\r\n\tAssisted Reproductive Technologies (ART) is a key technology for treating infertility, which occurs in 10-15% of the general population in reproductive age. This has been one of the most tumultuously developing interdisciplinary technologies in medicine in recent decades. Thanks to in vitro methods, more than 5 million children were born in the whole world. For 40 years, the success rates of this treatment have increased many times, respectively in the first years from less than 10% to more than 50% in present days (in some groups of patients). The reason for this rapid increase is the introduction of new drugs and stimulation protocols, improvement of embryo culture media, and the use of new types of laboratory equipment that improve the conditions for embryo development. Last but not least, the introduction of modern genetic methods, as well as new gamete and tissue freezing techniques, has improved the methods' diagnostic and therapeutic capabilities.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-720-4",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-719-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-721-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"4a171468ca00ae2c47f7f5cd0f3b90a4",bookSignature:"Dr. Iavor K. Vladimirov",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11839.jpg",keywords:"Ovarian Reserve, Indication of ART Treatment, Stimulation Protocols, Monitoring of Ovarian Stimulation, Oocytes and Sperm Preparation, Manipulation Techniques, Surrogacy, Cross Border IVF Treatment, Preimplantation Genetic Testing, Endometrial Receptivity, Ethical aspects of ART, Ovarian Rejuvenation",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 24th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 7th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 6th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 25th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 24th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:'Dr. Vladimirov is the founder and medical director of the Sofia IVF Clinic. He is also one of the authors of the book "Theory about the Embryo Cryo-Treatment", the first theory that provides a scientific explanation for the high success rate in the use of frozen embryos.\r\nDr. Vladimirov introduces for the first time in Bulgaria the methods for Ovarian Reserve Assessment, In Vitro Maturation method,Determination of “implantation window” in the endometrium, using\r\nEndometrial Receptivity Analysis (ERA) test.',coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"253947",title:"Dr.",name:"Iavor K.",middleName:null,surname:"Vladimirov",slug:"iavor-k.-vladimirov",fullName:"Iavor K. Vladimirov",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253947/images/system/253947.jpg",biography:"Dr. Iavor K. Vladimirov graduated in Medicine at the Sofia Medical University in 1990. In 1997 he became an Obstetrics and Gynaecology specialist. In 2003, he wrote a doctoral thesis on 'Diagnostic Testing to Assess the Ovarian Reserve of Infertile Women”, and obtained a Ph.D.\nDr. Vladimirov was, in the period between 2008 and 2010, a secretary of the Bulgarian Association of Sterility and Reproductive Health. \nHe hаѕ оvеr 25 уеаrѕ’ of ехреrіеnсе іn the аѕѕіѕtеd rерrоduсtіоn and іntrоduсеd the method of 'іn vіtrо mаturаtіоn” tо Вulgаrіа. Dr. Iavor Vladimirov іѕ thе fіrѕt Вulgаrіаn rерrоduсtіvе mеdісіnе ѕресіаlіѕt whо wоn оnе оf thе mоѕt рrеѕtіgіоuѕ аwаrd оf 'Тhе Society for Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility” оf Тhе Аmеrісаn Ѕосіеtу fоr Rерrоduсtіvе Меdісіnе (АЅRМ) fоr уеаr 2016 and won the prestigious \\'Daniela Seizova - In the Name of Life\\' award in the category \\'Physician of 2016.\\' \nSince 2004 he is the Medical Director of the IVF unit in SBALAGRM – Sofia, Bulgaria.\nSince 2008 he is a Lector of the Faculty of Biology, Sofia University 'St. Kliment Ohridski”, Sofia, Bulgaria.",institutionString:"Sofia IVF clinic",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"453622",firstName:"Tea",lastName:"Jurcic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"tea@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. 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1. Introduction
Jet ventilation in medicine means the administration of small to the smallest gas volumes (1–2 ml/kilogram per body weight) with a high frequency from a nozzle or special adaptors to ventilate a patient. This ventilation is used in surgical surgery as well as in intensive care medicine. In contrast to the dynamics of a sustained flight jet beam, the jet stream in medical application is only supposed to expand the lung during the inspiratory phase. Thereafter, the expiration should be passively carried out by sifting the air supply. But in the expiratory phase, the air should not be completely exhaled. A positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) should prevent a collapse of alveoli. In case of surgery on the larynx as well as in the trachea, both the surgeon and the anesthetist interfere in the same working area. An often used endotracheal tube ensures the mechanical ventilation and, however, represents a massive disability for the surgeon. One possibility is the use of thin endotracheal tubes to provide the surgeon more space for his operational activity. Alternatively, however, techniques were developed in which the gas flows without endotracheal tube through the surgical area directly into the trachea. One possibility is the use of an endoscope in which nozzles for jet ventilation are integrated. The gas emerging from the nozzles flows through the endoscope and through the vocal cord plane into the trachea.
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD), a viable method for analyzing flow behavior, is well established for the investigation [1] of fluid mechanics. In recent years this method has been applied in the medical field to better understanding the behavior of gas currents in the human lung [2, 3]. Furthermore, technical issues related to mechanical ventilation can be solved by CFD. High-frequency ventilation (high-frequency jet ventilation, jet ventilation) is a ventilation technique that is characterized by the application of a small tidal volume through a variable nozzle, usually at high frequency [4]. Jet ventilation enables the transport and administration of small volumes of compressed gas at high pressures through a thin catheter or small metal tubes whose ends have the characteristics of a nozzle. However, the use of tubes or catheters involves the risk of dislocation or kinking, with the subsequent obstruction of the gas flow [5, 6, 7].
Superimposed high-frequency jet ventilation (SHFJV) is a simultaneous, combined application of low- and high-frequency jet ventilations [8]. Jet ventilation is characterized by the appearance of some physical effects whose characteristics make them feasible for mechanical ventilation in endoscopic surgery. One of these effects is the free jet character of the gas flow. The respiratory gas is to be transported in an outward open system from the jets through the vocal cord level in the lung. After the exit of the gas from the nozzle, it moves at the SHFJV over a short distance as a free jet in the direction of the vocal cord level. When the gas leaves the nozzle, the energy of the gas is sufficient to produce a forward pressure thrust. The gas then flows with a reduced controllable pressure needed for mechanical ventilation through the endoscope and glottis into the lungs. Another characteristic of this free jet is an entrainment [9] of the surrounding air. Thus, the enriched oxygen gas coming out of the jet is reduced in its concentration. These physical effects are applicable to jet ventilation and in particular for the superimposed high-frequency jet ventilation. Although this technique was initially developed for operations on the vocal cords in adults, the spectrum of this technology has expanded. Thus, this technique is particularly suitable for children, because of the limited space and the difficult working conditions for the surgeon. Furthermore, the operating range has been extended to the subglottic space and tracheal space. The anatomical relationships are not changed. Another crucial aspect is the use of jet ventilation in high-grade stenosis [10, 11]. The localization of these pathological changes which lead to a reduction in cross section for the gas flow can be localized above, directly in the vocal cord or even below. From a medical-technical point of view, it is necessary to administer the gas jet with a higher pressure in order to maintain a sufficient tidal volume behind the stenosis in the lung. At the same time, however, it must be ensured that the applied gas volume behind the stenosis does not lead to hyperinflation of the lungs. Hyperinflation of the lungs can cause barotrauma due to a blockage of the gas outflow. The question that arises is can the pressure behind the stenosis be higher than the pressure before the stenosis, with this ventilation technique? Current clinical results show that in no case a barotrauma occurred even in cases of severe stenosis [12]. However, publicized data on the validation of the general gas behavior and flow patterns within the jet laryngoscopes is still absent in the literature. The aim of this study was to analyze fluid dynamic processes within the jet laryngoscope by a flow simulation. The behavior of the combined low- and high-frequency jets should be investigated in the endoscope. The entrainment of the gas caused by the two jets with the characteristics of free flow is to be analyzed in its behavior. Subsequently, the behavior of the distribution of the flow and the pressure in a stenosis is to be examined. The potential risk for barotrauma using supraglottic jet ventilation in the presence of a stenosis is to be investigated.
1.1 Material and methods
1.1.1 Jet laryngoscope
The jet laryngoscope (comp. Carl Reiner, Vienna, Austria) contains two metal jets welded to the side of the endoscope. The jets are directed downward and end at the inside wall of the laryngoscope with an opening into the lumen. The alignment of each jet stream is based on an imaginary center of the distal end of the laryngoscope, implying that this stream is continued along a median line into the trachea. The openings of the jet nozzles are positioned in the upper third of the endoscope and not at the top of the endoscope. An additional line is affixed to the right side of the laryngoscope. This line ends at the tip of the laryngoscope and solely served to pressure monitoring. Two jet streams with different frequencies were applied simultaneously. The continuous high-frequency jet stream is applied during expiration period and superimposed during the inspiratory phase of the low-frequency jet ventilation. The low-frequency jet stream resulted in phased airway pressure changes analogous to conventional ventilation with 12–20 bpm and provided the upper (higher) pressure level. The high-frequency jet stream has a frequency of 100–1500 cycles/min and is creating the lower pressure level corresponding to a positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP). The released gas has a pressure of 1–1.5 bar, which declines hundredfold upon reaching the vocal cords resulting in a pressure of 10–15 mbar at the distal endoscope opening. The two jet streams are administered by an electronic respirator (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Schematic description of the jet laryngoscope: Localizations of the jets and airway pressure measurement (yellow).
1.1.2 Geometry of the model
For creation of a geometry model, GAMBIT software was used. To reduce computing time, minor simplifications to the model had to be made. The entry and exit diameters of the laryngoscope were approximated to an elliptical form (entry, a = 13 mm and b = 8 mm; exit, a = 7 mm and b = 4 mm; a and b are the semiaxes of the ellipses). The nozzles were depicted as section planes in Fluent to ensure accurate depiction of peripheral airflow conditions. The total length of the laryngoscope was 165 mm, and the angle of oxygen entry was 28°, while the distance between nozzle and gas release diameter was 48 mm for low-frequency and 68 mm for high-frequency ventilation. The inner nozzle diameter was 1.7 mm.
1.1.3 The network model
Connection simulation (Figure 2) was also done by GAMBIT software in the following manner: Firstly, the segments immediately before and after the laryngoscope entrance and exit diameter were configured according to the Cooper regimen. The front surfaces were connected to the elements of Hex/Hedge type. This implies that hexahedral (six-sided) elements were primarily used, unless wedge elements were required. For the middle segment, the Cooper regimen could not be used, because of the presence of the nozzles. The elements were connected according to the Pave system, which is not compatible with the Cooper regimen. This area around the nozzles was analyzed with higher resolution, because of the essential character of this area for the results of our study. An edge plane was applied to the wall of the laryngoscope.
Figure 2.
Networked laryngoscope and 3D geometry.
The properties and quality of the resulting network are:
64.591 nodes, 104.056 volume elements.
The aspect ratio was limited to a value of <5, except in the outer segments where a ratio of 10 was deemed acceptable (The aspect ratio is only greater than 3.6 in the outer segments.).
The average skewness factor was limited to 0.33, and the maximum to 0.95 (0.17 and 0.94, respectively).
The maximal squish index value was 0.99 (0.84).
1.1.3.1 Fluent
Fluent is a software solution utilizing the finite volume method to solve the problem at hand. Before the iterative solution process can be undertaken, certain settings with significant relevance need to be defined.
1.1.3.2 Settings
1.1.3.2.1 Solver
The pressure-based solver was selected.
1.1.3.2.2 Turbulence model
Because of the relatively high Reynolds values (44,000 and 28,000) of the laryngoscope entrance and exit zones, the airflow in the laryngoscope is turbulent. For numerical calculation the realizable k-E value was chosen, because the standard κ-ε model was not suited because of its weakness in calculation of sudden acceleration. Finally, the realizable κ-ε model was chosen
1.1.3.2.3 Species
Air and pure oxygen were defined as present substance in the presented model to determine the specific oxygen density at the exit diameter. The model allowed for the normal oxygen concentration of pure air (21%), because the Fluent software does not incorporate this correction factor automatically.
1.1.3.2.4 Boundary conditions
Entrance diameter
Pressure inlet with surrounding pressure.
The utilized value is an approximation, due to the fact that the pressure upon entry is not constant, but depends on the pressure of both end stream nozzles. The higher the entrance velocity of the applied gas is, the higher the negative pressure of the entrance diameter becomes.
Exit diameter
Pressure outlet with an assumed pulmonary pressure of 30/15 mbar
Jets (nozzles)
Pressure inlet with 0.8 bar pressure at the low-frequency nozzle and 1.3 bar at the high-frequency aperture
Wall
1.1.3.2.5 Solution controls
The settings of iteration, under-relaxation factors, and residuals were adapted to the stage of computation.
1.1.3.2.6 Steady flow
The pressures at both jets were assumed to be constant. The following conditions (Table 1) were analyzed.
Pressure (low-frequency jet) [bar]
Pressure (high-frequency jet) [bar]
Case A
1.3
0.8
Case B
0
0.8
Case C
1.3
0
Table 1.
The pressure at both jets was assumed to be constant. The following conditions were analyzed. Case A was defined as the gas current during inspiration and expiration.
1.1.3.2.7 Unsteady flow
The instationary current at the low-frequency nozzle is not constant, but varies between 0 and 1.3 bar, alternating every 2.5 sec. To accommodate this fact, a user-defined function (UDF) was programmed and added to the simulation. The pressure at the high-frequency nozzle was assumed to be constant.
To ensure accurate results for each time interval, each time interval should be short enough. Utilizing the Courant–Friedrichs–Lewy (CFL) value, every time step can be predicted sufficiently. The implied solver should be approximately 10.
∆t<CFLmin∗∆xU
Δx, element length; U, velocity.
Because the net is smallest and the velocity is highest as the nozzle exits, the time interval was estimated according to this data. This computes to Δt of 5e–6 s (Δx = 0.17 mm, U = 350 m/s), which in turn implies 20.000 intervals per second.
2.1 Results
Cases with stationary pressure with different pressure conditions and the effect of a stenosis were simulated. Simultaneous high- and low-frequency jet ventilation (Case A) is applied at an intrapulmonary pressure of 30 mbar. In this case, maximal velocities of 295 m/s could be measured at the low-frequency nozzle. The velocity drops rapidly to a value of 43.2 m/s at the laryngoscope exit (Figure 3). The vector field (Figure 4) of the measured velocities of the high and low frequencies of gas current depicts the gas flow toward the lungs, and the simultaneous exit flows out of the lung contralaterally, allowing for an additional recirculation component on the opposite side of the nozzles. A negative pressure (Figure 5) is created due to the free jet characteristic of gas flow directly after having left the nozzle. These results in surround room air are sucked from the open end to the atmosphere.
Figure 3.
z-component of velocity distribution (m/s). The influx of the gas takes place starting from the nozzle to the left. On the opposite side is the outflow of the gas.
Figure 4.
Vector field of the velocity in the region of the two nozzle (m/s).
Figure 5.
Pressure distribution (the areas around the nozzles have been excluded due to the strong negative or high positive pressure of the color scale, to ensure that the pressure differences in the remaining region are more visible, pressure in Pa).
2.2 Change in pulmonary pressure
Further simulation of the flow characteristics inside the jet laryngoscope, assuming a lower pressure in the lung (15 mbar). At first glance it is obvious the velocities along the z-axis rise (Table 2) when the opposite force in the lung is lower. The combined application of high- and low-frequency jet ventilation at unchanged high “driving pressure” as in Case A shows that, with low pulmonary pressure (15 mbar), the velocities in the entrance and exit zones are markedly higher. Case C of single low-frequency jet ventilation exhibits a higher velocity as the single high-frequency jet (Case B) ventilation. However, the increased gas velocity results in a raised entrainment of air, reducing the oxygen concentration in the exit zone. Table 3 shows that the mass transport is directly proportional to the velocities. Figure 6 shows (Case A) the development of the gas flow with a lower intrapulmonary pressure. But here, too, there is a bidirectional gas flow.
v Exit
v Exit
v Entrance
v Entrance
O2 Exit
O2 Exit
[m/s]
[m/s]
[m/s]
[m/s]
[%]
[%]
15 mbar
30 mbar
15 mbar
30 mbar
15 mbar
30 mbar
Case A
58.38
43.51
Dez.89
48
53
Case B
23.27
−27.09
Apr.85
−10.03
42
22
Case C
38.99
15.55
Aug.75
Jän.90
50
57
Table 2.
Comparison of two different lung pressures (15 vs. 30 mbar). Behavior of flow velocities (m/s) and the oxygen content (%) at the entrance and exit of the jet laryngoscope at three different ventilation modes (Cases A, B, and C).
Mass transport in the exit
Mass transport in the exit
[kg/s]
[kg/s]
15 mbar
30 mbar
Case A
−0.006892061
−0.0050869673
Case B
−0.002731038
0.003058461
Case C
−0.004529244
−0.001836674
Table 3.
Mass transport at the outlet cross section.
Figure 6.
Velocity distribution for case A at 15 mbar pressure lung (m/s).
3. Stenosis
This simulation attempted to imitate laryngeal pathology with stenosis by reducing the cross section at the tip of the laryngoscope. In this study, a short yet circular stenosis was examined (Figure 7) similar to a clinical situation. The half-axes of the cross section were reduced from 7 to 4.5 mm and from 4 to 2.5 mm, which meant a reduction of 60% in diameter. For further simulation the system was extended after the stenosis by a piece of pipe. The remaining conditions are identical to Case A (combined high- and low-frequency jet ventilation). The intrapulmonary pressure was set at 15 mm. The reduction of ventilation diameter has the following implications: Proximal to stenosis the pressure rises (45 mbar), resulting in a reduction in velocity (approx. 20 m/s) before increasing once again (Figure 8) in the region of the stenosis and immediately post-stenotically (70 m/s) until a stable velocity of 25 m/s is reached. Simultaneously, there is a bidirectional gas flow in the laryngoscope again.
Figure 7.
Clinical situation of a circular stenosis just below the vocal cord level.
Figure 8.
Velocity distribution in occurring stenosis at a pulmonary pressure from 15 mbar. At the side of the nozzle is a high gas velocity. Simultaneously a gas discharge is on the opposite side (m/sec).
(Figure 9) shows the pressure distribution at the stenosis. The pre-stenotic pressure corresponds to a dynamic pressure. It is important to note that despite the pre-stenotic pressure being relatively high, there is an obligatory drop in post-stenotic pressure (Figure 10). This results in an increase of lateral backflow and in consequence reduced entrainment. (Figure 11) shows the vector field of the velocity in the area of stenosis. Localized recirculation can be seen. There is a backflow both before and after the stenosis.
Figure 9.
The pressure increases continuously in front of the stenosis, but he is lower in the area of the stenosis and after the stenosis (Pa).
Figure 10.
Comparison of the pressure before (left) and after (right) the stenosis (note: For a better illustration of the pressure gradient over the cross section, the top and bottom values of the scale have changed).
Figure 11.
Backflows both before (top right) and after (bottom left) the stenosis.
4. Discussion
When reflecting on currents in tubes with round cross sections, a laminar airflow with parabolic velocity profile primarily springs to mind [13]. The current can present itself in a completely different matter and is illustrated by the airflow dynamics of the laryngoscope. Unique current patterns and pressure dynamics are created due to the technical specifications of the laryngoscope. Although the jet ventilation technique is a recognized and widely used method of jet ventilation technique [14, 15], no data on airflow and pressure dynamics have been published to date. As shown by the data, both gas nozzles emit gas with the characteristics of a free jet [16, 17]. The free jet involving friction [18] then undergoes the typical expansion of the jet. While the nozzle produces a high entrance velocity, the velocity drops downstream due to energy loss of the projected fluid beam because of friction with the surrounding fluid. An entrainment [19] of air is induced at the edges of the laryngoscope due to the big difference in velocity between the free beam and the fluid in the laryngoscope. This, in turn, results in the reduction of oxygen by room air. Nevertheless, our results indicate that this entrainment includes a fraction of the projected gas, so that we could show an additional recirculation component of the projected gas when utilizing simultaneous high- and low-frequency jet ventilation. The lower the acceleration of airflow from the nozzles is, the smaller entrainment could be measured. These phenomena depend on the pressure of the jet gas, the gas velocity [20], and as Koller et al. [21] have already shown the localization of the jet nozzles.
As our results show, the gas flow can be described as asymmetrical and simultaneous bidirectional. The asymmetry is caused by the positioning of the jet nozzles. On the side of the nozzles, the jet gas flows in the direction of lungs with a high z-axis velocity. Even though the primary velocity of the emitted gas at the nozzle can be as high as 300 m/s, it reduces speed to 70 m/s at the tip of the endoscope. Because the velocity is only very high at the nozzle exit, it is acceptable to observe the common respiratory gases as incompressible fluids [22]. The term simultaneous bidirectional describes the synchronically process of gas transfer into the lung and from the lung by the continuous high-frequency jet ventilation. The low-frequency gas application takes place discontinuously.
4.1 Stenosis
The clinically relevant scenario of laryngeal or subglottic stenosis and obvious reduction of ventilation diameter (stenosis) is found at the tip of the endoscope. In contrast to previously publicized studies, which assume the nozzles of jet ventilation lie in close proximity to the tip of the endoscope [23], our supraglottic jet ventilation model uses the clinically accurate gas release point, located more proximally. Therefore, presuming that the previously published data is based on a gas release point of 1 cm proximal to the endoscope tip, this data is an incomparable data based on a proximal release point for supraglottic jet ventilation, which lies 6–8 cm proximally to the endoscope tip. Additionally, the pre-stenotic pressure plays an essential role in the gas passage through the stenotic pathology. It is not surprising that, as our results indicate, the pre-stenotic pressure drastically rises, while the velocity drops. The reduction in diameter is however also responsible for the increase in localized back draft and reduced entrainment. As we could show, there is also a pressure drop within the stenosis, which is also pronounced immediately after passage through the stenosis and continues for a finite distance post-stenotically. The fact that the pre-stenotic pressure is high and low in the post-stenotic area is not surprising from a fluid mechanical view. Our results show that in our case, the gas velocity drops pre-stenotically, just to rise again within the stenosis, only to drop again after the stenosis. The results demonstrate that the pressure during inspiration is higher in front of the stenosis than after the stenosis. Since stenosis represents an abrupt cross-sectional constriction, the Bernoulli equation may be included in fluid mechanical considerations only in enlargement by an operating element and pressure loss coefficient [24, 25]. Even though this physical law is widely known, many physicians and surgeons are unaware of its implication for laryngeal stenosis and often assume pressure to be higher post-stenotically [26].
5. Conclusion
Our results imply that if sole high-frequency gas dynamics can be compared to steady flow, then additional low-frequency gas flow should be seen as unsteady flow. It would be recommendable to investigate the transient case and add a user-defined function (UDF) to the calculation program to better understand and examine the gas flow within the laryngoscope. This notwithstanding, our data sheds new light on the flow patterns and dynamics of applied gas in the endoscope and contributes to a better understanding of jet ventilation as ventilation technique. This is especially true for the clinically highly relevant stenotic airway.
6. Respiratory devices
A new respiratory device (TwinStream, Carl Reiner, Vienna, Austria) has been developed for superimposed high-frequency jet ventilation (SHFJV) (Figure 12). Although the new technique is successfully used in clinical studies [27], there are few explanations about the structure and mechanism of the respirator. It is designed to allow both low-frequency and high-frequency jet ventilations simultaneously. An upper (plateau) and lower (positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) should be formed (Figure 13). The effectiveness of this combination causes an increased efficiency of gas exchange [28, 29, 30]. In addition, the ratio of inspiratory duration and expiratory duration (I/E ratio) can be determined. In contrast to previously used proportional valves, four matrix valves are used each. The gas of the central gas supply is mixed in the chambers—an algorithm recognizes the demand from the consumption (emission pressure, frequency, and I/E ratio) as well as the necessary oxygen mixture. Four matrix valves per medium (O2 and compressed air) tailed depending on the requirements and thus ensure the exact mixture. The chambers also allow intermediate storage and ensure that the gas output is constant and changes when the oxygen concentration changes.
Figure 12.
Jet respirator (TwinStream).
Figure 13.
Inspiration and expiration during SHFJV, NFJV – Normofrequent Jet Ventilation; HFJV – High Frequency Jet Ventilation.
Figure 14.
Respirator (TwinStream) pneumatic diagram.
The advantages of the matrix valves are the shortest switching times, no friction losses, and trouble-free generation of high frequencies. All parameters are controlled via a programmable logic controller (PLC). The frequencies and pressures that can be used in different ways have significantly extended the spectrum of the respiratory device. Since the gas coming from the nozzles is not humidified and warmed up, an additional gas flow is added to this gas (bias flow). This gas is heated and humidified by a humidifier (Figure 14).
In addition to its operational application, it can thus also be used in the intensive care with a jet modifier.
The superimposed high-frequency ventilation (SHFJV) respirator is flow-variable, time-controlled, and pressure-controlled ventilation. This form of jet ventilation is closest to the conventional form of biphasic positive airway pressure ventilation. But it is a pulsatile ventilation. The low-frequency jet ventilation (NFJV) unit generates the upper pressure plateau during the inspiration phase (PIP—peak pressure). The high-frequency jet ventilation (HFJV) unit runs continuously and generates the lower-pressure plateau—positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP).
The TwinStream jet ventilation system was developed for artificial ventilation of patients under anesthesia during diagnostic and surgical interventions in the entire respiratory system. This ventilation system, with its special accessories and jet catheters, is appropriate for thoracic surgical use such as resection of the trachea (Figure 15). First, results show that this respirator is suitable for the treatment in patients with ARDS, lung fistulas, or multiple trauma at the intensive care unit. This advanced application requires a jet modifier (Figure 16). In this jet modifier, the superposition of the jet gas and its transport during the inspiration into the lungs as well as the gas outflow in the expiration phase take place.
Figure 15.
TwinStream connection diagram for use with jet instrument rigid bronchoscope (a), jet instrument rigid laryngoscope (b), jet converter (c) that allows continuous ventilation through an endotracheal tube or a laryngeal mask, and jet catheter (d) which can also be used for ventilation.
Figure 16.
Connection schematic for the use in the intensive care.
In addition to jet ventilation, there is application of high-frequency oscillation in intensive care medicine [31, 32]. It is a recognized procedure. If small tidal volumes are emitted from a nozzle during jet ventilation, the tidal volumes are generated and transported at the high-frequency oscillation by vibrations of a membrane with a high frequency. Both techniques lead to an improvement in gas exchange. For a long time, it was believed that this improvement was due to increased diffusion mechanisms. Improved radiological techniques, however, show that they are due to a recruitment of alveoli.
\n',keywords:"jet ventilation, superimposed high-frequency jet ventilation (SHFJV), computational fluid dynamics (CFD), laryngeal stenosis, jet respirator, combined high-frequency jet ventilation, flow behavior",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/66614.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/66614.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66614",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66614",totalDownloads:829,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:70,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"December 30th 2018",dateReviewed:"February 28th 2019",datePrePublished:"April 8th 2019",datePublished:"April 15th 2020",dateFinished:"April 8th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The superimposed high-frequency jet ventilation is a jet ventilation technique that allows the surgeon to operate in a system open to the outside endoscopic surgery in the area of the vocal cord level. Although the clinical application is uncomplicated, the possible mechanisms of the gas flow in the jet laryngoscope are largely unknown. In the performed calculations for this work, the CFD software package Fluent is used with the preprocessor GAMBIT. After creating the geometry and networking of the jet laryngoscope in the preprocessor GAMBIT, the boundary conditions and input parameters in the solver are defined. This is followed by iterative calculation using Fluent and the tabulation of results. Ventilation is provided by an electronic respirator specially developed for the endoscope. There is a bidirectional gas flow in the jet laryngoscope. The free jet characteristics of the jet beam can be confirmed. Entrainment depends on pressure and on the gas velocity. The arrangement of the nozzles enables jet ventilation in stenosis. CFD analysis enables the representation of a continuous progress of the pressure as well as the representation of the continuous profile of the velocity in the investigated endoscope. Additionally the practical application for intensive care ventilation is shown.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/66614",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/66614",book:{id:"7375",slug:"medical-robotics-new-achievements"},signatures:"Alexander Aloy, Simon Hell, Andreas Nowak and Matthaeus Grasl",authors:[{id:"283149",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Aloy",fullName:"Alexander Aloy",slug:"alexander-aloy",email:"alexander@aloy.at",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"TU Wien",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"290610",title:"Mr.",name:"Simon",middleName:null,surname:"Hell",fullName:"Simon Hell",slug:"simon-hell",email:"simonhell@jetventilation.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"290611",title:"Dr.",name:"Andreas",middleName:null,surname:"Nowak",fullName:"Andreas Nowak",slug:"andreas-nowak",email:"andreasnowak@jetventilation.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"290612",title:"Prof.",name:"Matthaeus",middleName:null,surname:"Grasl",fullName:"Matthaeus Grasl",slug:"matthaeus-grasl",email:"matthaeusgrasl@jetventilation.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 Material and methods",level:"2"},{id:"sec_1_3",title:"1.1.1 Jet laryngoscope",level:"3"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"1.1.2 Geometry of the model",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_4",title:"1.1.3.1 Fluent",level:"4"},{id:"sec_4_4",title:"Table 1.",level:"4"},{id:"sec_4_5",title:"1.1.3.2.1 Solver",level:"5"},{id:"sec_5_5",title:"1.1.3.2.2 Turbulence model",level:"5"},{id:"sec_6_5",title:"1.1.3.2.3 Species",level:"5"},{id:"sec_7_5",title:"1.1.3.2.4 Boundary conditions",level:"5"},{id:"sec_8_5",title:"1.1.3.2.5 Solution controls",level:"5"},{id:"sec_9_5",title:"Table 1.",level:"5"},{id:"sec_10_5",title:"1.1.3.2.7 Unsteady flow",level:"5"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"2.1 Results",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"2.2 Change in pulmonary pressure",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17",title:"3. Stenosis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"4. Discussion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"4.1 Stenosis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21",title:"6. Respiratory devices",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Andersson B, Andersson R. Computational Fluid Dynamics for Engineers. Göteborg, Sweden: Cambridge University Press; 2011'},{id:"B2",body:'Yin Y, Ci J, Hoffmann EA, Tawhai MH, Lin C-L. Simulation of pulmonary air flow with a subject-specific boundary condition. Journal of Biomechanical Engineering. 2010;43:2159-2163'},{id:"B3",body:'Walters DK, Luke WH. Computational fluid dynamics simulations of particle deposition in large-scale, multigenerational lung models. Journal of Biomechanical Engineering. 2011;133(1). 8 pages'},{id:"B4",body:'Calkins JM, Waterson CK, Hameroff SR, Kanel J. Jet pulse characteristic for high-frequency jet ventilation in dogs. Anesthesia and Analgesia. 1982;61:293-300'},{id:"B5",body:'Orloff LA, Parhizkar N, Ortiz E. The Hunsaker Mon-jet ventilation tube for microlaryngeal surgery: Optimal laryngeal exposure. 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Influence of tracheal obstruction on the efficacy of superimposed high-frequency jet ventilation and single-frequency jet ventilation. Anesthesiology. 2015;123(4):799-909'},{id:"B29",body:'Jiang Y, Kacmarek RM. Efficacy of superimposed high-frequency jet ventilation applied to variable degrees of tracheal stenosis: One step forward to optimized patient care. Anesthesiology. 2015;123:747-749'},{id:"B30",body:'Putz L, Mayne A, Dincq. Jet ventilation during rigid bronchoscopy in adults: A focused review. Bio Med Research InternationaI. 2016. Article ID 4234861, 6 pages'},{id:"B31",body:'Xu-Xiong G, Zhao-Ni W, Ya-Ting L, Li P, Li-Fen Y, Yan H, Yue-Yu S, Liang-Ming C, Zhuang-Gui C. High-frequency oscillatory ventilation is an effective treatment for severe pediatric acute respiratory distress syndrome with refractory hypoxemia. Therapeutics and Clinical Risk Management. 2016;12:1563-1571'},{id:"B32",body:'Chang HK. Mechanism of gas transport during ventilation by high-frequency oscillation. Journal of Applied Physiology: Respiratory, Environmental and Exercise Physiology. Mar 1984;56(3):653-663'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Alexander Aloy",address:null,affiliation:'
University of Technology Vienna, Institute of Fluid Mechanics and Heat Transfer, Austria
Department of Ear, Nose and Throat Diseases, Medical University of Vienna, Austria
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1. Introduction
After cellulose, starch is the second most abundantly available natural polymer in the world. Because of its biodegradability and non-toxicity to the natural environment, it becomes a raw material very attractive for the food and non-food application. Starch is a homo-polysaccharide made up of glucose units, linked together via glycosidic linkages, with a renewable-botanic origin (seeds and plant tubers), lowest price and highest industrialization potential for the next decade [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13]. Starch has a biphasic composition because consists in two polysaccharides, amylose with linear macromolecules and low molecular weight and amylopectin with branched, clustered chains which belong simultaneously to several clusteres and high molecular weight. Depending on its origin, the diameter of the starch granules varies between 1 and 2 μm to 100 μm. The starch granules are different shaped: round (corn), oval (potato), rounded and truncated at one end (tapioca), flat, elliptical (wheat) [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. Because each starch is different in composition the obtained films could exhibit different properties [10].
The ratio between the two constituent polymers of starch conditions the subsequent use of starch as thermoplastic polymer, as during the melted state flowing, the amylose macromolecules align in the flow direction and because its chemical strongly branched macromolecules, those of amylopectin cannot be aligned. The ratio between amylose and amylopectin depends on the starch origin and the growing climatic conditions. Starch is a semi-crystalline polymer that does not melt in the traditional sense to form a liquid. Starch melting occurs in the presence of a moderate (10–30%·w/w) water content. Starch crystals contain about 9–10%·w/w of bound water, which does not freeze at cooling below 0°C. Additional water or plasticizers is required for melting of starch at convenient temperatures below the water boiling temperature and the starch degradation temperature [11]. Starch has multiple glass transitions under which physical aging occurs. Due to the high hydroxyl content, the starch properties are strongly dependent on the moisture.
Currently, on the market, there are varieties of commercially starch available (potato, corn, wheat, topioca, etc)and numbers of un-explored and under-utilization sources of starch (fruits processing waste, different agro-industrial residues, etc.) [12, 13].
Starch is an important source of raw materials both as organic compounds and polymer used for plastic industry. It can be converted readily into a variety of useful monomeric and polymeric products by chemical and biochemical routs. Fermentation of starch to industrial-grade ethyl alcohols becoming more economically competitive with the synthetic methods due, largely, to the increasing cost of ethylene. Other biological conversions yield a variety of alcohols, ketones, and organic acids, and these too will become increasingly important as the petroleum situation worsens. Enzymatic conversion of starch to glucose, a useful starting compound for a variety of alcohols, acids, and polyols, proceeds readily and in near quantitative yield. Glycol glucosides, cyclic polyols derived by glycolysis of starch, are excellent replacements for petroleum-derived polyols in the production of rigid urethane foams, and can replace up to 85% of petroleum-based polyols in alkyd resins with no loss in quality of the resin [14].
However, its use as a polymer is unprofitable and limited by certain functional properties. Its hydrophilicity, thermal, and mechanical properties limitations, low physical properties (brittle, poor moisture resistance, low permeability to lower gases, high density) rapid degradability, and strong intra and intermolecular hydrogen bonding of the polymer chains hinder its melt processability and limit its widespread commercial application as a renewable biopolymer [3, 15]. Starch also is easy degradable under flowing in the melted state. Moreover there are many difficulties in controlling the functional properties during its service life because of frequently occurred phenomena as exudation of plasticizers (anti-plasticization), re-crystallization (retrogradation) [7].
The perspective for polymeric materials based on renewable resources will be constantly increasing as far as 2050. Due to the failure in solving the issue of environment infestation with secondary polymeric materials, the development policies in designing and achieving polymers and materials based on them are mainly oriented towards sustainable applications.
In order to reach functional properties of practical interest including the sustainable applications, the multiphase starch-based systems are structured mainly by reactive compatibilization at melt processing (reactive extrusion) which has proven to be the most effective method. That is why the chapter presents the possibilities to get new starch-base, multiphase materials proving that structuring based on reactive compatibilization are adequate and practical solutions to ensure functional properties for durable applications. The chapter presents the main possibilities of structuring multiphase systems based on starch and details certain aspects related to the compounds of starch with polyvinyl alcohol.
2. Structuring the multiphase polymeric materials
Multiphase polymeric materials are homogeneous or non-homogeneous systems which contain solid, liquid or gaseous phases and include categories as: composites, blends, gels, interpenetrated polymer networks, mono or layered structure, cellular solids (foams), including biological type (hydrogels) etc. [16, 17]. The dispersed phases into the polymeric matrix can be functionalized, microencapsulated, oriented, continuous or discontinuous, etc. [16, 17, 18, 19].
The structuring of multiphase materials represents the process of diminishing the dispersed phases till micro-and/or nano-metric scale and the positioning of the resulted mico and/or nano fields in an order in which, the properties of interest are achieved as far as possible. The structuring consists in enhancing by controlling the interface properties the physical-chemical-biological-rheological compatibility of the blend components considering methods connected with mobility of the segments/macromolecules/morphological elements, or with reactivity of the components or/and with ordering of the flowing elements at melt compounding [16, 17, 18].
The structure-properties relationship has a crucial significance in the structuring of the multiphase polymeric materials for developing grades satisfying varied engineering requirements [18, 19]. With the help of modern technologies, the circumstances in which the phases of the heterogeneous polymeric materials can be so arranged to give the desired properties in correlation with the intended applications, is possible to be identify.
The interfaces adhesion between the dispersed phases and polymeric matrix are maintained by intermolecular physical or chemical forces and/or by chain entanglements [20]. In the absence of these interactions, the interface becomes the place where the brittle fracture takes place. The interface can be seen as a resistance between materials in contact and is characterized by interfacial tension (controlable by changing of the Gibbs potential per unit area). The interfacial tension depends on factors such as: phases geometry (shape, average size, particle size distribution, porosity, etc.), the characteristics of macromolecular chains (molecular structure, molecular architecture, tacticity, crystallinity, ramifications and/or, defects, impurities, ash), the size of thermo-mechanical stress, the melt flow features (the size of mechanical stress, temperature) [16, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25]. Most thermodynamic studies of multiphase polymer systems are based on Flory-Huggins’ theory [26].
Changing the interface properties have the effect the modification of the material properties. The least common possibilities encountered in the practice of polymer blends achieving are those in which the compound properties are synergistic, i.e. the blend properties are greater than the additive properties of the individual polymers. The properties are synergistic for polymers showing high interface adhesion denoting that they are thermodynamically compatible [17, 27, 28]. The most common dependence blends properties - composition is the additive those, when the blend properties represent the average of the component properties in their pure state, without minimum or maximum. If the interfacial adhesion is very weak and the polymers are thermodynamically incompatible, this dependence does not follow the law of additivity, but shows a variation with a minimum, which means that the blend properties are lower than those of each individual components [17, 28].
Compatibilization is the process of modifying the properties of the interfaces in immiscible polymeric systems which results in the creation of the interphase region in which a gradient of material composition is created [20]. By compatibilization the morphology of the new material is stabilized at macroscopic level and therefore, the functional properties are constant over lifetime. The degree of compatibility is estimated by the thickness of the interface, the size of the dispersed phases, the mechanical performances generally by all functional properties. Unlike the compatibility, the miscibility is related to the blending of components at the molecular level; in the whole mass, which means that in the case of miscible blends it is no longer about dispersed phases [20, 29].
In order to improve the compatibility, the problem of minority components dispersing into the majority polymeric matrix is solved by reducing the interfacial tensions using one of the following techniques: entanglement of the macromolecules, interpenetration of interfaces, development of chemical (covalent linkages) or physical (e.g.van der Waaals, hydrogen bonds, ionic interactions, etc.) bonds [22]. The entangled interfaces are found in miscible blends or composites with good interfacial adhesion. The interfacial tension can be controlled by using polymeric emulsifiers (grafted or block copolymers, others) which create secondary bonds or by using compatibilizers, which generate chemical bonds between phases, after reactions possible between several functional groups (anhydride-amine, epoxy-anhydride, oxazoline-carboxylic acid, isocyanate-carboxylic acid, lactic acid-amine, carbodiimides-carboxylic acid, ion exchange reactions, free radical grafting reactions at the phase interface [17]. By using a controlled method to improve the compatibility even miscibility between the components of a new multiphase polymeric materials is possible to achieve materials, with own functional properties correlated with requirements of various applications.
In case of multiphase polymeric materials with target fillers, the improving of compatibility is based also on the creating of physical and/or chemical bonds. If the cohesive energy thus developed is below a critical value, then morphological defects are created, between the filler and matrix, representing space filled with air, usually found as micro-voids, voids, macro-voids, cracks, fractures. The characteristics of the empty space depend on the shape of the filler. The cohesive energy may be below a critical value, situation in which the miscibility between the components is weak and/or when the distribution of the filler into the matrix is inadequate. In the engineering practice, there are no free-defects multiphase materials such as the mentioned those it was found that if the content of these defects is higher than 5%, then the material functional properties decrease with approx. 30%. The structural defects presence is dangerous because, under stress, it accelerates the mechanical destruction by cracking and breaking [30, 31]. A filler can act also as compatibilizer when the radius of the particle has the same order of size as the radius of gyration [32].
Changing the interface properties has as effect the adjusting of the polymeric system properties. The least common possibilities encountered in the preparation of polymer blends are those in which the dependence of compound property-composition is “synergistic”, i.e. the blend properties are greater than the additive values of the properties of individual polymers. The properties are synergistic only in case of the polymers showing high interface adhesion which means they are thermodynamically compatible [17, 27, 28]. The most common dependence blends properties—composition is the “additive” those, when the properties of the blend represent the average of the properties of its components in their pure state, without minimum or maximum. If the interfacial adhesion is very weak and the polymers are thermodynamically “incompatible”, this dependence does not follow the law of additivity, but shows a variation with a minimum, denoting that the blend properties are lower than those of each individual components [17, 28].
The quality of items obtained by melt processing techniques, expressed as morphological uniformity, anisotropy of properties, appearance of surfaces, etc. depends on the structuring under stress of the flow entities in the field of mechanical and thermal stresses. Structuring under stress is the result of the molecular disaggregation, deformation, orientation, extension of macromolecular chains developed when the melts in passing through the nozzle of the nozzle of the molder device (Figure 1) [3, 33].
Figure 1.
Structuring melts by flowing in elongational (a) or shear stress field (b) [17, 33].
The flow resistance of the polymeric melts, a parameter which control the structuring during the melt compounding flowing, depends both on the shear rates and the molecular parameters describing the chemical structure of the polymeric blends components [34]. As an effect of the order degree gained during the melts flow through the nozzles is the crystallization under stress [33].
In order to deepen the structuring phenomena, the elucidation of the correlation between the molecular parameters (degree of polymerization, Flory-Huggins interaction parameters, etc.) and macroscopic phase separation phenomena is necessary to be done by investigating the heterogeneous structure from submicron scale to nanometer those [35].
3. Structuring of starch based materials
To get functional properties of wide applicability, starch can be converted into multiphase polymeric compounds, by physical and / or physical-chemical and/or chemical modification with other polymers and/or non-polymeric materials [36] considering un-reactive and/or reactive melt compounding [25, 37, 38, 39, 40]. Generally speaking, starch has low compatibility with other polymers or biopolymers and therefore the degree of compatibility varies depending on the specific used grades. The success of the starch converting into such multiphase polymeric systems is conditioned by the achievement of the molecular miscibility or, at least, by the creation of an advanced dispersion of minority components into the main polymeric matrix, via lowering the interfacial tensions considering the described compatibilization techniques [24, 41, 42, 43].
The convertion of starch into multiphases polymeric compounds of practical interest must consider both the starch origin, the ratio between the amylose and amylopectin, the constancy of this ration (especially for scaled up procedures), the correlation of the modification method with all the starch structural characteristics and the requirements of the considered application. The structuring possibilities are related equally to the way of designing the formulation and choosing of the melt compounding conditions the chapter presenting examples regarding the starch-polyvinyl alcohol compounds. An overview of the reactive compatibilization as method to get structured multiphase materials based on starch with other polymers is also given. A special attention is paid to the possibilities of avoiding the melt degradability of the multiphase systems based on starch. The chapter details also the structuring methods to achieve starch - PVOH nanocomposites with layer silicate content and presents a silicate treatment method which leads to the formation of exfoliated nanocomposites. The structuring through incorporation of a gaseous phase into the starch-starch matrix is also shortly described.
4. Structuring through melt compounding
Starch can be compounded with renewable polymers from algal origin (alginates); microbial origin (polysaccharides: chitosan, curdlan, gellan, pullulan, xanthan, bacterial cellulose; polyesters and copolyesters: polyhydroxyalcanoates (PHA), poly (butylene adipate-Co-terephthalate) (PBAT)); plant origin (polysaccharides: cellulose, pectin; proteins: soy proteins, zein, gluten: polyesters (polylactic acid PLA)); animal origin (polysaccharides: chitin, chitosan) [44, 45]. On the market there are also of interest starch compounds biodegradable or water- soluble oil-based polymers as: polycaprolactones (PCL), polybutylene succinate (PBS), polybutylene succinate adipate (PBSA) or polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH) [46].
Starch compounds with PVOH are designed for replacement of LDPE films in application where barrier properties are not critical, water-soluble laundry bags, biomedical and clinical fields, replacement of polystyrene foams as loose fill packaging materials, packaging applications. Blending of starch with other biodegradable polymers such as biodegradable polyesters; polylactic acid (PLA) and polycaprolactone (PCL), was recognized as a successful strategy to provide a renewable, fully biodegradable and cost-effective materials [47]. The compounds of starch with PLA are conceived for applications as food packaging, electronic devices, membrane materials (chemical and automotive industries), medical applications, packaging materials. The compounds of starch with PBSA are useful as antimicrobial packaging materials and those with PHB as biomaterial in medical applications. PBAT starch compounds have controllable mechanical properties and are therefore are designed for multiple types of packaging [48]. The use of starch in achieving of polyurethane (PU) multiphase materials not only yields PUs with outstanding mechanical properties but also makes the final PU products biodegradable. The hydrophilic nature of starch limits its dispersion in hydrophobic PU polymers [49] and therefore these compounds must be reactively compatibilized.
Renewable fillers play a valuable role in the development, of new multiphase polymer materials based on starch considering melt compounding techniques. It should be noted that the degree of compatibility between starch and other biopolymers extensively varies depending on the specific biopolymer, generally starch having as has been said low compatibility with other polymers [43, 50].
4.1 Melt compounding conditions
Starch can be melt compounded considering various conventional processing techniques, similar to those widely used for typical synthetic thermoplastics, such as extrusion, injection, compression molding, casting and foaming, as well as some new techniques as melt reactive melt compounding. Various starch-based products which have been developed and commercialized as extruded films/sheets, foams, shaped articles, etc. [51] using internal mixer, mono (Figure 2) or twin-screw extruders, injection devices, others can be obtain [52]. Formulations often require inlets for plasticizers, filler or other additives. Escape of volatiles such as steam will be required, without loss of other materials. High shear is required to disrupt the native starch structure and produce a uniform composition with other components. The extrudate must be a uniform continuous stream with rheology suitable for shaping [11].
Figure 2.
Schematic representation of starch processing by extrusion [52].
A twin-screw extruder has a large operational flexibility (individual barrel zone temperature control, multiple feeding/injection, and screw configuration for different degree of mixing/kneading) and is useful for intensive mixing and compounding of components into starch plastics. In a twin-screw extruder the custom combinations of rheological elements can be assembled along the screw. Zone of high shear will assist with disruption of granules while uncoiling of molecules can take place in less shear intensive zones. Another advantage of the twin-screw extruder is to allow the decoupling of die flow and mechanical treatment. During extrusion of starch-based multiphase materials, residence times and specific mechanical energy inputs must be controlled, and high efficiency production can be achieved [52]. The temperature conditions for preparation and processing of these materials must be chosen to minimize possible degradation of the organic modifier and the matrix [53, 54, 55]. The shear experienced during compounding may have caused fragmentation of starch and destroyed its crystalline structure [56]. Shearing of the molten granules destroys their organized structure, and crystalline, granular starch is converted to a dispersed, essentially amorphous material [57]. It was found that if the extrusion is performed at high rotational speed and high stationary times the single helix crystallites are formed [58, 59]. Also during extrusion the shear stress may enhance starch separation, whereby amylose may be partly leached out of the amylopectin [60, 61].
Because the melt compounding conditions control the melt rheological properties they have a great impact on the properties of the resulted compounds [42, 52]. In [42] it has been shown that for the polymeric compounds sensitive to the melt processing parameters, such as those based on starch, the boundary between miscible and less miscible is very small and therefore each compounding ratio requires its own formulation and its own melt flow conditions. It was shown that the miscibility of starch-based compounds increases if, for each formulation is found the melt processing conditions which ensure the better improving of miscibility because the melt resistance to flow allows a suitable homogenizing without degradation of the macromolecules (Figure 3).
Figure 3.
Dependence of the shape of the FTIR spectra (a) and of the XRD diffractograms (b) and the SEM micrographs aspect (fracture) of some starch-PVOH compounds (c) on the melt compounding conditions [42].
The starch-PVOH compounds designed for short life application which had enhanced miscibility achieved by controlling the melt resistance to flow via melt compounding conditions have a better surface appearance (Figure 4) and no longer presents the anti-plasticization and retrogradation phenomena [42].
Figure 4.
Morphology (fracture, 1000×) (a, b) and surface appearance (c, d) before (c) and after (d) improving the miscibility via controlling the melt resistance to flow of some starch-PVOH compounds [42].
It was observed that the starch polymer melts exhibit strong elastic properties and therefore phenomena as nozzle swelling, shark skin and wall slip [62] can be controlled. The experimental results have shown that these phenomena can be avoided by controlling the elastic component of the melt vasco-elastic properties considering the formulation and the selection of optimal compounding conditions. In this way the PVOH-starch compounds can be melt processed into items without defects and degradation, with natural color, smooth surface (Figure 5) and functional properties of interest for short-life applications [17, 63].
Figure 5.
Granules (20–70% starch content) and items achieved from PVOH-starch compounds after elimination of defects via structuring by controlling the melt resistance to flow [17, 63].
5. Solid state properties conditioning the structuring efficiency
5.1 The polymers particles shape and size influence
In [64] was found, that the turning of corn starch via melt compounding with PVOH can be achieved by providing similar melting behavior of the starch and of PVOH powder and by controlling the process sensitivity of the new compounds. The corn starch and PVOH particles had their own size distribution and shape. If the starch particles were rectangular, those of PVOH were spherical [64]. The PVOH particles shape depends on the manufacturing technology and can be spherical only if the polymer was obtained by reverse suspension hydrolysis of poly (vinyl acetate) (PVA) [65]. It has been shown that the particles of the two polymers cannot be melt compounded than after the selection of fractions with particle size variable the same range. If the particle size distribution of the two polymers is wide, then the obtained compounds include defects, either rough surfaces or un-melted inclusions. Variable sized particles have distinct melting times, longer for those with larger diameter and smaller for those with smaller diameter. The rough surface results due to the degradation of small particles and solid inclusions represent un-melted particles because they had large diameter and have no time to melt. Due to the variation of the particle sizes of the two polymers even the morphologies of the achieved compounds and their dynamo-mechanical properties are affected (Figures 6 and 7). If the particles of the two polymers have approximately the same size then they melt in approximate identical time and the two type of defects are avoided.
Figure 6.
Morphological defects of the compound achieved from starch with 40–63 μm sized particles and PVOH with particles of 80–100 μm (1/1 blending ratio) [64].
Figure 7.
The dependence of the dynamo-mechanical properties of the starch-PVOH compounds (storage modulus (a), loss modulus (b)) on the temperature and the particle size (1—P1 (80–100 μm)/P2 (80–100 μm); 2—P1 (80–100 μm)/P2 (100–200 μm); 3—P1 (80–100 μm)/P2 (200–300 μm); 4—P1 (63–80 μm)/P2 (80–100 μm); 5—P1 (63–80 μm)/P2 (80–100 μm)) [64].
In addition, if the blends obtained through melt compounding of starch with PVOH contains un-melted particles, then morphological defects such as voids, cracks fractures, may appear around them (Figure 6), The new compounds always will contain, near un-melted particles because of their size, parts from the starch grains, representing the branched macromolecules of amylopectin, very well visible on the SEM micrographs.
Considering the word “compatibility” describing the partial miscibility of the compounds components which result in macro-metric scale time stability of the obtained compounds, appropriate for the life-time, the term “miscibility” reflects the interpenetration of the components at the molecular level and so stability for an unlimited period for the new materials [64]. It can be appreciated that the polymeric particles, through their size, make the differences even between compatible and miscible compounds. In analyzing the compatibility/miscibility between starch and PVOH compounds (claimed compatible by some authors and opposite by others) the influence of the particles size and of the amylopectin content should be equally considered. In accordance with [64] the starch-PVOH compounds obtained from small sized particles are close to be totally miscible, presenting a single glass transition without shoulders, totally different as those of starch and PVOH beeing almost a continuous phase, only with few defects as voids etc. In the last period, on the commercial market, can be found grades of thermoplastic starches which represent plasticized starch powder melt processed into granules.
6. Structuration through reactive compounding (in situ compatibilization)
The experimental practice has shown that only physical compatibilization which establishes only secondary bonds between the dispersed phases and the matrix does not generate functional properties of practical interest. As it has been pointed out, because of poor interactions, starch is generally thermodynamically immiscible with all renewable polymers showing a dispersed structure (ex. ternary blends based on PCL/starch/PLA, starch-PBAT [66]. Structuration through reactive compounding (in situ compatibilization or chemical compatibilization) involves the development, in the melted state, during compounding, of chemical reaction between the functional groups of the compatibilizer and those of the starch and the second polymer from the compounds. The process involves the in-situ formation of amphiphilic structures, and thus covalently bonding the phases in the melt state. Reactive melt compounding is a convenient and cost-effective technique for the esterification of polysaccharides using anhydride reagents In this way the interface tension decreases, the size of the dispersed phases decreases and the functional properties can be controlled [67, 68]. The chemical compatibilization is relevant when morphology present regions with fully continuity or presents a co-continuous aspect.
To understand the lack of affinity between the different phases, interface adhesion can be investigated by contact angle measurements. The compound morphology can be better observed using microscopy techniques (e.g. SEM, etc.) The rheological investigations in solid (DMA) and melted state helps to understand better the blend structure formation during the process [69]. Currently, nanofillers are used to improve both mechanical properties and the phase morphologies of immiscible blends. The main advantage of using nanofillers, when compared to copolymers, is that the former can simultaneously act as nano-reinforcements and compatibilizers [67]. There are situations when the reactive compatibilizers can fulfill other functions such as antibacterial agent [70].
Twin-screw extruders are typically used for reactive compounding due to their excellent control of mixing, temperature, and residence time distribution, with highly accurate feeders, systems for removal of reaction heat, etc. [71, 72, 73, 74, 75].
Because of interest for industrial quantities of compatibilized multiphase renewable polymeric materials and the possibility to ensure functional properties of practical interest for desired applications, the chemical compatibilization strategy is usually implemented in reactive melt processing procedure (reactive extrusion) [71]. The concrete reactive compatibilization solution depends on the nature of the renewable multiphase polymeric system which must be structured [76, 77, 78].
7. Structuring by incorporating layered silicates
Polymeric nanocomposites have achieved much more attention due to their enhanced physic-chemical and mechanical properties, improved moisture sensitivity in comparison to the pure polymers. Due to its chemical and physical properties, starch is highly valuable to be structured through converting into nano-composites considering melt compounding procedures (twin screw extruder) including the reactive melt processing [79, 80].
Various types of nano-fillers that have been used with plasticized starch can be used such as montmorillonite, cellulose nano whiskers, cellulose nano-fiber, and starch nano-particles (obtained by acidic hydrolysis of waxy maize starch granules as reinforcement [81]). The starch-based nano-composites with different nanofillers for reaching a optimal dispersion and properties need particular preparation strategy [82, 83, 84, 85]. The incorporation of various fillers in a starch-based polymer matrix generates specific structuring process because in this situation they control the specific orientation and/or crystallization processes.
For getting starch-based nano-composites, blends of starch with bio-polyesters or other renewable- or synthetic-based polymers can be used, e.g. which can be considering various obtaining procedures [86].
Regarding the achieving of the starch-PVOH nano-composites structured with layered silicates in a melt compounding procedure were studied aspects as: the dependence of miscibility, morphology and other functional properties on the layered silicate nature, the functionalization strategy of the galleries [87, 88] the target filler content [89], the incorporating method of the layered silicate into the starch matrix [90, 91, 92], the correlation between miscibility and the surface defects [31, 93]. At first sight, the dispersion of the layered silicate with the help of shear stress at melt compounding should favor the exfoliation process. In reality, this method is limited both by the low thermo-stability of the polymers and those of the used modifiers but also due to the loss of hydration water of the layered silicate consequence of long maintenance at high temperature in the compounding device. It was also found that, at the same target filler content, the size of the dispersed phase and the number of dispersed phases per unit area (drops) depend on the type of filler, nature of the surface treatment and particle size. It was concluded that the degree of intercalation of the layered silicate with the PVOH-starch matrix increases if purified layered silicate (NaMMT) or ammonium ion functionalized layered silicate (Nanocor I 28) are used to strengthen the STARCH-PVOH matrix. If, on a macroscopic scale (100 μ) the starch-PVOH-layered silicate compounds seem to be compact materials, at microscopic level (10 μ), defects as gaps, cracks, fracture etc. appear. These morphological defects seem to illustrate a disordered microstructure, due to the poor distribution of swollen silicate tectoids into the continuous polymeric phase, possibly due to inadequate compounding conditions. It has been shown that the PVOH-starch-treated layered silicate blends which, according to X-ray diffractograms, appear to be of exfoliated type and which have an improved thermal behavior, including in terms of uniformity of the melting process, have homogeneous surfaces and low material imperfections as gaps, cracks. SEM micrographs show that the surface of the compositions which, according to X-ray diffraction, are exfoliated intercalated nano-composites. Are characterized by small contact angle, are nano-structured, show advanced miscibility (demonstrated by FTIR analysis), have smaller number of defects as gaps, cracks, fractures [31, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93]. Compounds that, according to XRD diffractograms, are micro-structured, have frequent surface defects and irregular fracture areas, which are the starting points for cracking, crack propagation and stress rupture [31, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93].
In order to achieve a good swelling of the layered silicate and a homogeneous dispersion of the obtained lamellae into a starch-PVOH compound, it has been shown that, the layered silicate needs to be swelled, better in a pre-compounding procedure [91]. The layered silicate (NaMMT) was treated, before compounding in water, an effective starch and PVOH plasticizer. It was shown that the degree of exfoliation of the multilayer silicate and the properties of the achieved micro- and nano-composites depend on the way the silicate was treated (stirring of layered silicate at 1500 rpm, in water, at room temperature or at 50°C, for (8, 16, 24, 76, 288 h) (Figure 8). A small degree of silicate exfoliation reveals that the layered silicate was not sufficiently hydrated and therefore did not disperse well in water. If the silicate was treated an optimal time at room temperature or better at 50°C, a much shorter time, then the XRD diffractograms show the swelling of the NaMMT lamellae and even their exfoliation [91]. The obtained results show that even for starch-PVOH compounds the target fillers, well selected and properly embedded, function as efficient interface agents.
Figure 8.
The swelling and exfoliation of NaMMT during a thermo-mechanical procedure applied before melt compounding (a—stirring without temperature; b—stirring with temperature) incorporation into a starch-PVOH matrix [91].
If the surface appearance of the PVOH-starch composites containing untreated NaMMT is compared with that which enclosed pretreated silicate at 50°C for 72 h, reveals that for the latter, the surface defects and the included spherical shapes with well-defined interfaces are almost disappeared (see SEM micrographs from (Figure 9).
Figure 9.
Influence of silicate treatment on the surface appearance of a multiphase compound with 70% starch and 4% NaMMT (untreated (a), treated at 50°C, for 8 h (b) and treated for 24 h (c); starch particles (d) (SEM micrographs).
As consequence of the layered silicate de-lamination the storage modulus increases from 2 to 6 MPa, for the starch-PVOH compound without silicate, to 35–40 MPa, if the blend contains NaMMT stirred with water at 50°C, for 72 h. Depending on the characteristics of the applied treatment, starch-PVOH based micro- and/or nano-structured, intercalated and/or exfoliated nano-composites were obtained [91].
8. Structuring by incorporating gaseous phase
Depending on the dynamo-mechanical modules and the glass transitions, starch-PVOH formulations were selected for obtaining biodegradable structured foams of practical interest, with a compressive strength of 5–25 MPa and which supports compressions of 80–90%.
Biodegradable foams with variable starch content were made, with open pores of 2–3 mm, storage modulus 2–40 MPa, loss modulus of 2–8 MPa and which supports a compression deformation of 60–85% (Figure 10 and Table 1) [17]. By using a proper foaming agent the density of the foam was reduced to 0.219–0.458 g/cm3. The original composition was patented [17].
Figure 10.
Starch-PVOH-based foams (a) and their properties; (b) storage modulus; (c) compressive stress [17].
Property
Starch content, %
10
20
30
40
Storage modus, T = −30°C, MPa
4.5
3.5
2.5
2
Loss modulus, T = −30°C, MPa
6
7
5
4.4
Table 1.
Dependence of the storage and loss modulus on the starch content of the basic blend [17].
Depending on the amount of foaming gas appeared, the process involves, in its first phases, only the rupture of the continuous matrix in which the dispersed gas phase is placed (Figure 11) [94].
Figure 11.
Morphology of starch-PVOH based foams (a); shape and size of the starch particles (SEM micrographs) (b) [17].
9. Conclusions
The structuring of multiphase polymeric materials is the process of arranging the material components in an order in which, the properties of interest are achieved as far as possible. The structuring is achieved by controlling the interface properties so that to be possible the physical-chemical-biological-rheological compatibility of the components considering mainly the melt compounding.
To guarantee functional properties of wide application interest, the starch, which as polymer is unprofitable and limited by certain properties, can be converted into multiphase polymeric systems considering melt compounding technique which offers the possibility to dispose the minority components into the majority polymeric matrix in variants with improved compatibility and desired functional properties.
The multiphase polymeric systems based on starch can be structured by any method by which the phenomena of the interface are controlled such as: formulations, melt compounding parameters, the flow in the melted state to avoid phenomena as nozzle swelling, shark skin and wall slip, incorporation of target fillers and nano-fillers, incorporation of gaseous phase, the nature and intensity of the homogenization in the melted state, etc. Some possibilities to structure some starch-PVOH compounds are deepened.
Structuring of multiphase systems based on starch by reactive compatibilization is connected with designing of the formulation and choosing of the melt compounding conditions which make possible the chemical bonding of dispersed phases and the base polymeric matrix and, in this way, the increasing of miscibility and the level of functional properties so that to be possible the application in sustainable fields of the new obtained starch-based materials.
Acknowledgments
The work on this paper was supported by the Government of Romania, Ministry of Research and Innovation, Project funded by cohesion funds of the European Union Project: P_40_352, SECVENT 81/2016, “Sequential processes of closing the side streams from bioeconomy and innovative (bio) products resulting from it”, Subsidiary project 1480/2019 and project supported the Romanian Ministry of Research and Innovation, CCCDI – UEFISCDI, project number no. 23N/2019.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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The structuring is reached by controlling the interface properties for achieving physical, chemical, biological or rheological compatibilization, mainly by melt compounding procedure. The chapter proves that the structuring of starch-based multiphases polymeric systems by reactive compatibilization is a good possibility to guarantee the functional properties, required by sustainable applications, of interest even in 2050 perspective. The chapter underlines also that the structuring by reactive compatibilization is connected with the formulation designing and choosing of the melt-compounding conditions in such a manner for the chemical bonding of the minority phases with the main polymeric matrix and therefore increasing the component miscibility and the functional properties of the resulted materials till the requirements of the sustainable applications.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/79542",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/79542",signatures:"Doina Dimonie, Mircea Filipescu, Mihai Dragne, Alina Mustatea and Nicoleta Dragomir",book:{id:"10798",type:"book",title:"Starch",subtitle:"Evolution and Recent Advances",fullTitle:"Starch - Evolution and Recent Advances",slug:"starch-evolution-and-recent-advances",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",bookSignature:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10798.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-891-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-890-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-892-7",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"420800",title:"Dr.",name:"Doina",middleName:null,surname:"Dimonie",fullName:"Doina Dimonie",slug:"doina-dimonie",email:"ddimonie@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"420931",title:"MSc.",name:"Laura-Nicoleta",middleName:null,surname:"Dragomir",fullName:"Laura-Nicoleta Dragomir",slug:"laura-nicoleta-dragomir",email:"lauranicoleta.dragomir@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"420932",title:"MSc.",name:"Mircea",middleName:null,surname:"Filipescu",fullName:"Mircea Filipescu",slug:"mircea-filipescu",email:"mfilipescu3@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"420933",title:"MSc.",name:"Alina_Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Mustetea",fullName:"Alina_Elena Mustetea",slug:"alina_elena-mustetea",email:"alina.mustatea@promateris.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"420934",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Mihail",middleName:null,surname:"Dragne",fullName:"Mihail Dragne",slug:"mihail-dragne",email:"mihail.dragne@promateris.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Structuring the multiphase polymeric materials",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Structuring of starch based materials",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Structuring through melt compounding",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1 Melt compounding conditions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"5. Solid state properties conditioning the structuring efficiency",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"5.1 The polymers particles shape and size influence",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"6. Structuration through reactive compounding (in situ compatibilization)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"7. Structuring by incorporating layered silicates",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"8. Structuring by incorporating gaseous phase",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"9. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Bos H, Elbersen W, Cadórniga Valiño C, Alexopoulou E. 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National Institute for Research and Development in Chemistry and Petrochemistry-ICECHIM, Romania
National Institute for Research and Development in Chemistry and Petrochemistry-ICECHIM, Romania
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This micromachining process is based on two homemade equipments: a spray coating equipment and a programmable UV 3D projection lithography system with alignment. In the spray coating system, there is a heater nozzle next to the spray nozzle for real-time heating. Pure nitrogen is flowed through the heater nozzle, warmed up and sprayed onto the tube substrate surface. The programmable UV lithography equipment for cylindrical substrate mainly consists of four parts: a uniform illumination system, a reduced projection lithography system, a synchronized motion stage system, and a Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) multilayer alignment system which is used to observe simultaneously the projected mask’s patterns and those ever fabricated on the tube. Using the developed lab-on-a-tube surface micromachining technology, an implantable flexible microtemperature sensor and a three-electrode microstructure are successfully fabricated on the flexible polymer tube with 330 μm outer diameter, respectively. The test temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) of the temperature sensor is 0.0034/°C. 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Kimatu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10686",title:"Natural Gas",subtitle:"New Perspectives and Future Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"581763788a6a59e653a9d1d9b5a42d79",slug:"natural-gas-new-perspectives-and-future-developments",bookSignature:"Maryam Takht Ravanchi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10686.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"2416",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Takht Ravanchi",slug:"maryam-takht-ravanchi",fullName:"Maryam Takht Ravanchi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10988",title:"Railway Transport Planning and Manageme",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5cb54cc53caedad9ec78372563c82e2c",slug:"railway-transport-planning-and-management",bookSignature:"Stefano de Luca, Roberta Di Pace and Chiara Fiori",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10988.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"271061",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefano",middleName:null,surname:"de Luca",slug:"stefano-de-luca",fullName:"Stefano de Luca"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"345",title:"Insect Physiology",slug:"insect-physiology",parent:{id:"39",title:"Insectology",slug:"insectology"},numberOfBooks:1,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:26,numberOfWosCitations:94,numberOfCrossrefCitations:60,numberOfDimensionsCitations:126,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"345",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"6048",title:"Insect Physiology and Ecology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"741de9c4e0846c950ac20888e4f437c2",slug:"insect-physiology-and-ecology",bookSignature:"Vonnie D.C. Shields",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6048.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82613",title:"Dr.",name:"Vonnie D.C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shields",slug:"vonnie-d.c.-shields",fullName:"Vonnie D.C. Shields"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:1,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"54100",doi:"10.5772/67318",title:"Potential of Insect-Derived Ingredients for Food Applications",slug:"potential-of-insect-derived-ingredients-for-food-applications",totalDownloads:3187,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:44,abstract:"Insects are a sustainable and efficient protein and lipid source, compared with conventional livestock. Moreover, insect proteins and lipids are highly nutritional. Therefore, insect proteins and lipids can find its place as food ingredients. The use of insect proteins and lipids as food ingredients requires a deep understanding on the chemical and physical characteristics of these ingredients, as well as its functionality. Information on the chemical and physical characteristics of insect proteins and oils will help to assess the possibilities of its use on different food applications. In this chapter, we briefly review the nutritional aspects of insect proteins and lipids, insect processing, protein and lipid extraction as well as the perspectives of food applications of insect protein and lipids. Future studies should delve into extraction methods and into intrinsic properties of insect ingredients. This knowledge will be useful to introduce insect ingredients into various food preparations. Also valuable will be the study of other insect species with perspectives for its commercial rearing.",book:{id:"6048",slug:"insect-physiology-and-ecology",title:"Insect Physiology and Ecology",fullTitle:"Insect Physiology and Ecology"},signatures:"Daylan Amelia Tzompa Sosa and Vincenzo Fogliano",authors:[{id:"192268",title:"Dr.",name:"Daylan",middleName:null,surname:"Tzompa Sosa",slug:"daylan-tzompa-sosa",fullName:"Daylan Tzompa Sosa"},{id:"197212",title:"Prof.",name:"Vincenzo",middleName:null,surname:"Fogliano",slug:"vincenzo-fogliano",fullName:"Vincenzo Fogliano"}]},{id:"53789",doi:"10.5772/67107",title:"Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms of Insect Immunity",slug:"cellular-and-molecular-mechanisms-of-insect-immunity",totalDownloads:4104,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:34,abstract:"Multicellular organisms constantly encounter potentially harmful microorganisms. Although insects lack an adaptive immune system, they do have powerful means of fighting infections. Cellular responses involve phagocytosis of bacteria and encapsulation of parasites. In addition, insects can mount a humoral response against pathogens. This is characterized by the secretion of antimicrobial peptides into the hemolymph. Recognition of foreign pathogens involves specific receptors for sensing infection. These include peptidoglycan recognition proteins (PGRPs) and β‐glucan recognition proteins (βGRPs). Engagement of these receptors starts signaling pathways that activate the genes that encode antimicrobial peptides. These pathways include the Toll, the Imd, and the JAK‐STAT. This chapter describes the innate immunity of insects including both the cellular and humoral responses to bacteria, fungi, and parasites. In addition, recent advances in insect antivirus immune responses are discussed.",book:{id:"6048",slug:"insect-physiology-and-ecology",title:"Insect Physiology and Ecology",fullTitle:"Insect Physiology and Ecology"},signatures:"Carlos Rosales",authors:[{id:"192432",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Rosales",slug:"carlos-rosales",fullName:"Carlos Rosales"}]},{id:"54540",doi:"10.5772/67384",title:"Entomophagy: Insects as Food",slug:"entomophagy-insects-as-food",totalDownloads:3256,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Due to the increasing cost of animal proteins, food and feed insecurity, population growth, and increasing need for protein-rich food in the developed and less developed countries, alternative sources of protein-rich food are highly needed. Scientific research has shown that edible insects are a very rich source of proteins and other nutrients. Hence, insect consumption might help revolutionaries’ food and feed insecurity and thus replace the conventional animal source. This work assesses the potential of insects as food for humans and feed for animals and gathers existing information and research on edible insects. The assessment is based on the most recent and complete data available from various sources and experts around the world, because lack of a complete data on edible insects reduces consumer confidence and limits integration of edible insect consumption with other food sources. Considering the nutritional, economic, and ecological advantages of edible insects over conventional livestock, much attention should therefore be given to their method of collection as this will help improve their availability. This could be achieved by improved conservation or by raising them as a minilivestock. Considering the economic, nutritional, and ecological advantages of this traditional food source, its promotion deserves more attention both from national governments and assistance programs.",book:{id:"6048",slug:"insect-physiology-and-ecology",title:"Insect Physiology and Ecology",fullTitle:"Insect Physiology and Ecology"},signatures:"Tiencheu Bernard and Hilaire Macaire Womeni",authors:[{id:"192275",title:"Dr.",name:"Tiencheu",middleName:null,surname:"Bernard",slug:"tiencheu-bernard",fullName:"Tiencheu Bernard"},{id:"195631",title:"Prof.",name:"Womeni",middleName:null,surname:"Hilaire",slug:"womeni-hilaire",fullName:"Womeni Hilaire"}]},{id:"54037",doi:"10.5772/67106",title:"The Role of Mites in Bark and Ambrosia Beetle-Fungal Interactions",slug:"the-role-of-mites-in-bark-and-ambrosia-beetle-fungal-interactions",totalDownloads:1874,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Insects share complex interactions with mites and fungi that range from obligate mutualisms to antagonistic relationships. These multitrophic interactions often result in changes to the host environment and population dynamics of the insect. Here, we review Scolytidae and Platypodidae beetles (bark beetles and ambrosia beetles, Coleoptera: Curculionidae) and their micro-organismal interactions with mites and fungi. Many bark beetles and ambrosia beetles are closely associated with mutualistic fungi used as a food source. These fungi are carried by the beetles in specialized pockets called “mycangia.” In addition to beetle-specific fungi, secondary fungi are often vectored by mite populations phoretic on the beetles. These secondary introductions create a complex fungal micro-biome within the host tree of the associated Scolytid beetles, with a myriad of consequences to beetle success and tree mortality. In this chapter, we provide a detailed review of specific beetle-fungal and mite-fungal associations, mutualistic and antagonistic effects of these fungal relations, and ecological and evolutionary consequences of beetle-fungal-mite relationships within the host complex.",book:{id:"6048",slug:"insect-physiology-and-ecology",title:"Insect Physiology and Ecology",fullTitle:"Insect Physiology and Ecology"},signatures:"Sneha Vissa and Richard William Hofstetter",authors:[{id:"193239",title:"Prof.",name:"Richard",middleName:null,surname:"Hofstetter",slug:"richard-hofstetter",fullName:"Richard Hofstetter"},{id:"194411",title:"Ms.",name:"Sneha",middleName:null,surname:"Vissa",slug:"sneha-vissa",fullName:"Sneha Vissa"}]},{id:"53296",doi:"10.5772/66442",title:"The Symbiome of Llaveia Cochineals (Hemiptera: Coccoidea: Monophlebidae) Includes a Gammaproteobacterial Cosymbiont Sodalis TME1 and the Known Candidatus Walczuchella monophlebidarum",slug:"the-symbiome-of-llaveia-cochineals-hemiptera-coccoidea-monophlebidae-includes-a-gammaproteobacterial",totalDownloads:1457,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"The genome and transcriptome of the endosymbiotic flavobacterium Candidatus Walczuchella monophlebidarum revealed its role in the synthesis of essential amino acids for its host, the wax cochineal Llaveia axin axin. There were, however, missing genes in the endosymbiont for some biosynthetic pathways. Here, we characterized TME1, another cochineal symbiont that may metabolically complement Walczuchella. TME1 was ascribed to the gammaproteobacterial genus Sodalis on a phylogenomic basis using gene sequences from 143 proteins core genome sequences and the core average nucleotide identity (ANI) confirmed its position. Additionally, we describe Sodalis as a coherent genus. TME1 genome is around 3.4 Mb and has complete gene sequences for the biosynthesis of 10 essential amino acids, for polyamines, flagella, nitrate respiration, and detoxification among many others. Transcripts from ovaries and bacteriomes allowed the identification of differentially transcribed genes from the endosymbionts and host. Highly transcribed genes were identified in TME1 and transcripts involved in amino acid biosynthesis were found. We review here that cosymbionts that derived from different bacterial classes and genera seem to be advantageous for insects that have Flavobacteria as the primary endosymbionts.",book:{id:"6048",slug:"insect-physiology-and-ecology",title:"Insect Physiology and Ecology",fullTitle:"Insect Physiology and Ecology"},signatures:"Tania Rosas-Pérez, Arturo Vera-Ponce de León, Mónica\nRosenblueth, Shamayim T. Ramírez-Puebla, Reiner Rincón-Rosales,\nJulio Martínez-Romero, Michael F. Dunn, Éva Kondorosi and\nEsperanza Martínez-Romero",authors:[{id:"193144",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Rosenblueth",slug:"monica-rosenblueth",fullName:"Monica Rosenblueth"},{id:"195706",title:"Dr.",name:"Tania",middleName:null,surname:"Rosas-Pérez",slug:"tania-rosas-perez",fullName:"Tania Rosas-Pérez"},{id:"195709",title:"Mr.",name:"Arturo",middleName:null,surname:"Vera-Ponce De León",slug:"arturo-vera-ponce-de-leon",fullName:"Arturo Vera-Ponce De León"},{id:"195710",title:"Dr.",name:"Shamayim T.",middleName:null,surname:"Ramírez-Puebla",slug:"shamayim-t.-ramirez-puebla",fullName:"Shamayim T. Ramírez-Puebla"},{id:"195711",title:"Dr.",name:"Reiner",middleName:null,surname:"Rincón-Rosales",slug:"reiner-rincon-rosales",fullName:"Reiner Rincón-Rosales"},{id:"195712",title:"Mr.",name:"Julio",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Romero",slug:"julio-martinez-romero",fullName:"Julio Martínez-Romero"},{id:"195713",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael F.",middleName:null,surname:"Dunn",slug:"michael-f.-dunn",fullName:"Michael F. Dunn"},{id:"195714",title:"Dr.",name:"Esperanza",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Romero",slug:"esperanza-martinez-romero",fullName:"Esperanza Martínez-Romero"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"53789",title:"Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms of Insect Immunity",slug:"cellular-and-molecular-mechanisms-of-insect-immunity",totalDownloads:4094,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:33,abstract:"Multicellular organisms constantly encounter potentially harmful microorganisms. Although insects lack an adaptive immune system, they do have powerful means of fighting infections. Cellular responses involve phagocytosis of bacteria and encapsulation of parasites. In addition, insects can mount a humoral response against pathogens. This is characterized by the secretion of antimicrobial peptides into the hemolymph. Recognition of foreign pathogens involves specific receptors for sensing infection. These include peptidoglycan recognition proteins (PGRPs) and β‐glucan recognition proteins (βGRPs). Engagement of these receptors starts signaling pathways that activate the genes that encode antimicrobial peptides. These pathways include the Toll, the Imd, and the JAK‐STAT. This chapter describes the innate immunity of insects including both the cellular and humoral responses to bacteria, fungi, and parasites. In addition, recent advances in insect antivirus immune responses are discussed.",book:{id:"6048",slug:"insect-physiology-and-ecology",title:"Insect Physiology and Ecology",fullTitle:"Insect Physiology and Ecology"},signatures:"Carlos Rosales",authors:[{id:"192432",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Rosales",slug:"carlos-rosales",fullName:"Carlos Rosales"}]},{id:"53832",title:"Weevil Borers in Tropical Fruit Crops: Importance, Biology and Management",slug:"weevil-borers-in-tropical-fruit-crops-importance-biology-and-management",totalDownloads:2361,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Weevils are an economically important group of Coleopteran insects of the family Curculionidae. This is the largest insect family in the superfamily Curculionoidea. They may be found almost everywhere and more than 3000 species in near of 500 genera occur in North America. Most of them are plant feeders and others are key pests. These weevils use the snout to feed on plant tissues and notch egg-laying sites on it. Adults drill holes and feed in seeds, fruits and other reproductive parts of the plants. Some of the most notable examples of weevils include Conotrachelus spp. on avocado and guava, Optatus palmaris on anonaceous fruits, Heilipus lauri on avocado, Hypothenemus hampei on coffee berry and others. The presence of some of these species requires establishing measures of restriction when the product is for exportation. Management practices and postharvest treatments are required to ensure that the fruits will be free of larvae. In this chapter the main species of weevils in the most important tropical fruit are included, such as avocado, coffee, guava and anonas fruits. Weevils of economic and quarantine importance are considered.",book:{id:"6048",slug:"insect-physiology-and-ecology",title:"Insect Physiology and Ecology",fullTitle:"Insect Physiology and Ecology"},signatures:"Luis Martín Hernández Fuentes, Alvaro Castañeda Vildozola and\nMario Alfonso Urías-López",authors:[{id:"192339",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Hernandez Fuentes",slug:"luis-hernandez-fuentes",fullName:"Luis Hernandez Fuentes"},{id:"196429",title:"Dr.",name:"Alvaro",middleName:null,surname:"Castañeda Vildozola",slug:"alvaro-castaneda-vildozola",fullName:"Alvaro Castañeda Vildozola"},{id:"196430",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Urias López",slug:"mario-alfonso-urias-lopez",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Urias López"}]},{id:"54037",title:"The Role of Mites in Bark and Ambrosia Beetle-Fungal Interactions",slug:"the-role-of-mites-in-bark-and-ambrosia-beetle-fungal-interactions",totalDownloads:1870,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Insects share complex interactions with mites and fungi that range from obligate mutualisms to antagonistic relationships. These multitrophic interactions often result in changes to the host environment and population dynamics of the insect. Here, we review Scolytidae and Platypodidae beetles (bark beetles and ambrosia beetles, Coleoptera: Curculionidae) and their micro-organismal interactions with mites and fungi. Many bark beetles and ambrosia beetles are closely associated with mutualistic fungi used as a food source. These fungi are carried by the beetles in specialized pockets called “mycangia.” In addition to beetle-specific fungi, secondary fungi are often vectored by mite populations phoretic on the beetles. These secondary introductions create a complex fungal micro-biome within the host tree of the associated Scolytid beetles, with a myriad of consequences to beetle success and tree mortality. In this chapter, we provide a detailed review of specific beetle-fungal and mite-fungal associations, mutualistic and antagonistic effects of these fungal relations, and ecological and evolutionary consequences of beetle-fungal-mite relationships within the host complex.",book:{id:"6048",slug:"insect-physiology-and-ecology",title:"Insect Physiology and Ecology",fullTitle:"Insect Physiology and Ecology"},signatures:"Sneha Vissa and Richard William Hofstetter",authors:[{id:"193239",title:"Prof.",name:"Richard",middleName:null,surname:"Hofstetter",slug:"richard-hofstetter",fullName:"Richard Hofstetter"},{id:"194411",title:"Ms.",name:"Sneha",middleName:null,surname:"Vissa",slug:"sneha-vissa",fullName:"Sneha Vissa"}]},{id:"54100",title:"Potential of Insect-Derived Ingredients for Food Applications",slug:"potential-of-insect-derived-ingredients-for-food-applications",totalDownloads:3181,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:44,abstract:"Insects are a sustainable and efficient protein and lipid source, compared with conventional livestock. Moreover, insect proteins and lipids are highly nutritional. Therefore, insect proteins and lipids can find its place as food ingredients. The use of insect proteins and lipids as food ingredients requires a deep understanding on the chemical and physical characteristics of these ingredients, as well as its functionality. Information on the chemical and physical characteristics of insect proteins and oils will help to assess the possibilities of its use on different food applications. In this chapter, we briefly review the nutritional aspects of insect proteins and lipids, insect processing, protein and lipid extraction as well as the perspectives of food applications of insect protein and lipids. Future studies should delve into extraction methods and into intrinsic properties of insect ingredients. This knowledge will be useful to introduce insect ingredients into various food preparations. Also valuable will be the study of other insect species with perspectives for its commercial rearing.",book:{id:"6048",slug:"insect-physiology-and-ecology",title:"Insect Physiology and Ecology",fullTitle:"Insect Physiology and Ecology"},signatures:"Daylan Amelia Tzompa Sosa and Vincenzo Fogliano",authors:[{id:"192268",title:"Dr.",name:"Daylan",middleName:null,surname:"Tzompa Sosa",slug:"daylan-tzompa-sosa",fullName:"Daylan Tzompa Sosa"},{id:"197212",title:"Prof.",name:"Vincenzo",middleName:null,surname:"Fogliano",slug:"vincenzo-fogliano",fullName:"Vincenzo Fogliano"}]},{id:"54083",title:"Dung Beetles of Chile, with Emphasis in La Araucania Region",slug:"dung-beetles-of-chile-with-emphasis-in-la-araucania-region",totalDownloads:1603,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Dung beetles are insects that provide a large-scale ecosystem service worldwide through their role in the decomposition of manure from livestock, thereby providing a series of environmental services, such as nutrients recycling, control of internal parasites of livestock whose eggs are in the feces, soil aeration, spreading of seeds and maintenance of ecological balance. Dung beetles are broadly classified according to their nesting behavior in three categories as telecoprids, paracoprids and endocoprids. Telecoprids are the rollers that make balls from feces and roll them into the ground; paracoprids are the tunnellers that bury the dung balls at different depths, forming galleries in the ground below or next to the food source and endocoprids, who are the dwellers that raise their larvae inside feces. There are 10 native species of dung beetles recorded in Chile, apart from 10 species of Aphodiinae, plus two introduced species, such as Onitis vanderkelleni and Onthophagus gazella. Dung beetles species were prospected in La Araucania Region and registered Homocopris torulosus, Frickius variolosus, Podotenus fulviventris and Aphodius pseudolividus. We found that species from genus Homocopris, Podotenus and Aphodius were distributed from 0 to 2000 m above sea level, while F. variolosus was distributed over an altitude of 350 m.",book:{id:"6048",slug:"insect-physiology-and-ecology",title:"Insect Physiology and Ecology",fullTitle:"Insect Physiology and Ecology"},signatures:"Ramón Rebolledo Ranz, Ricardo González Jiménez, Mario Elgueta\nDonoso, Rubén Palma Millanao, Vivian Medel Meza and Mauricio\nReyes Schencke",authors:[{id:"193813",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramón Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rebolledo Ranz",slug:"ramon-eduardo-rebolledo-ranz",fullName:"Ramón Eduardo Rebolledo Ranz"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"345",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 11th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11418,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11419,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11420,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11421,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11422,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11423,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. He has served as guest editor for a number of special issues of peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"82362",title:"Studies on the Short-Term Effects of the Cease of Pesticides Use on Vineyard Microbiome",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105706",signatures:"Simona Ghiță, Mihaela Hnatiuc, Aurora Ranca, Victoria Artem and Mădălina-Andreea Ciocan",slug:"studies-on-the-short-term-effects-of-the-cease-of-pesticides-use-on-vineyard-microbiome",totalDownloads:12,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg",subseries:{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity"}}},{id:"82297",title:"The Climate Change-Agriculture Nexus in Drylands of Ethiopia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103905",signatures:"Zenebe Mekonnen",slug:"the-climate-change-agriculture-nexus-in-drylands-of-ethiopia",totalDownloads:19,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg",subseries:{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity"}}},{id:"81999",title:"Climate Change, Rural Livelihoods, and Human Well-Being: Experiences from Kenya",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104965",signatures:"André J. Pelser and Rujeko Samanthia Chimukuche",slug:"climate-change-rural-livelihoods-and-human-well-being-experiences-from-kenya",totalDownloads:23,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg",subseries:{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10843",title:"Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)",subtitle:"Monitoring, Impact and Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10843.jpg",slug:"persistent-organic-pollutants-pops-monitoring-impact-and-treatment",publishedDate:"April 13th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",hash:"f5b1589f0a990b6114fef2dadc735dd9",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) - Monitoring, Impact and Treatment",editors:[{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",biography:"Prof. Mohamed Nageeb Rashed is Professor of Analytical and Environmental Chemistry and former vice-dean for environmental affairs, Faculty of Science, Aswan University, Egypt. He received his Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Assiut University, Egypt, in 1989. His research interest is in analytical and environmental chemistry with special emphasis on: (1) monitoring and assessing biological trace elements and toxic metals in human blood, urine, water, crops, vegetables, and medicinal plants; (2) relationships between environmental heavy metals and human diseases; (3) uses of biological indicators for monitoring water pollution; (4) environmental chemistry of lakes, rivers, and well water; (5) water and wastewater treatment by adsorption and photocatalysis techniques; (6) soil and water pollution monitoring, control, and treatment; and (7) advanced oxidation treatment. Prof. Rashed has supervised several MSc and Ph.D. theses in the field of analytical and environmental chemistry. He served as an examiner for several Ph.D. theses in analytical chemistry in India, Kazakhstan, and Botswana. He has published about ninety scientific papers in peer-reviewed international journals and several papers in national and international conferences. He participated as an invited speaker at thirty international conferences. Prof. Rashed is the editor-in-chief and an editorial board member for several international journals in the fields of chemistry and environment. He is a member of several national and international societies. He received the Egyptian State Award for Environmental Research in 2001 and the Aswan University Merit Award for Basic Science in 2020. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. 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Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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