\r\n\tA quark exhibits confinement, which means that the quarks are not observed independently but always in combination with other quarks. This makes determining the properties (mass, spin, and parity) impossible to measure directly; these traits must be inferred from the particles composed of them. There are six flavors of quarks: up, down, strange, charm, bottom, and top. The flavor of the quark determines its properties.
\r\n\tThere are three generations of quarks, based on pairs of weak positive/negative, weak isospin. The first generation quarks are up and down quarks, the second-generation quarks are strange and charm quarks, the third generation quarks are top and bottom quarks. The up and down quarks make up protons and neutrons, seen in the nucleus of ordinary matter. They are the lightest and most stable. The heavier quarks are produced in high-energy collisions and rapidly decay into up and down quarks.
\r\n\tThe baryons and mesons known at the time fell into symmetric families of multiplets (octuplets, decuplets) sharing two identical quantum numbers (spin and parity), but differing in an ordered way in others (mass, charge, baryon number and strangeness). The mathematical group to fit this complex situation-SU3, the symmetric, unitary group of dimension 3-was proposed independently by Gell-Mann and Ne'eman. The validity of SU3 was demonstrated by the experiment. A major prediction was that a particle (the omega-minus), an isotopic singlet with spin = 3/2, positive parity, mass of roughly 1,680 MeV, negative charge, baryon number +1, strangeness = -3, and stable to strong decay, should exist to complete the 3/2+ baryon decuplet. It was therefore a major triumph for the scheme when the omega-minus, a baryon with the precise mass, charge, and strangeness predicted, was discovered in 1964. All these facts introduced a quark idea fully into modern physics.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book will be a self-contained collection of scholarly papers targeting an audience of practicing researchers, academics, PhD students and other scientists. The contents of the book will be written by multiple authors and edited by experts in the field.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-313-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-312-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-314-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0d9403b5c874f6e63b0686cd7c432e00",bookSignature:"Prof. Zbigniew Piotr Szadkowski",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10205.jpg",keywords:"Chiral Symmetries, Weak Interactions, Neutrinoless Double Beta Decay, Deep Inelastic Scattering, Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD), Color Confinement, Quarks Mixing, Cabibbo Angle, Kobayashi-Maskawa Matrix, Quarks Multiplets, CP-Nonconservation, Neutrino Oscillation",numberOfDownloads:59,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 6th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 8th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 7th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 25th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 26th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"4 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"The designer of the 2nd level trigger for the fluorescence detector and the designer of the 1st level trigger and the Front-End Boards for the surface detector of the Pierre Auger Observatory.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"67836",title:"Prof.",name:"Zbigniew Piotr",middleName:null,surname:"Szadkowski",slug:"zbigniew-piotr-szadkowski",fullName:"Zbigniew Piotr Szadkowski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67836/images/system/67836.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Szadkowski completed his Ph.D. with a thesis 'Quarks mixing in chiral symmetries SU4 x SU4 and SU6 x SU6”. Habilitation: „Triggers in the Pierre Auger Observatory: Designs, Implementation and the Impact on the Experimental Results”.\r\nDevelopment of the FPGA-based 2nd level trigger for 24 fluorescence detectors and 1st level trigger for 1660 surface detectors of the Pierre Auger Observatory, FPGA based filters suppressing radio-frequency interferences (RFI) in radio detector of Auger Engineering Radio Array, FPGA based triggers for the Auger surface detectors dedicated for a recognition of very inclined EAS induced by 'old” proton showers or 'young” neutrino showers.\r\nDr. Szadkowski has worked as a research scientist in Michigan Technological University, Associate Professor in College de France, Senior Wissenschaftler, Bergische Universität Wuppertal, and currently is working as the head of the Department of High-Energy Astrophysics and as an Associate Professor at the University of Łódź.",institutionString:"University of Łódź",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Łódź",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"20",title:"Physics",slug:"physics"}],chapters:[{id:"73971",title:"The Inter-Nucleon Up-to-Down Quark Bond and its Implications for Nuclear Binding",slug:"the-inter-nucleon-up-to-down-quark-bond-and-its-implications-for-nuclear-binding",totalDownloads:59,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"247041",firstName:"Dolores",lastName:"Kuzelj",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/247041/images/7108_n.jpg",email:"dolores@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"63065",title:"Performance and Applications of Lithium Ion Capacitors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80353",slug:"performance-and-applications-of-lithium-ion-capacitors",body:'\nThe fossil energy’s shortage and the use of fossil fuels cause environmental pollution and climate anomalies. The development and utilization of new energy sources, especially renewable energy, such as solar energy, wind energy, biomass, and hydrogen energy, have attracted increasing attention [1, 2]. And the development of new energy and energy storage equipment has become the focus of the investigation [3, 4]. Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) and electrochemical capacitors (EC) are two important chemical energy storage devices. LIBs have high energy density but lower power density and cycle performance. EC has high power density and long cycle performance, but much lower energy density than the LIBs [5, 6, 7, 8].
\nLithium-ion capacitors, which combined the merits of lithium-ion batteries and electrochemical capacitors, are a new type of energy storage devices between the lithium-ion batteries and the electrochemical capacitors [9, 10]. In LICs, the anions adsorption and desorption in the electrolyte occurs on surface of positive electrode and simultaneously cations redox reaction occurred in the negative electrodes [11, 12, 13, 14, 15]. The ionic adsorption of electrical double layer and the faradaic electrochemical process (redox reaction) caused by lithium-ion intercalation and deintercalation contribute to high energy and powder density of lithium-ion capacitors than traditional capacitors [16, 17, 18, 19, 20].
\nIn the carbon-based lithium-ion capacitors, the lithium ions are mainly derived from the electrolyte. But the solid-electrolyte interface (SEI) film formed during cycles will consume an amount of lithium ions which are irreversibly embedded in negative materials. That will bring down the capacity and cycle performance of LICs. So it is particularly important for the lithium predoping in negative electrode [21]. MWCNTs composed of unique one-dimensional systems with nanostructure have better stability, excellent conductivity, and lithium capacitance. It has become a popular research object for lithium-ion batteries [22]. SLMP applied to negative electrode can effectively prevent the problem of lithium ions deficiency and increase the capacity and rate performance of the LICs [23]. There is a potential difference between carbon electrode and lithium metal, which will promote the continuous flow of lithium ions into the carbon electrode when the carbon electrode and lithium metal are connected by short circuiting [9, 24, 25]. The final potential of the carbon anode will drop close to 0 V (vs. Li/Li+). Here, we introduce two new type LICs with different preintercalated lithium anodes.
\nIt is generally known that graphite has a high theoretical Li intercalation capacity and widely was used as anode materials for lithium-ion capacitors because of natural abundance and relatively low cost [26, 27, 28, 29, 30]. However, lithium-ion intercalation tended to the same direction, and the dynamics of lithium-ion intercalation is slow. So it is difficult to perform charge/discharge work for lithium-ion capacitor at high current density with a poor rate performance [31, 32]. Compared to graphite, MWCNTs have higher stability. In this chapter, we report internal short circuit (ISC) approach was applied to high-performance LICs with activated carbon as cathode and prelithiated multiwalled carbon nanotubes/graphite composite as anode. Electrochemical performance of lithium-ion capacitors was investigated.
\nMWCNTs were prepared by chemical vapor deposition (CVD), and benzene (Aladdin Co. Ltd., Shanghai) was used as carbon source, ferrocene (Aladdin Co. Ltd., Shanghai) as catalyst, and thiophene (Aladdin Co. Ltd., Shanghai) as accelerant. Ferrocene and thiophene were added into benzene and stirred uniformly; the flow rate was controlled by a micropump. Hydrogen and argon were used as carrier gas. The flow rate was controlled by a mass flow meter. The carbon source was fed into reactor with carrier gas. The MWCNTs were synthesized in a tube furnace with appropriate contents of ferrocene and thiophene and the ratio of benzene to hydrogen in a certain temperature gradient. The obtained MWCNTs were further graphitized under the condition of vacuum at 2800°C for 24 h with the heating rate of 10°C/min. Finally, the graphitized MWCNTs were milled in a planetary ball mill at 200 r/min for 3 h [33].
\nFigure 1(a) showed FESEM image of MWCNTs. The MWCNTs presented linear and smooth structure. The diameters of the MWCNTs range from 100 to 120 nm with a large aspect ratio, and the MWCNTs have a small probability of bending around each other in space. Because of this particular microstructure makes the MWCNTs dispersed easily, simultaneously excellent conductivity and lithium-ions adsorption capacity, and other characteristics. Figure 1(b) showed HRTEM image of graphitized MWCNTs; the MWCNTs exhibited one-dimensional hollow structure, smooth wall, low defects, thin wall thickness, and regular and orderly arrangement of carbon atoms
\n(a) FESEM and (b) HRTEM images of MWCNTs.
The activated carbon (AC) was dispersed by sonication in N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) for 2 h. The surfactant of polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP, YueMei chemical Co. Ltd., Guangzhou) was added to improve the dispersion performance. The polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) was used as binder. The super carbon black (SP) was added to improve the conductivity. The activated carbon slurry was completed after a high-speed (FA25) cutting under 10,000 r/min for 1 h, and the mass ratio of AC:SP:PVDF was 85:5:10. The prepared slurry was coated on Al foil and dried at 60°C under vacuum, and cut into a disc of 14 mm diameter.
\nThe MWCNT powders were dispersed by sonication in N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) for 2 h. The surfactant of polyvinylpyrrolidone was added to improve the dispersion performance. The polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) was used as binder. The slurry was completed after a high-speed (FA25) cutting under 10,000 r/min for 1 h. The mass ratio of MWCNTs:SP:PVDF was 8:1:1. The prepared slurry was coated on Cu foil and dried at 60°C under vacuum. A mixture of 0.5% polystyrene (PS) and 0.5% styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) was selected as a polymer binder, xylene as a solvent, and two groups were mixed to produce a binder solution. SLMP (FMC Corporation) was dispersed in the binder solution to obtain SLMP suspension with 0.5 wt%. Then the SLMP suspension was evenly coated on anode. After dried in vacuum, the SLMP coating is pressed between two glass plates for activating SLMP and then cut into a disc of 14 mm diameter.
\nThe two-electrode CR-2025 button lithium-ion capacitors were assembled with activated carbon as cathode and SLMP/MWCNT composites as anode in an argon-filled dry glove box. The electrolyte was 1 mol/L LiPF6 in a mixed solvent system of EC/DMC (ethylene carbonate/diethyl carbonate) at a ratio of 1:1, and polypropylene microporous membrane was used as the separator.
\nThe MWCNTs were characterized by field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM, JSM-6701F), transmission electron microscopy (TEM, JEOL JEM-2010FEF), X-ray diffraction (XRD, DI SYSTEM), Raman spectrometer (SENTERRA), and thermogravimetry (TGA, PYRIS DIAMOND). The galvanostatic charge-discharge test of lithium-ion capacitors was performed after placed at room temperature for 24 h by a cell tester (CT-3008W-5V5mA-S4).
\nFigure 2(a) showed the micromorphology of SLMP. The diameters of the SLMP range from 30 μm, and outside coated with a thin layer of Li2CO3 protective coating, which can exist in a relatively low air humidity environment. Figure 2(b) showed the micromorphology of AC; it was observed that AC particles show irregular morphology and the average size of the particles is about 4 μm.
\nMicromorphology of (a) SLMP and (b) AC.
Figure 3(a) showed the X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern of MWCNTs. The main diffraction peaks of MWCNTs were both at 2θ = 26°, which coincide with the (002) planes. The main diffraction peak of MWCNTs is sharp and narrow, which indicates that the MWCNTs have a more regular and orderly arrangement of carbon atoms. Moreover, MWCNTs have a higher degree of crystallinity and conductivity. The (100) and (004) diffraction peaks are the catalyst components in the preparation of MWCNTs. Figure 3(b) showed the Raman spectroscopy of MWCNTs. There exhibited two distinct peaks corresponding to about 1351 cm-1D band and about 1585 cm-1G band, respectively. The MWCNTs have higher and sharper G peaks, which indicate that the degree of crystallinity and structure integrity of MWCNTs are great. In addition, the 2D peak appears at 2752 cm−1, which indicates that the MWCNTs have higher degree of crystallinity.
\nXRD (a) and Raman spectroscopy (b) of MWCNTs.
Figure 4 showed the TG curves of MWCNTs. The TG test was performed under air atmosphere with the heating rate of 5°C/min to 1000°C. The TG curves of MWCNTs were divided into two stages. In the first stage, the weight loss of 0.11% is caused by the oxidation of a small amount of amorphous carbon during the synthesis of MWCNTs. The weight loss of the second stage is caused by the ablation of impurities in the MWCNTs. The initial reaction temperature of MWCNTs was 585°C, which indicates that the antioxidant capacity and thermal stability of MWCNTs were great. Meanwhile, the residual amounts of MWCNTs were 0.2%, which confirm that the purity of these MWCNTs is great.
\nTG curve of MWCNTs.
Figure 5(a) and (b) showed the galvanostatic charge-discharge curves of none-lithiated and prelithiated LICs at different current densities, respectively. The tests were performed using two-electrode system at voltage profile of 2–4 V.The energy density of LICs can be calculated by Esp = (Csp*V2)/2 (Csp represents the specific capacitance and V represents the discharge potential excluding IR drop). The power density of LICs can be calculated by Psp = Esp/t (t represents the discharge time), and the specific capacitance Csp can be calculated by the formula C = (2I*t)/(m*ΔV) (I represents the discharge current, m is the active material mass of a single pole, ΔV is the potential of discharge, and t is the discharge time). The charge-discharge curves of prelithiated LICs showed a good linear relationship and exhibited a shape of isosceles triangle. On the contrary, the charge-discharge curves of nonlithiated LICs presented a distorted shape, and the internal resistance obviously increases with the improving current density and the discharge time is obviously shortened, which related a poor power density. Generally, the power density of lithium-ion capacitors is determined by the negative materials; when the negative electrode consists of nonlithiated MWCNTs, the rate of intercalation and deintercalation of lithium ions is slow, resulting in a poor power density. The intercalation and deintercalation rate of lithium ions will be accelerated with the addition of SLMP. Figure 5(c) showed the discharging specific capacity at different rates. The prelithiated LICs showed higher discharging specific capacity and rate performance than those of nonlithiated LICs. The nonlithiated and prelithiated LICs exhibited discharging specific capacity of 10.74 and 85.18 F/g at current density of 0.1 A/g. Figure 5(d) showed the ragone plots of LICs. Prelithiated LICs presented the best electrochemical performance. The maximal energy density and power density of prelithiated LICs reached 140.4 Wh/kg and 5.25 W/kg in the range of current density from 0.05 to 4 A/g [34, 35].
\nGalvanostatic charge/discharge curves of LICs with nonlithiated (a) and prelithiated (b) specific capacitance with different current density (c) and the ragone plots (d) for the LICs.
Figure 6(a) showed the charge and discharge cycle performance of LICs with nonlithiated and prelithiated. The 3000 cycles test was performed in the range of 2~4 V at the current density of 0.4 A/g. After 3000 cycles of constant current charge and discharge, the cycling performance of LICs with nonlithiated drops significantly. In contrast, Figure 6(b) showed the discharge cycle performance of LICs with prelithiated after 3000 cycles. The capacitance retention still holds 82%, the charge and discharge curves without twist and distortion, which still maintained a good isosceles triangle shape and shows good cycle performance.
\nCharge and discharge cycle performance of LICs with nonlithiated (a) and prelithiated (b).
In the chapter, lithium-ion capacitors have been assembled with SLMP/MWCNTs composite as anode and activated carbon as cathode, respectively. The results showed that prelithiated LICs exhibit excellent electrochemical performance. The addition of SLMP to anode can increase the electrochemical performance of the LICs and eliminate irreversible capacity. Especially, the prelithiated LICs exhibited optimal electrochemical performance, with a specific capacity of 85.18 F/g at current density of 0.1 A/g, and the maximal energy and power density reached 140.4 Wh/kg and 5.25 W/kg in the range of current density from 0.05 to 4 A/g, respectively. After 3000 charge-discharge cycles, the prelithiated LICs maintained about 82% capacity retention rate, Therefore, the prelithiated LICs with a SLMP addition in the anode have a potential application for energy storage device.
\nThe slurry of composite active material (MWCNTs/graphite) was prepared by ultrasonically dispersing and high-speed shearing with super carbon black (SP) as conductive agent, polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) as binder, and NMP as solvent, with the ratio of 8:1:1. The slurry was coated on the copper foil. Then, the anode was dried at 60°C under vacuum for 12 h. The MWCNTs content in composite active material was 0, 25, 50, 75, 100 wt%, respectively. The prelithiation was accomplished through direct physical contact between as-prepared MWCNTs/graphite electrode and lithium metal with electrolyte in pressure; the degree of prelithiation was controlled by contact time.
\nThe ratio of AC:SP:PVDF is 8:1:1, subsequently followed by ultrasonically dispersing, high-speed shearing, and coating on aluminum foil. Then, the cathode was dried at 60°C under vacuum for 12 h and was cut into a disc of 14 mm diameter.
\nThe tailored MWCNTs/graphite anodes were used as working electrodes. Lithium foil was used as the counterelectrode and Celgard 2300 was used as the separator. The solution of 1.0 M LiPF6 in EC:DMC (1:1, vol.) was utilized as the electrolyte. Based on the content of MWCNTs, the half-cells were signed as CNT0, CNT25, CNT50, CNT75, and CNT100, respectively. The two-electrode LICs were assembled with AC cathode and MWCNTs anode, and the corresponding LICs were recorded as LIC0, LIC25, LIC50, LIC75, LIC100. All cells were assembled in an argon-filled glove box.
\nThe SEM of anode and that of cathode were characterized by FE-SEM (JSM-6701F). The electrochemical characterization of the LICs was performed by a cell tester (CT-3008W-5V5mA-S4). The specific capacitance was calculated based on total mass of the MWCNTs, graphite, AC, and SP.
\nFigure 7(a) shows the SEM image of AC anode, which shows irregular structure and occupies the vast majority of space. Meanwhile, SP uniformly dispersed between gaps of AC particles can provide good conductivity. Figure 7(b) shows the SEM image of graphite cathode, and Figure 7(c) shows the SEM image of MWCNTs/graphite composite cathode; comparison shows that MWCNTs and graphite are well connected and present a web-like network structure and three-dimensional conduction system. This structure was applied to the negative electrode to shorten the diffusion path of lithium ions and improve the kinetics of lithium-ion intercalation.
\nIllustration of lithium-ion capacitors and corresponding SEM images of the electrode materials. (a) SEM image of AC anode, (b) SEM image of graphite cathode, (c) SEM image of MWCNTs/graphite composite cathode.
Figure 8(a) shows the first charge and discharge curves of raw MWCNTs and graphite half-cells at 1C rate; for graphite half-cells, the voltage plateau of SEI film formation is at about 0.7 V [36]. In comparison, for MWCNT half-cells, the voltage plateau of SEI film formation is at about 0.7 V too. Meanwhile, MWCNTs have a higher irreversible capacity and first discharge capacity than graphite. Figure 8(b) shows the differential capacity versus voltage (dQ/dV) curves of MWCNTs and graphite half-cells. Three stages of lithium-ion intercalation voltage were local on 0.16, 0.08, and 0.055 V, respectively. Figure 8(c) shows the first delithiation (charge) capacity of CNT0, CNT25, CNT50, CNT75, and CNT100 at 60 min prelithiation time. In the same prelithiation time, the open-circuit voltage (OCV) of pure graphite half-cell was significantly superior to other half-cells. The delithiation capacity increases with the gradual increase of MWCNTs, which indicates the kinetics of intercalation of MWCNTs is higher than pure graphite.
\nThe first charge-discharge curves of MWCNTs and graphite electrodes before being predoping (a), the differential capacity versus voltage (dQ/dV) curves of the MWCNTs/Li and graphite/Li coin cells (b) and the first charge curves of MWCNTs/graphite electrodes with different content of MWCNT at a prelithiation time of 60 min (c).
Figure 9(a–e) showed the galvanostatic charge-discharge curves of LIC0, LIC25, LIC50, LIC75, and LIC100 at different current densities, respectively. The tests were performed using two-electrode system at voltage profile of 2–4 V. The energy density of LICs can be calculated by Esp = (Csp*V2)/2 (Csp represents the specific capacitance and V represents the discharge potential excluding IR drop). The power density of LICs can be calculated by Psp = Esp/t (t represents the discharge time), and the specific capacitance Csp can be calculated by the formula C = (2I*t)/(m*ΔV) (I represents the discharge current, m is the active material mass of a single pole, ΔV is the potential of discharge, and t is the discharge time). The charge-discharge curves of LIC25 showed a good linear relationship and exhibited a shape of isosceles triangle. The LIC25 had the longest discharge time than other LICs and showed good capacitance characteristics. Meanwhile, the charge-discharge curves of LIC75 also showed a good linear relationship and exhibited high power performance. On the contrary, the charge-discharge curves of LIC0 and LIC100 presented a distorted shape, and the internal resistance obviously increases with the improving current density and the discharge time is obviously shortened, which related a poor power density. Generally, the power density of LICs is determined by the negative materials; when the negative electrode consists of pure graphite, the rate of intercalation and deintercalation of lithium ions is slow, resulting in a poor power density. The intercalation and deintercalation rate of lithium ions will be accelerated with the addition of MWCNTs. However, excessive amounts of carbon nanotubes will consume large amounts of lithium ions, and the formation of thick solid electrolyte interface (SEI) film will greatly impede the migration of lithium ions. That is, the appropriate MWCNTs content to improve the power density is of crucial importance.
\nGalvanostatic charge-discharge curves of lithium-ion capacitors with different content of WCNT at a different current density, (a) LIC0, (b) LIC25, (c) LIC50, (d) LIC75, (e) LIC100, and specific capacitance with different current density (f), the ragone plots for the LICs (g).
Figure 9(f) showed the specific capacitance of LICs at various current densities. The LIC25 showed higher discharging specific capacitance and rate performance than other LICs. Figure 9(g) showed the ragone plots of LICs. LIC25 presented the best electrochemical performance. The maximal energy density and power density of LIC25 reached 96 Wh/kg and 10.1 kW/kg in the range of current density from 0.1 to 8 A/g.
\nFigure 10 showed the charge and discharge cycle performance of LIC0 and LIC25. The 3000 cycles test was performed in the range of 2.2~3.8 V at the current density of 0.8 A/g. After 5000 cycles of constant current charge and discharge, the cycling performance of LIC0 drops significantly, which is related to the cracking and pulverization of graphite materials, lithium, and organic solvents common into the graphite layer, and then influences the performance of cycle. As opposed to LIC0, the capacitance retention of LIC25 still holds 86%, the charge and discharge curves without twist and distortion, which still maintained a good isosceles triangle shape and shows good cycle performance.
\nLong-term cycle performance for the LIC in the voltage range of 2.2~3.8 V at 800 mA/g current density.
In the chapter, lithium-ion capacitors have been assembled with prelithiated MWCNTs/graphite composite as anode and activated carbon as cathode. The results showed that LICs with prelithiated exhibit excellent electrochemical performance. Especially, the LIC25 exhibited optimal electrochemical performance, with a specific capacitance of 58.2 F/g at current density of 0.1 A/g, and the maximal energy and power density reached 96 Wh/kg and 10.1 kW/kg in the range of current density from 0.1 to 8 A/g, respectively. After 3000 charge-discharge cycles, the LIC25 maintained about 86% capacity retention rate. Therefore, the LICs with the prelithiated MWCNTs/graphite composite materials have a potential application for energy storage device.
\nLow back pain is one of the most reported symptoms in adult life [1]. Eighty percent of the population has experienced at least one episode in their life. It results in major disability for patients when it becomes chronic [2].
\nDifferent etiologies were described, but in more than 75% of cases, a nonspecific cause is evoked. Several factors were implicated: age, work, smoking, obesity, and psychological.
\nPure low back pain is generally related to degenerative changes in one or more structures of the spine. The most common cause is discogenic followed by facet joint arthropathy [1, 3].
\nFacet joint disease is a multifactorial problem implicating mechanical and inflammatory damages, and the most common underlying etiology is arthritis [2, 3, 4].
\nRadio frequency is a well-known therapeutic option for refractory low back pain related to facet arthropathy [3]. It is still a very controversial procedure in terms of efficiency. Some studies showed its superiority to placebo or conservative treatment where others were not conclusive [4, 5, 6]. We consider it as a safe, minimally invasive, inexpensive procedure. It is successful in well-selected patients.
\nThe spine is a complex structure in which its integrity depends on multiple anatomical elements that are functionally and structurally related to each other. The spine is a multi-articular system. Its function is to maintain axial stability. Spinal stability is based on three connected systems: the columns, the muscles, and the spinal cord with its nerve roots [7].
\nThe columns contain mechanical receptors that send proprioceptive information on the load, motion, and postures through the spinal nerves to the central nervous system.
\nFacet or zygoapophysial joints are part of the columns. They are bilateral on each level and contain synovial fluid lined with hyaline cartilage. Their role is to control the direction and the amplitude of the movements in addition to share the loads. In the physiological condition, a balanced action exists between the three columns. The posterior facets support up to the third of the load depending on the posture [3, 7].
\nFacet joints are symmetrical which maintain the correct function in mobility. Any changes in the symmetry predispose to instability and lead to degeneration of the joint. Degenerative disease of the facet joints is accompanied by an inflammatory reaction leading to nervous irritation and low back pain.
\nThere are two types of innervation in the lumbar spine, the somatic and the sympathetic.
\nThe L1–L4 dorsal rami are different from the L5. They are shorter and go backward into intertransverse spaces, whereas the L5 goes over the top of all of the sacrum. L1–L4 are divided into three branches; L5 has two branches: the medial and the intermediate [8]. The medial branch at all levels is responsible for the innervation of the facet joint. It runs on the top of the transverse process toward the articular process (Figure 1). Each medial branch covers two levels though each articular facet joint gets its innervation from the level itself and the level above [7, 8].
\nAnatomy of the medial branch at the level of the facet joint with schematic representation of the needle in addition to the radio-frequency probe.
Patients suffering from low back pain are initially assessed by their family physician. The majority are referred to low back pain clinic developed in our hospital. If there is a failure of conservative medical treatment for 12 weeks in the absence of red flags, patients are referred to neurosurgical evaluation. MRI or CT scan of the lumbosacral spine is always done before their first visit, in addition to the dynamic lumbosacral spine X-rays and laboratory workup. Initial findings on MRI or CT scan of the lumbosacral spine are related to facet joint arthropathy. There is a joint space narrowing with intra-articular fluid leading to T2 hypersignal on MRI [3, 9]. Osteophyte formation at the level of the superior articular facet of the lower vertebra, ligamentum flavum with recess stenosis is frequently observed. They are evaluated clinically by a multidisciplinary team (neurosurgeon, anesthesiologist pain specialist, neuropsychologist, physiotherapist, occupational therapist) after being referred from their primary care physician.
\nThe initial evaluation is done by a neurosurgeon. Patients answer three questionnaires before their initial consultation: the visual analog scale, the McGill pain questionnaire, and the Sf-36 quality-of-life questionnaire. Those questionnaires are evaluated before the patient is seen at the office. In the absence of red flags, we developed a workflow for the management of chronic low back pain (Chart 1).
\nSPECT CT of the lumbosacral spine showing increase uptake of the right L5–S1 facet joint in favor of facet arthropathy.
Patient undergoes a complete neurological examination. Facet joint inflammation is suspected when there is an increase in pain on palpation of the joint or in hyperextension position and lateral torsion of the low back. Pain is induced by position changes from supine to sitting and from sitting to standing. In some patients, we may observe some radiating pain mainly to the hip and thigh. Without discogenic disease, straight leg rising is non-painful usually. Motor and sensory examination of the lower limbs is normal.
\nIn the absence of any surgical condition but evident facet hypertrophy of the MRI or the CT, patients are referred for SPECT CT scan (single photon emission computed tomography) [9] and neuropsychological evaluation. SPECT CT scan usually shows an increase uptake at the level of facet joint and eliminates other inflammatory process mainly at the disc level. The mean waiting time between the initial evaluation and the follow-up is 6–8 weeks.
\nIf the SPECT CT scan is normal or if there is a severe psychological problem, conservative treatment is considered. Otherwise, in case where the SPECT CT confirms the presence of facet arthropathy (Figure 2), patients are referred for facet block under fluoroscopy at the pain clinic. In case of improvement that lasts more than 3 months, reevaluation and second facet block are offered to the patient.
\nAnteroposterior and lateral per operative views for L4–L5 rhizotomy.
In case of improvement for more than 48 h but less than 3 months, patients are considered candidates for radio-frequency ablation.
\nRhizotomy is an outpatient procedure performed under local-assisted anesthesia [10]. Patients are evaluated at the office few weeks prior to the procedure; surgical consent and laboratory workup with a complete blood count in addition to PT are signed; PTT tests are done.
\nPatients are asked to fast 6 h prior to the procedure. All anticoagulant and anti-aggregant are stopped according to guidelines.
\nThe procedure is done in the operating room. The anesthesiologist proceeds by inserting an intravenous access on the arrival of the patient to the OR. The patient is positioned prone on a radiolucent table with pillow under the head; the arms are above the head in a comfortable position.
\nFluoroscopy is used for anteroposterior and lateral views (Figure 3). Aseptic technique is used. Once level is verified, local anesthesia using xylocaine 2% is infiltrated from the skin to the muscle aponeurosis. Under fluoroscopy, we insert a 20 gauge needle percutaneously targeting the junction of the transverse process and superior articulating facet, where the medial branch of the Luschka nerve runs innervating the facet joint. The needle is advanced until bone contact is made. Once position is verified, the patient is assessed for motor and sensory manifestations in the lower limb.
\nThe Moncton workflow for facet radio-frequency ablation treatment.
Using Baylis radio-frequency machine (Baylis medical), we start by a stimulation until reproducing patients pain and paraspinal lumbar muscle contraction. Radio frequency is started at 80°C for 90 s. Once 80° is reached (10–15 s), the needle is rotated progressively every 15 s to reach 360° coverage. The patient is then reassessed for motor or sensory manifestations in the lower limb.
\nA new stimulation trial is performed. In case there is a need to increase the stimulation two times compared to prior or there is no pain reported by the patient, the procedure is considered successful, and the needle is removed. The entry point is covered by a small dressing. If the patient still feels the pain or the pain was reproduced with the same stimulation level, the procedure is repeated for 60 s at 80°. After the second trial, when needed, the needle is removed and a dressing is applied. Patients are turned to their back and transferred to the same day care facility.
\nPatients are discharged the same day, 30–60 min after the procedure. They are followed at 2 and 4 weeks post procedure. Pain is reevaluated by visual analog scale and quality-of-life scale at the office (questionnaire is administered to the patient before their appointment).
\nIn case of recurrence of pain after 2 weeks of relief, patients are rescheduled for a second radio-frequency treatment. During the second procedure, we target the same level as the first in addition to the superior level trying to cover the largest area and ablating the two medial branches innervating that facet. In case of failure at 1 month, we offer other neuromodulation procedures for the patient.
\nThe overall complication rate is very low in radio-frequency procedure in the treatment of facet joint arthropathy [3, 10]. The main complication is injury to the nerve root at its exit if the needle is advanced beyond the bony anatomical landmark inferior to the transverse process.
\nInfectious rate is very low in purely aseptic technique done in the neurosurgical operating room. Dural puncture may occur if the needle is advanced medially or if the technique is not done under fluoroscopy.
\nThe radio-frequency treatment is a minimally invasive cost-effective procedure. Although it is still very controversial, we found it as a safe and efficacious procedure to be offered for chronic low back pain patients refractory to conservative treatment. Selection criteria for the patients are very important to benefit from the procedure.
\nPatient’s age is 18 years and older.
\nRefractory low back pain to at least 3 months of conservative treatment.
\nPositive SPECT CT for facet joint arthropathy. Absent MRI/CT scan finding for other spinal disease.
\nImprovement for at least 48 h after facet joint block and absent neurocognitive diseases.
\nAll charts of patients that benefited from the procedure were analyzed retrospectively. The procedure was done by the same neurosurgeon, but the clinical evaluation and the indication were decided at the practice of all the neurosurgical team included in this study.
\nThe primary outcome was the pain intensity evaluated by the visual analog scale (VAS), 11 points of evaluation of the pain where 0 indicates the absence of pain and 10 is the worst pain ever.
\nThe McGill pain questionnaire score between 20 and 30 points indicates the presence of chronic low back pain.
\nThe SF-36 QOL questionnaire, with a score of 0, indicates severe or absent activities and worse QOL, whereas a score of 100 shows an excellent QOL.
\nPatients’ response to the procedure was considered by an improvement of 50% or more on the VAS and a change of 20 or more points on the SF-36 QOL score. An improvement of 25–50% on the VAS leads us to suggest a second rhizotomy procedure to increase the area of coverage and try to have a better outcome.
\nIn total, 63 patients were treated by radio-frequency ablation of the medial branch of the facet joint in the lumbar spine between 2015 and March 2018.
\nAll included patients had long history of low back pain refractory to medical treatment with short-term response to facet joint steroid injection block. Patients didn’t have any major psychological disease.
\nAll included patients were adults. The mean age was 57 years (21–84 years). Forty-one patients were male, and 22 patients were females.
\nThe mean pretreatment VAS was 8.4, the McGill pain score was between 20 and 30, and the SF-36 score was 58.6.
\nThe post-procedure mean VAS was 3.8. Forty-four patients had an improvement of more than 50% of their pain; eight patient had an improvement of 25% of their pain, and 11 patients did not notice any changes at 2 weeks.
\nAll the eight patients that reported 25% of improvement were scheduled for a second procedure. Six of eight reported an improvement of more than 50%, one did not notice any difference, and one returned to his previous VAS.
\nAt 3 months, 40 patients were maintaining a VAS score of 50% or more than their initial pain score. Five patients had their pain score between 25 and 50%. And, seven patients returned to their baseline score. From all seven, four had already two radio-frequency treatments and were redirected to a neuromodulation procedure, and three had a second rhizotomy. One improved and was considered successful.
\nThe overall patients that improved were 73%. Sixty-five percent had a major improvement, 8% moderate improvement, and 27% failed to improve after one or two trials.
\nIn the 65% of patients, the overall SF-36 score improvement was to a mean of 77.9.
\nThree patients reported lower limb paresthesia post-procedure. Two of them had a complete remission of their symptoms at 2 weeks of follow-up, and the third improved after 6 weeks. No infection, no CSF leak, and no injury to the motor nerve root were observed.
\nOur result on low back improvement is similar to different studies at 2 and 4 weeks of the procedure [2, 11, 13].
\nAt 3 months, we had a better outcome compared to other studies [11, 12]. All studies used the VAS for pain evaluation.
\nWe consider the selection criteria specifically the positive SPECT CT findings in addition to the response to facet block as a major contributor in the prediction of the success of the procedure. No previous study used both criteria in conjunction. Van Wijk et al. showed the importance of the diagnostic test block, although their result was the same compared to sham at 3 months [12].
\nWe followed the patients for 3 months, which is an intermediate time follow up as in other studies that showed the same results [11, 12, 13, 14]. We found that improving pain score and QOL for 3 months was a sufficient time to consider the procedure as efficient. The subjective satisfaction rate and the reported improvement on VAS and SF-36 score, respectively, were good indicators to maintain the procedure as one of the armamentarium in the treatment of chronic low back pain related to facet joint arthropathy; this finding is against Juch et al. findings that have a statistically positive finding without any clinical improvement [4]. Although, in their study published in JAMA, they suggested to improve the selection criteria to improve the outcome related to that procedure, our workflow chart improved the results dramatically.
\nRadio-frequency ablation technique is a safe and efficient procedure. Its complication rate and cost are low. It is a reproducible procedure. Careful patient selection increases its success rate.
\nThe use of this technique for the treatment of other etiologies has been described. Its use in the management of metastatic vertebral bone disease is promising and becoming a very useful tool as a pain management procedure.
\nWe extend our thanks to Dr. Jennifer Hakim who participated in the editing of this chapter.
\nAll four authors have no conflict of interest.
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\n\nThe Social Media Community Manager and Marketing Assistant will report to the Senior Marketing Manager. They will work alongside the Marketing and Corporate Communications team, supporting the preparation of all marketing programs, assisting in the development of scientific marketing and communication deliverables, and creating content for social media outlets, as well as managing international social communities.
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. 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After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. 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I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. 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