",slug:"han-wen-xiao"},{id:"153390",title:"Mr.",name:"Tai-Chin",middleName:null,surname:"Chiang",fullName:"Tai-Chin Chiang",slug:"tai-chin-chiang"},{id:"153391",title:"Mr.",name:"Chi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Chi Zhang",slug:"chi-zhang"},{id:"153392",title:"MSc.",name:"Hung-Chen",middleName:null,surname:"Chang",fullName:"Hung-Chen Chang",slug:"hung-chen-chang"},{id:"153393",title:"Prof.",name:"Shih-Hsin",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Shih-Hsin Chen",slug:"shih-hsin-chen"},{id:"153394",title:"Prof.",name:"Yao-Chi",middleName:null,surname:"Shu",fullName:"Yao-Chi Shu",slug:"yao-chi-shu"},{id:"153395",title:"Dr.",name:"Gang",middleName:null,surname:"Chang",fullName:"Gang Chang",slug:"gang-chang"},{id:"163358",title:"Mr.",name:"Yung-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Chu",fullName:"Yung-Chuan Chu",slug:"yung-chuan-chu"},{id:"163360",title:"Dr.",name:"Yung-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Chu",fullName:"Yung-Chuan Chu",slug:"yung-chuan-chu"}]},{id:"38214",title:"The Role of Carbon Nanotubes in Enhancement of Photocatalysis",slug:"the-role-of-carbon-nanotubes-in-enhancement-of-photocatalysis",signatures:"Tawfik A. Saleh",authors:[{id:"30752",title:"Dr.",name:"Tawfik A.",middleName:"Abdo",surname:"Saleh",fullName:"Tawfik A. Saleh",slug:"tawfik-a.-saleh"}]},{id:"38922",title:"Carbon Nanotubes for Energy Applications",slug:"carbon-nanotubes-for-energy-applications",signatures:"Dennis Antiohos, Mark Romano, Jun Chen and Joselito M. Razal",authors:[{id:"153697",title:"Dr.",name:"Jun",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Jun Chen",slug:"jun-chen"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"71437",title:"Enduring Effects of Infant Emotional Security on Preschooler Adaptation to Interparental Conflict",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91261",slug:"enduring-effects-of-infant-emotional-security-on-preschooler-adaptation-to-interparental-conflict",body:'
1. Emotional security theory
Emotional security theory (EST) has illustrated the significance of children’s reactions to interparental conflict as a mediator of the relationships between exposure to interparental conflict and children’s later psychological and physiological well-being [1, 2, 3]. Although empirical support has been well documented for older children [4], less is known about younger children, specifically infants and toddlers, and their responses to interparental conflict. However, a cross-sectional study conducted by Du Rocher Schudlich et al. [5] found that infants aged 6–14 months showed differential responses to interparental conflict; depressive (i.e., avoidance and emotional distress) and destructive conflict (i.e., hostile verbal and nonverbal behaviors) were associated with increased infant negative reactions, whereas constructive conflict (i.e., well-modulated conflict striving toward resolution) was associated with decreased infant negative reactions. This study was the first to highlight the significance of emotional security concerns in infancy. Others have since supported the role of emotional security concerns during this developmental period (e.g., [6, 7]). However, to date, there are no studies that have examined the longitudinal effects of interparental conflict and the stability of emotional security in infants through their preschool years. The dearth of studies is striking, as this developmental period is the one most commonly exposed to interparental conflict, and rates of interparental discord are highest during infant and early childhood years [8]. Guided by EST, the current study addresses the aforementioned gaps in the research literature by assessing the stability of emotional security over infancy through preschool years, determining if infant emotional insecurity mediates between interparental conflict during infancy and preschooler adjustment, and more stringently determining whether infant emotional insecurity continues to mediate between interparental conflict during infancy and preschooler adjustment, while simultaneously considering contemporaneous preschooler emotional insecurity.
EST [9] has demonstrated the significance of exposure to interparental conflict and children’s following physiological and psychological well-being [3, 10]. According to EST, children react to the meaning of the conflict, ergo the threat to the safety and stability of their emotional life and the integrity of their family system [11]. As children grow and develop in response to their environment, an internal working model of conflict, based on previous exposure history, will progress and affect future responses and reactions to interparental conflict, which in turn may have deleterious effects on parent’s conflict [12], thus feeding the negative cycle of insecurity. Children’s emotional security is thus reflected in future emotional responding, effectiveness of coping, and emotion regulation skills [4, 11]. Observations of children’s elevated emotional and behavioral dysregulation as a response to interparental conflict exposure provide the foundation for assessing children’s emotional security [5].
Different types of interparental conflict will have different effects and outcomes on exposed children. EST posits that children are most negatively impacted by conflict perceived as threatening to the family system [9, 13]. Interparental conflict is most damaging to children’s emotional security when it involves aggression [14], is unresolved with a negative emotional aftermath [15], when it is characterized by parental withdrawal [16], and when it is paired with harsh maternal parenting [17]. In contrast, conflict that is resolved and dealt with positively may enhance emotional security by reinforcing children’s sense of stability in the family and providing a constructive model for dealing with difficult emotions [13, 18].
2. Sensitization
Within EST, sensitization developed from repeated or heightened exposure to interparental conflict increases children’s reactivity, including distress, anger, aggressiveness, and involvement in interparental conflict [13]. For children, preserving a sense of security and stability within the family is a salient goal [17]. Thus, habituation to interparental conflict does not occur, as the threat of harm from exposure to interparental conflict increases their reactivity. Furthermore, with repeated exposure to destructive or depressive interparental conflict, the child should progressively amplify the importance of protecting security and stability of their family system. This results in increases in the children’s greater emotional, behavioral, cognitive, and physiological reactivity in the face of interparental conflict [13]. Eventually, the components of the emotional security system, emotional reactivity, regulation of conflict exposure, and internal representations, should evidence stability and continuity over time [13]. Longitudinal studies have found moderate stability in individual differences in children’s reactions to interparental conflict over time [11, 19, 20].
Consistent with sensitization, Davies et al. [21] found greater child reactivity over time was associated with higher levels of destructive interparental conflict. However, the link between threats to emotional security and children’s mental and physical health does not occur immediately, but requires consistency and stability over time as the link gradually progresses, intensifies, and generalizes, into a broader pattern of the children’s reactions and responses [13]. Based on EST, it is expected that individual differences in children’s security responses to interparental conflict have long-term implications for adjustment and adaptation [13].
3. EST and infants
Although much less is known about the effects of interparental conflict on infants, compared to later periods of development, there is evidence that they are also sensitive to specific dimensions of interparental conflict. Cummings et al. [22] examination of parent reports of 10- to 20-month-old infants’ responses to naturally occurring and simulated expressions of anger and affection found that infants differentially responded to affectionate versus angry demonstrations; anger elicited distress and negative emotional reactions, whereas affectionate interactions elicited affectionate behaviors and pleasure. Furthermore, infants’ distress levels were later heightened when exposed to higher levels of destructive marital conflict. Their findings are congruent with sensitization, which suggests that differences in children’s responses to conflict, particularly destructive, lead to different capabilities in the child’s emotional regulation and the child’s response to conflict [23, 24]. As for regulation of exposure to conflict, although infants and toddlers may not directly interject themselves into the conflict, avoidance and withdrawal as well as ameliorating behaviors, such as self-soothing or gaze aversion, were observed [22].
Looking at a slightly younger population, Du Rocher Schudlich et al. [5] examined infants’ responses and reactions to interparental conflict live in a laboratory. Parents were videotaped discussing a disagreement with their infant present. Infants showed heightened discussion attending and negative reactions in response to destructive and depressive conflict. However, infants displayed diminished discussion attending and negative reactions in response to constructive conflict. Together, these studies establish infants’ sensitivity and reactivity to interparental conflict behavior. Similarly, it has been found that preschool-aged children are predisposed to experience fear, self-blame, and threat in response to interparental conflict due in part to the regulatory processes underlying children’s security in the interparental relationship [13]. In infancy through the preschool years, regulatory processes are more easily overwhelmed by exposure to interparental discord, suggesting that insecurity in the interparental relationship may be a significant mediator of pathways between interparental conflict and child adjustment.
These studies highlight the importance of determining how exposure to interparental conflict may affect early childhood and infancy and the longitudinal effects associated with child adjustment. Infancy is an especially important developmental period for studying emotional security. To date, we are aware of only one study examining interparental conflict’s effects on infants’ emotional insecurity longitudinally. Frankel et al. [6] found that elevated interparental conflict during infancy predicted greater flat/withdrawn and negative affect in toddlerhood. Paternal affect was particularly important in their study: preschooler’s negative affect was highest when both interparental conflict and fathers’ distressed responses were high. Thus, effects of conflict may be long-lasting during this developmental period.
4. Current study
The current study attempts to address the gaps in the literature that have been outlined. Currently, there are no studies that have examined the longitudinal effects of interparental conflict and the stability of emotional security on infants through their preschool years. The results of this study have critical implications because infants and preschoolers are the age group most commonly exposed to interparental conflict and this may be a key stage for the development of emotional security.
Guided by EST framework, the current study will address the following aims: (1) Does emotional security observed in infants have longitudinal stability into the preschool years? (2) Does infant emotional insecurity mediate between interparental conflict during infancy and preschooler adjustment? (3) Finally, does infant emotional insecurity continue to mediate associations between interparental conflict and preschooler adjustment when simultaneously considering preschooler emotional insecurity? Based on previous literature, we hypothesized that emotional security would be a stable construct over the infancy to preschooler time points. Additionally, infant emotional insecurity would serve as a mediator between interparental conflict and preschooler adjustment. Lastly, infant emotional insecurity would continue to serve as a mediator and predict preschooler adjustment even when simultaneously considering preschooler emotional insecurity.
5. Method
5.1 Participants
This study was a part of a larger investigation concerning family relationships and child development (e.g., see also Du Rocher Schudlich et al., [13, 25]). Data were collected during the years 2007–2009. Participants were recruited by contacting families listed in local birth records from a county in the Pacific Northwest of the United States, as well as families recommended by previous participants. Inclusion criteria included the following: (1) primary caregivers who were comfortable speaking and reading in English, (2) families who had an infant between the ages of 6 and 14 months, and (3) families who had been living together since the birth of the child, regardless of interparental marital status. Families were excluded if they did not meet all of the inclusion criteria or their child was diagnosed with a developmental disorder. Families were invited back when their children were between the ages of 3 and 5 years. This was an unplanned longitudinal study that developed out of a graduate student’s thesis and thus our retention rate of 54% is lower than that which is typically seen in planned longitudinal studies.
At time one (T1), participants were 74 nuclear families (mothers’ M age = 29.56 years, SD = 5.54; fathers’ M age = 31.62 years, SD = 5.87) with 33 male and 41 female infants aged 6.20–14.48 months (M age = 10.07 months, SD = 2.10). Sixty-four of the parent couples (85%) were married, (M length of marriage = 4.83 years, SD = 3.15 years) and couples had been living together for an average of 5.78 years (SD = 3.34). All parents reported being the biological parents of the target child in the study. Parents indicated a modal family income of $40,001–$65,000 per year. In this sample, 88% of fathers and 85.3% of mothers were Caucasian, 1.3% of fathers and mothers were Asian American or Pacific Islander, 1.3% of fathers and mothers were Hispanic, 5.4% of fathers and 8% of mothers were biracial, and 3% of parents did not report ethnicity.
Thirty-eight families returned at Time 2 (T2). To test for differences between families who participated at both time points versus those who did not, we conducted statistical comparisons among our primary study variables and family demographics (child sex, parents’ education, parents’ income, parents’ and child race, parents’ age, and interparental status). Out of the 15 variables assessed, only 2 yielded significant differences: parents who participated at both time points had fathers who reported higher incomes and mothers with older ages.
5.2 Procedures and measures
5.2.1 Time 1 and 2 (T1, T2)
For both Time 1 and 2, parents consenting to participate received mailed packets containing consent forms and questionnaires to be completed at home prior to the laboratory visit. Upon arrival at the laboratory, parents engaged in three interactions: a conflict resolution task with their infant absent, a conflict resolution task with their infant or preschooler present, and a triadic play interaction. The order of conflict interactions was randomly counterbalanced across families when possible. The triadic play interaction always occurred last to reduce any emotional distress families may have experienced while engaging in the conflict and challenge tasks. In the current study, we only utilized the conflict tasks.
Both parents completed parent-report versions of The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ; [26]) at T2 regarding their child, which is a brief behavioral questionnaire about children 3–16 years of age. Parents are provided with a list of behavioral descriptions and asked to rate the extent to which they are true of their child on a scale from 0 (Not True), 1 (Somewhat True), to 2 (Certainly True). We used three subscales: emotional problems, conduct problems, and prosocial behavior. Mother and father reports were highly correlated and thus their scores were averaged. Cronbach’s α’s were 0.72 for emotional problems, 0.86 for conduct problems, and 0.74 for prosocial behavior.
5.2.2 Conflict
Following similar procedures in previous research (i.e., [27]), parents deliberated to select three topics that were most typically problematic for their relationship and then chose a topic that they were both comfortable discussing. Parents chose a different topic for their second interaction than what they discussed in their first interaction. We instructed parents to not discuss a child-related issue with the child present because previous research has indicated that children are especially sensitive to children-related topics [28]. We asked parents to attempt to reach a resolution and to share their emotions and perspectives on the issues. We asked parents to interact with their baby as they would normally if they were at home discussing the issue. Families were left alone during their interactions, which were videotaped. After 7.5 minutes, we offered parents additional time and those who accepted were given an additional 2.5 minutes. Following procedures developed by the Cummings lab, immediately following each of the interactions, parents independently completed ratings of how strongly they felt each of the following emotions during their interactions: loving feelings, happiness, anger, worry, scared, sadness, helplessness, and hopelessness. The emotions scale ranged from 1 to 9, with 1 = absence of the emotion, 5 = mid-range level of feeling, and 9 = most intense feeling.
We coded interparental interactions using an adapted version of The Marital Daily Records (MDR) protocol [29]. The MDR has good convergent validity with self-report measures of interparental conflict and relations [23]. Our adaptation included coding behaviors on a 1–9 scale based on the Couples’ Interaction Global Coding System, rather than the original 0–2 scale on the MDR [30], allowing us to capture more variability in the behaviors. Global ratings of the entire interaction were applied (see [5, 25] for more coding details). We coded the conflict behaviors on a scale from 1 to 9, with 1 = absence of the expression, 5 = mid-range level, and 9 = most intense expressions. Coded behaviors included conflict, defensiveness, contempt, withdrawal, demand, communication skills, support-validation, problem-solving, and humor. The degree of emotional intensity was also coded on a 1–9 scale for each of four emotions (positivity, anger, sadness, and anxiousness), as well the overall degree (1–9) of conflict resolution for each partner. To minimize potential coding bias or carry-over effects, coders coded only one type of conflict interaction (triadic or dyadic) for each family. Coders received extensive training by the principal investigator, achieving adequate reliabilities on all coding categories (i.e., intra-class correlation coefficients ranged from 0.60 to 0.98, with a mean coefficient score of 0.91).
5.2.3 Emotional security
We recorded infants’ reactions during actual interparental disagreements (see [5] for more details on procedures and coding). We adapted coding procedures from infants’ responses to angry interparental interactions in the home environment, which were previously utilized to code infants’ behavior from a wide developmental spectrum, 10 months to 2.5 years of age [31]. We considered intensity as well as frequency of behaviors and emotions, and scored them from 0 (absence of the behavior) to 4 (strong intensity and frequency of the behavior). Codes included frustration, self-soothing, sadness, physical frustration, and dysregulation. Infant location during the interaction was also coded, with 1 (on floor) and 2 (in a parent’s lap). A group of raters blind to other study and coding information coded infant behaviors. The coders received extensive training by the principal investigator, achieving adequate reliabilities on all coding categories. Intra-class correlation coefficients ranged from 0.84 to 1.00, with a mean coefficient score of 0.95.
To assess preschoolers’ reactions during actual interparental interactions, preschoolers were present during their parents’ interparental disagreement and were videotaped for later coding. Coding procedures were adapted from the coding system utilized for infants [5]. Intensity and frequency of behaviors and emotions were both considered. Codes were scored from 0 (absence of the behavior) to 4 (strong intensity and frequency of the behavior), and included frustration (e.g., scowl, huffing, yelling, or stomping); self-soothing (e.g., sucking thumb, rocking); distress (e.g., whining, tears, pouting, or hanging head); aggression (e.g., throwing objects, hitting, kicking, or biting); dysregulation (e.g., intense, multiple, and potentially contradictory emotions, behaviors, and strategies in attempts to cope with conflict); avoidance (e.g., asking to leave, walking away from parents); and mediation (e.g., offering solutions to conflict, telling parents what to do, or comforting parents). A group of raters blind to other study and coding information coded preschooler behaviors. The coders received extensive training by the principal investigator, achieving adequate reliabilities on all coding categories. Intra-class correlation coefficients ranged from 0.78 to 0.98, with a mean coefficient score of 0.87.
6. Results
6.1 Data reduction and preliminary analyses
We used SPSS v25 and AMOS v25 to analyze our data. Mothers’ and fathers’ conflict scores within T1 and T2 were highly correlated in expected directions and thus we averaged their scores together. Based on previous research, we created a global interparental conflict composite for T1 and T2 by summing the negative behaviors and emotions together and subtracting the positive ones. Based on previous research and supported by a factor analysis, we created a global emotional insecurity composite for T1 and T2 by summing scores for negative infant reactions and subtracting scores from the positive reactions.
We examined whether the average scores on any of the outcomes were associated with child gender and socioeconomic status (SES) independent of interparental conflict. Very few significant associations were found. Girls demonstrated higher levels of mediation at Time 2 than boys, t (32) = −2.09, p = 0.048, and SES was negatively correlated with self-soothing at Time 1, r = −0.28, p = 0.02. Given the minimal significant findings for these variables and in order to preserve power, we did not control for any of them in the rest of the analyses.
Utilizing a person-centered approach to assess Aim 1, the stability of ES over time, we conducted a cluster analysis of the T1 ES variables to determine the infants’ patterns of responding to conflict. We compared the different clusters that emerged and used independent sample t-tests to determine their differential patterns of responding to conflict based on key T1 emotional security variables. Finally, to assess whether this remained stable over time, independent sample t-tests were conducted on key T2 emotional security variables as a function of infants’ T1 differential response patterns.
Hierarchical regressions assessed mediational models for Aim 2 and 3. Zero-order correlations were examined first. Correlations between interparental conflict at Time 1 and 2, emotional insecurity at Time 1 and 2, and preschooler emotional adjustment are presented in Table 1. T1 interparental conflict was significantly correlated with greater T1 emotional security, greater preschooler conduct problems, but less prosocial behavior. T1 emotional insecurity was significantly correlated with greater emotional and conduct problems, but less prosocial behavior. Similarly, T2 emotional insecurity was also correlated with greater emotional and conduct problems. Interestingly, T1 and T2 interparental conflict were not significantly correlated, and thus not surprisingly neither were T1 and T2 emotional insecurity.
Means, standard deviations, and correlations of the primary variables in the analyses.
p < 0.05.
p < 0.01.
p < 0.001.
6.2 Aim 1: assess the stability of ES over time
As a first step to assessing the stability of ES over time, we conducted a cluster analysis of the T1 ES variables to determine the infants’ patterns of responding to conflict. We performed a hierarchical agglomerative cluster analysis with squared Euclidian distance and examined both the agglomeration schedule and the dendogram to determine the number of clusters [32]. The hierarchical agglomerative cluster approach allowed us to run the analyses without a predetermined number of clusters while minimizing the computational load [32]. We chose the squared Euclidian distance statistic to calculate the distance between cases because it allowed us to assess both the pattern and elevation of scores in question [32]. The agglomeration schedule was used to determine at what point two clusters were being combined that were too different to be combined into a homogenous group, as noted by the first large increase in coefficient values [32]. Dendograms were used to help determine which clusters were most similar to each other, with more similar clusters appearing together early on the left side of the plot, whereas those that were less similar being spaced further apart on the right side [32]. We reran the analyses utilizing multiple clustering methods, assessing for stability of the cluster solution, which held up over each method. Results presented are based on Ward’s method. Two clusters emerged from the analyses: an emotionally insecure group and emotionally secure group. To determine their differential patterns of responding to conflict, independent sample t-tests were conducted on key T1 emotional security variables. Results were consistent with the cluster analysis in identifying groups that differed in terms of emotional security versus insecurity at time one. Infants in the emotionally insecure group demonstrated significantly higher levels of distress, frustration, physical frustration, and dysregulation, compared to infants in the emotionally secure group. Assessing whether this pattern remained stable over time, independent sample t-tests were conducted on key T2 emotional security variables as a function of infants’ T1 differential response patterns (see Table 2). Infants who were initially classified in the emotionally insecure group demonstrated greater levels of mediation and aggression at T2 when preschoolers than those who had been classified as emotionally secure infants.
Means for emotional security variables at T1 and T2 as a function of differential responding patterns.
p < 0.05.
p < 0.01.
p < 0.001.
6.3 Aim 2: determine if infant emotional insecurity (T1) mediates between T1 interparental conflict and preschooler adjustment (T2)
To examine mediator effects of infant emotional security in relations between interparental conflict and preschooler adjustment, we conducted a series of hierarchical regressions and followed procedures outlined by Baron and Kenny [33]. According to their guidelines, three necessary conditions must be met before testing mediator effects: (a) T1 interparental conflict must predict significant variance in preschooler’s adjustment problems, (b) interparental conflict must be significantly related to infant emotional insecurity, and (c) infant emotional insecurity must be significantly related to preschooler adjustment problems. These first criteria were established for conduct problems and prosocial behavior in both the correlations and the hierarchical regressions (see Table 3). Emotional insecurity was a significant predictor of both conduct problems and prosocial behavior after taking into account interparental conflict, β = 0.37, p < 0.05, and β = −0.64, p < 0.001, respectively. Because these conditions were met, the final step for testing mediation was conducted (i.e., testing whether the relation between interparental conflict and preschooler adjustment is reduced or eliminated after the mediation effect of emotional insecurity has been taken into account). This step was also met. In the model predicting conduct problems without emotional insecurity entered, β = 0.42, p < 0.05 for interparental conflict, but when emotional insecurity was entered, β = 0.19, p > 0.05. In the model predicting prosocial behavior without emotional insecurity entered, β = −0.32, p < 0.05 for interparental conflict, but when emotional insecurity was entered, β = −0.18, p > 0.05. Moreover, to determine the significance of mediation, the indirect effects were calculated and tested for significance using Sobel’s (1982) test. Sobel’s [34] test indicated the mediation was significant for both conduct problems, z = 2.05 (0.36), p < 0.04, and for prosocial behavior, z = 3.76 (0.24), p < 0.001.
Hierarchical regressions predicting preschooler adjustment from T1 interparental conflict and emotional insecurity.
p < 0.05.
p < 0.01.
p < 0.001.
6.4 Aim 3: determine if infant emotional insecurity (T1) mediates between T1 interparental conflict and preschooler adjustment (T2) while simultaneously considering contemporaneous T2 emotional insecurity
To address Aim 3, path analyses examined the mediational effects of T1 emotional insecurity in the links between interparental conflict and preschooler adjustment while simultaneously considering contemporaneous T2 emotional insecurity (Figures 1 and 2). Results for the first path model, considering prosocial behavior as the outcome, indicated an excellent fit with the data, χ2 (2, N = 38) = 0.11, p > 0.05, χ2/df ratio = 0.05. IFI = 1.0 CFI = 1.0, and RMSEA = 0.00. As hypothesized, T1 emotional insecurity remained a significant predictor of preschoolers’ prosocial behavior, even when simultaneously considering contemporaneous preschooler emotional insecurity. In fact, it was only T1 emotional security that was predictive of preschooler prosocial behavior in our model. Confidence intervals of the overall indirect effects of T1 interparental conflict on T2 preschooler prosocial behavior (95% CI: −0.114, −0.009) did not include zero, indicating significant indirect effects of T1 emotional insecurity. Results for the second path model, considering conduct problems as the outcome, indicated an excellent fit with the data, χ2 (2, N = 38) = 0.14, p > 0.05, χ2/df ratio = 0.07. IFI = 1.0 CFI = 1.0, and RMSEA = 0.00. As hypothesized, T1 emotional insecurity remained a significant predictor of preschoolers’ conduct problems, even when simultaneously considering contemporaneous preschooler emotional insecurity. T2 emotional security was also a significant predictor of preschoolers’ conduct problems. Confidence intervals of the overall indirect effects of T1 interparental conflict on T2 preschooler conduct problems (95% CI, 0.002, 0.102) did not include zero, indicating significant indirect effects of T1 emotional insecurity.
Figure 1.
Path analysis examining emotional insecurity at time points 1 and 2 as mediators of associations between interparental conflict and preschoolers’ prosocial behavior. *p < 0.05, ***p < 0.001.
Figure 2.
Path analysis examining emotional insecurity at time points 1 and 2 as mediators of associations between interparental conflict and preschoolers’ conduct problems. *p < 0.05, ***p < 0.001.
6.5 Alternative direct effects models
An alternative model, considering direct effects of interparental conflict on preschooler adjustment was also tested to see if it provided a better explanation for the data. First, an alternative direct effects model was tested for prosocial behavior. Comparing the two nested models, the chi-square difference test revealed the model allowing for direct effects did not fit better than the model with only indirect effects, χ2 (1, N = 38) = 0.04, χ2∆ = 0.07, 1df, p > 0.05. The path from interparental conflict to prosocial behavior was also nonsignificant, β = 0.02, p > 0.05. Next, an alternative direct effects model was tested for conduct problems. Comparing the two nested models, the chi-square difference test revealed the model allowing for direct effects did not fit better than the model with only indirect effects, χ2 (1, N = 38) = 0.04, χ2∆ = 0.07, 1df, p > 0.05. The path from interparental conflict to conduct problems was also nonsignificant, β = 0.02, p > 0.05.
7. Discussion
Addressing gaps in research on associations between infant emotional security and interparental conflict, the current study utilized strong, multimethod assessment procedures to examine the longitudinal associations between interparental conflict and emotional security during the infancy through preschooler developmental period. The current study was able to find support for each of our hypotheses.
A key contribution of our paper was the expansion of our understanding of the earliest beginnings of emotional security, coming from our findings supporting our first hypothesis. This study confirmed that children’s patterns of responding remain consistent longitudinally. When participants were categorized into clusters of emotionally secure and emotionally insecure, differential patterns occurred in responding to conflict. Time 1 emotionally insecure cluster showed higher levels of distress, frustration, physical frustration, and dysregulation compared to the emotionally secure cluster. The insecure group appeared to remain insecure through the preschool period, demonstrating higher levels of mediation and aggression than the secure group as preschoolers. These findings support the idea that emotional security is stable from infancy to preschool age; even when conflict changes in parents, the sense of insecurity holds stable. This is consistent with studies of older children that found similar stability in children’s responses to interparental conflict longitudinally [11, 19, 20]. This finding points to the importance of early emotional security development; interparental conflict has lasting impacts on children’s emotional security as early as infancy, not just older children as once perceived. Furthermore, the implication is that this type of stress on new and developing regulatory systems may push infants past their coping capabilities in early life and will then have lasting impacts as they grow older.
A second key contribution was our finding pertaining to emotional insecurity as a predictor of both conduct problems and prosocial behavior, after taking into account interparental conflict, supporting our second hypothesis. Furthermore, infant emotional security served as a significant mediator in the associations between interparental conflict and preschooler adjustment. This shows that emotional security accounts for effects rather than conflict even at this young age of preschoolers. Thus, even at this young age, we can see more than simple direct effects of conflict. Children’s adjustment as preschoolers is being predicted not just by their exposure to conflict but by their psychological experiences and processing of it as infants, which has lingering associations even into preschooler years above and beyond the conflict itself. In particular, lower levels of emotional security were associated with lower levels of prosocial behavior and higher levels of conduct problems as preschoolers. One explanation for this may be that children with lower levels of emotional security may be depleted of their psychological resources as they attempt to cope with their insecurity [13]. Alternatively, emotional insecurity leaves children with more negative emotions and behavior (e.g., aggression and mediation in conflict) and more negative cognition in which they view the world as a less secure and stable place. Thus, children may be overgeneralizing their experiences at home into their other environments and responding in maladaptive ways with their own peers. These preschoolers are at high risk for further psychological problems as they develop. Previous research has prospectively linked emotional insecurity to depression, anxiety, peer problems, and conduct problems in adolescence [11].
Finally, the third primary contribution of our paper is documenting the lasting effects of infant emotional insecurity on child adjustment during this pivotal developmental period. Consistent with our third hypothesis, our findings demonstrated that infant emotional insecurity remained a significant mediator of preschoolers’ prosocial behavior and conduct behavior, even when simultaneously considering contemporaneous preschooler emotional insecurity. Thus, our findings underscore the importance of considering infancy as a sensitive period of emotional development that continues to have lasting effects, even overriding current family circumstances. A growing body of research highlights the devastating effects of adverse childhood events experienced during infancy and the profound enduring effects they can have on cognitive and emotional development, especially when parents are involved (e.g., [35, 36]).
7.1 Clinical implications
Our findings have several important implications for prevention and intervention. First, in terms of prevention, given the potential for stability of emotional insecurity from infancy through the preschool years, it is of heightened importance that parents be educated regarding the impact of their conflict on infants and try to avoid holding difficult and destructive conflict in front of or near their infants. Previous research, unfortunately, has indicated that parents do not seem to shield their children from destructive conflicts, and that their conflicts in front of their children appear to be similar to or worse than when their children are not present [25, 37]. Furthermore, for families experiencing heightened conflict histories or depression, there is a greater likelihood of displaying more destructive conflict in front of children than when alone [25]. Children from these families may be doubly taxed psychologically as they attempt to cope with family depression and conflict. Thus, getting out the message of shielding infants from conflict is particularly imperative as a preventative effort.
In terms of intervention, two issues are pertinent. The first pertains to assessment for preschoolers in need of treatment for conduct of peer-related issues. A careful assessment of both current and past family functioning, including interparental conflict, as well as children’s emotional insecurity is warranted. Although we do not currently have measures to retrospectively measure infant emotional insecurity, we can assess current emotional insecurity in conjunction with interparental conflict history and child exposure levels. Clinical judgment can help determine whether infant emotional security may have been an issue. Assessment of conflict and emotional insecurity is critical as our findings indicate they may play a role in preschooler peer problems and conduct problems. Second, in terms of intervention, if in fact emotional insecurity and interparental conflict are relevant issues in preschooler’s peer and conduct problems, therapists will need to take a family-based approach to address the problem. Parents may benefit from couples counseling and education about how to keep their children removed from the conflict. Education about how to restore children’s security will also be important. Providing a stable, secure, home environment with clear, consistent routines and helping parents provide consistent, sensitive, warm responses to their children, while still maintaining rules, supervision, and developmentally realistic expectations will be important [38]. At the infant level, this may entail extra calm, physical soothing to infants.
7.2 Limitations and future directions
These results support the longitudinal associations between interparental conflict and preschooler outcomes via emotional security; however, the correlational nature of this data prevents conclusions about causality. This study was limited by a small sample size, potentially impairing our power to detect effects. Participants were drawn from a fairly homogenous, middle-class, community sample and thus findings may differ from those among families seeking treatment or those from more diverse demographics; accordingly, readers should use caution in generalizing. Future studies utilizing larger, more diverse samples should replicate these results to gain more confidence in the findings.
These findings present a first step in identifying the nature of longitudinal emotional security during infancy to preschool years. Future studies should explore the underlying sources of negative parenting strategies and tension between parents that contribute to interparental conflict. Additionally, a study with a larger sample would have power to distinguish between types of conflict behaviors and address whether different types of destructive, depressive, or constructive conflict have different associations with emotional security in infancy and in preschoolers, which would also elucidate a clearer point of intervention. Finally, there are a range of related processes not considered here that merit examination in future work, such as infant temperament, parent-infant attachment, interadult attachment, and co-parenting quality and attitudes.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by internal research grants from Western Washington University awarded to Tina D. Du Rocher Schudlich.
\n',keywords:"emotional security, interparental conflict, infants, preschoolers, child adjustment",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/71437.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/71437.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71437",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71437",totalDownloads:149,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"October 30th 2019",dateReviewed:"January 20th 2020",datePrePublished:"March 13th 2020",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"March 13th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Emotional security theory illustrates the significance of children’s reactions to interparental conflict as a mediator of the associations between interparental conflict and children’s well-being. Less is known about infants’ emotional security. The current study assessed the stability of emotional security over infancy through preschool years. We also assessed whether infant emotional insecurity mediated between interparental conflict during infancy and preschooler adjustment. Seventy-four families with infants aged 6–14 months participated at Time 1. Parents engaged in a conflict resolution task with their infants present. Families returned when children were 3–5 years old (Time 2). Families engaged in the same conflict resolution task and parents additionally completed the Strengths and Difficulty Questionnaire to assess preschooler adjustment. Cluster analyses revealed two classes of infants based on conflict responses at Time 1: secure and insecure. The insecure group demonstrated higher levels of distress, frustration, physical frustration, and dysregulation compared to the secure group. These classifications remained relatively stable over Times 1 and 2. Infant emotional security mediated associations between Time 1 interparental conflict and preschooler adjustment, even when considering preschooler emotional security. Our results highlight the lasting legacy of destructive conflict on infants’ still developing security systems.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/71437",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/71437",signatures:"Olivia Dorn and Tina D. Du Rocher Schudlich",book:{id:"9043",title:"Parenting - Studies by an Ecocultural and Transactional Perspective",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Parenting - Studies by an Ecocultural and Transactional Perspective",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Loredana Benedetto and Prof. Massimo Ingrassia",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9043.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"193200",title:"Prof.",name:"Loredana",middleName:null,surname:"Benedetto",slug:"loredana-benedetto",fullName:"Loredana Benedetto"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Emotional security theory",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Sensitization",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. EST and infants",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Current study",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Method",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"5.1 Participants",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"5.2 Procedures and measures",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"5.2.1 Time 1 and 2 (T1, T2)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"5.2.2 Conflict",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"5.2.3 Emotional security",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11",title:"6. Results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"6.1 Data reduction and preliminary analyses",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"6.2 Aim 1: assess the stability of ES over time",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"6.3 Aim 2: determine if infant emotional insecurity (T1) mediates between T1 interparental conflict and preschooler adjustment (T2)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"6.4 Aim 3: determine if infant emotional insecurity (T1) mediates between T1 interparental conflict and preschooler adjustment (T2) while simultaneously considering contemporaneous T2 emotional insecurity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"6.5 Alternative direct effects models",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17",title:"7. Discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"7.1 Clinical implications",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"7.2 Limitations and future directions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'El-Sheikh M, Erath SA. Family conflict, autonomic nervous system functioning, and child adaptation: State of the science and future directions. Development and Psychopathology. 2011;23:703-721'},{id:"B2",body:'Koss KJ, George MRW, Bergman KN, Cummings EM, Davies PT, Cicchetti D. Understanding children’s emotional processes and behavioral strategies in the context of marital conflict. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology. 2011;109:336-352'},{id:"B3",body:'Porter CL, Dyer WJ. Does marital conflict predict infants\' physiological regulation? A short-term prospective study. Journal of Family Psychology. 2017;31:475-484'},{id:"B4",body:'Davies PT, Sturge-Apple ML, Bascoe SM, Cummings EM. 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The development and neurobiology of infant attachment and fear. Developmental Neuroscience. 2012;34:101-114'},{id:"B36",body:'Opendak M, Sullivan R. Developmental consequences of trauma on brain Circuits. In: Chao MV, editor. The Oxford Handbook of Developmental Neural Plasticity. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2018'},{id:"B37",body:'Papp LM, Cummings EM, Goeke-Morey MC. Marital conflicts in the home when children are present versus absent. Developmental Psychology. 2002;38:774-783'},{id:"B38",body:'Johnson SM. Attachment Theory in Practice: Emotionally Focused Therapy with Individuals, Couples, and Families. New York, NY: The Guilford Press; 2019'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Olivia Dorn",address:null,affiliation:'
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UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
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