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",isbn:"978-1-83968-594-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-593-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-595-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"89d795987f1747a76eee532700d2093d",bookSignature:"Dr. Mahmood-Ur- Rahman",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9670.jpg",keywords:"Wheat Improvement, Food Security, Wheat Breeding, Wheat Genetics, Wheat Biotechnology, Wheat OMICS, Biotic Stress, Insect Resistance, Abiotic Stress, Climate Change, Genome Editing, Computational Biology",numberOfDownloads:79,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 26th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 23rd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 22nd 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 10th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 11th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"4 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Ansari has published over 50 papers in international peer-reviewed journals in the field of molecular biology, biotechnology, and bioinformatics. He is a member of various international professional societies and a founding member of the Pakistan Society for Computational Biology.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-Ur-",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman",fullName:"Mahmood-Ur- Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185476/images/system/185476.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mahmood-ur-Rahman Ansari is an Assistant Professor of Molecular Biology at Department of Bioinformatics and Biotechnology, GC University – Faisalabad, Pakistan. He obtained his BSc (Hons) in Plant Breeding and Genetics from University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan in 2003. He got MPhil and PhD in Molecular Biology from National Centre of Excellence in Molecular Biology, Lahore, Pakistan in 2006 and 2011 respectively. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"53287",title:"Avoiding Immunosuppression for Islet Transplantation: Use of Protective Biomaterials",doi:"10.5772/66492",slug:"avoiding-immunosuppression-for-islet-transplantation-use-of-protective-biomaterials",body:'\nOver 25 million people in the United States (USA) suffer from diabetes, with approximately 5% characterized as type 1 diabetes (T1DM). Diabetes is ranked as the seventh leading cause of death in the USA. T1DM is characterized by the autoimmune-mediated destruction of the β-cells of the pancreas, resulting in insulin deficiency [1]. The current method of treatment for T1DM is insulin injection to maintain blood glucose control, which treats the symptoms but not the underlying disease.
\nWith the invention of the Edmonton protocol in 2000, islet transplantation has become an attractive treatment for T1DM. As a treatment option, islet transplantation meets the goal of treating the disease rather than the symptoms. The end goal of islet transplantation in patients is the elimination of exogenous insulin dependence, allowing for those with T1DM to return to normal lives without constant monitoring of their blood glucose levels. There have been a total of 677 islet transplant recipients from 2000 to 2010. The success of the treatment has improved as well, where 27% of recipients achieved 3 years of insulin independence before 2007. After 2007 that rate has increased to 44%. Compared to insulin injection regimen, islet transplantation resulted in significant reduction in episodes of hypoglycemia unawareness [2].
\nIslet transplantation faces two challenges from the host immune system: the rejection of the transplanted islets as foreign body and the existing autoimmunity against β-cells. Immunosuppressive drugs such as sirolimus and rapamycin used in the Edmonton protocol has toxic side effects on islets [3, 4]. As such, there is an impetus to move away from the use of immunosuppressive therapy and instead shift toward developing physical barriers against transplant rejection and autoimmunity.
\nCell encapsulation to provide physical barrier has been tested in treating other diseases such as neurodegenerative diseases, pain, and epilepsy to name a few. So far, encapsulation has been used primarily to treat T1DM [5–9]. By providing a physical barrier to immune rejection, islet encapsulation has been shown to allow transplanted islet to function normally and avoid the use of immunosuppression [10, 11].
The first encapsulated islet transplants occurred in 1980, where islets in an alginate hydrogel transplanted intraperitoneally into diabetic rats achieved normoglycemia for 3 weeks, compared to 8 weeks for nonencapsulated islets [12]. Currently, there are a number of achievements in encapsulating islets seen in small and large animal studies, as well as in early phase clinical trials. A syngeneic transplant of nonobese diabetic (NOD) into prediabetic islets diabetic NOD recipients, using 5% agarose encapsulating 1500–2000 islet equivalents (IEq), showed that intraperitoneal implantation as well as omental pouch transplants demonstrated prolonged euglycemia for a period of 100 days compared to 8 days for unencapsulated islet transplants [13]. This study was repeated in 2006, where the same period of normoglycemia was observed in transplant recipients. In addition, when the devices were removed after 400 days, viable islets were recovered with a small percentage of necrotic cells [14]. Aside from agarose, polyethylene glycol-poly lactic-co-glycolic acid (PEG-PLGA) has been used to encapsulate 500–600 IEq islets for syngeneic transplant into streptozotocin (STZ) induced diabetic BALB/c mice, where over half of the recipients achieved normal glucose levels for up to 100 days [15].
\nResults in large animal studies have mostly mirrored that of the small animal trials. Diabetic canine recipients, receiving 15,000–20,000 IEq islets/kg in alginate microcapsule into the intraperitoneal cavity, were able to maintain normoglycemia without insulin injection for up to 110 days, with c-peptide detectable in the blood for more than 1 year [16]. In 2010, allogeneic transplant in nonhuman primate was tested using subcutaneous and kidney capsule transplants of alginate micro and macroencapsulated islets, at a dose of 30,000 IEQ/kg. In this study, normoglycemia was observed for 28 weeks [17]. In a xenotransplant study of neonatal porcine islets into diabetic cynomolgus monkey, 10,000 IEq/kg of alginate encapsulated islets resulted in more than 40% reduction in injectable insulin dose compared to preimplantation [18].
\nThe first human clinical trial of encapsulated islets transplant in T1DM was reported in 1994. In a type 1 diabetes patient, a postoperative kidney transplant maintained on low dose immunosuppression initially received 10,000 IEQ/kg of cadaver human islets encapsulated in an alginate microcapsule followed by a repeat infusion of 5000 IEQ/kg 6 months later. The patient’s insulin requirements were reduced to 1–2 insulin units per day, and eventually he was able to discontinue all exogenous insulin after 9 months [19]. In 2006, human cadaveric islets (400,000–600,000 IEQ) were encapsulated into sodium alginate beads and placed intraperitoneally into two diabetic patients. The patients showed improved daily glucose levels and a decline in daily exogenous insulin intake. However, neither patient became insulin independent [20].
\nLiving Cell Technologies Ltd. an Australia company has achieved the best outcomes for encapsulated islet transplants. The company, which owns a pathogen-free pig farm in New Zealand, performed xenotransplantation of alginate encapsulated fetal pig islets in several human clinical trials. The most significant achievement has been in the reduction of hypoglycemic episodes to around 40%. Several patients achieved improvements in daily glucose levels and a reduction in exogenous insulin dosing, while two patients became insulin independent after 4 months [21, 22].
\nUnfortunately, there is a lack of consistency in the human clinical results. For example, a human clinical trial by Tuch et al. used alginate encapsulated human islets and tracked the presence of plasma C-peptide levels for up to 2.5 years, ultimately resulting in no change in insulin requirements for the recipients [23]. While these early phase clinical trials aim to ensure safety and determine optimal islet dose, most of the trial patients do not achieve sustainable insulin independence.
One of the important steps to bring islet encapsulation into widespread clinical use is to develop a standard for the type of biomaterial used and the dose of islets to be infused. The type of biomaterial has also been shown to affect graft survival. A test of several encapsulation methods using alginate with or without poly L-lysine (PLL) as well as with high guluronic (G) or mannuronic (M) acid in mouse recipients showed that significant results were achieved with PLL-free high M microcapsules, showing sustained normoglycemia for 8 weeks [24]. Likewise, improved capsule integrity and graft function could be achieved by altering the concentration of alginate in their xenotransplants into diabetic Lewis rats [25].
\nCurrently, the most common employed method for islet encapsulation involves alginate microcapsules [24, 26, 27]. The original device was developed over three decades ago as capillary fibers in a culture-coated medium [28], shaped as arterial-venous shunts into diabetic canines. These devices showed promising results with several canines achieving reduced insulin requirements [29, 30]. Vascular shunts are limited by the volume and number of islets that can be contained within the fibers. Elongation of the fibers resulted in increased fibrosis, leading to abandonment of this device as the higher dose of islets needed for human recipients would require such large fibers that resulted in a large amount of fibrosis [31]. Other macroscale devices have seen less use due to their increased immunogenicity as well as the larger diffusion parameters required for oxygen and nutrients to reach the cell.
\nNanoencapsulation has an advantage compared to other techniques because of its more efficient diffusion capability. With a better surface area to volume ratio, this means that nanoencapsulation can improve insulin response time to blood glucose levels, offering the protection of encapsulation without compromising tissue function due to the physical barrier. PEG has been used for nanoencapsulation devices and can be cross-linked through exposure to UV or visible light. This characteristic also allows for a reduction in the amount of damage done to the capsule’s inner cells normally achieved by other cross-linking methods. On the other hand, PEG biocompatibility still leaves much to be desired compared to other hydrogels, and complete protection from cytokines is still not achieved [32]. Despite these concerns, some success has been attained with these gels [33].
\nBy far the most common encapsulation device is a microscale vehicle. These capsules have mechanical stability, optimal surface area to volume ratio, and have enhanced immunologic profiles [26, 33]. Microscale device is also easily made using standard droplet-based encapsulators that produces consistent size and shape of the resulting capsules [34, 35], as shown in Figure 1.
Porcine islet encapsulated in alginate. Isolated juvenile porcine islets (from 22 to 24 days old pigs, matured for 7 days) were encapsulated in 2.5% low viscosity mannuronate (Pro-Nova UPLVM) alginate (Novamatrix) using an electrostatic gas-driven encapsulator (Nisco Engineering AG).
Microcapsules can also be easily made using materials other than alginate. The most common synthetic chemicals used for microcapsule production are poly ethylene oxide, poly acrylic acid, poly vinyl alcohol, polyphosphazene, and polypeptides and their derivatives. Natural occurring hydrogels include gelatin, fibrin, agarose, hyaluronate, chitosan, and alginate [36, 37]. Poly glycolic and lactic acid polymers continue to be the most commonly used synthetic materials used in medical devices.
\nRegardless of the materials used, capsule materials still face the fundamental flaw of being foreign materials. Thus there will always be the possibility they will elicit a greater immune response, eventually leading to fibrosis and loss of the encased cells. As such, it is important to ensure that the materials are nontoxic and purified prior to microcapsule production.
\nBecause of their tolerability, biologically derived materials have been of interest for islet encapsulation. One possible material is collagen, a naturally derived polymer that is the most widely used in medical devices today. However, collagen gels exhibit poor strength, which are expensive and have high variability of purity, making standardization of the process a problem [37]. Comparatively, alginate has excellent biocompatibility, hydrophilic properties, easy gelation process, stable architecture, and relatively low cost. Alginate is polysaccharide derived from seaweed, which can be highly purified to prevent foreign body response [38]. Impure alginate has been implicated in islet cell necrosis and recruitment of inflammatory mediators [39].
\nAlginate is a polymer of 1-4 linked β-D-mannuronic acid (M) and 1-4 linked α-L-guluronic acid (G). This polysaccharide can contain varying concentrations of M and G carbohydrates, which provides a variety of molecular weight, stability, permeability, and immunogenicity. High G alginates form gels, which are smaller and stronger than high M alginates [38]. High-M alginate was often avoided when immunosuppression was the desired outcome, because mannuronic acid tends to provoke both innate and antibody-mediated immune response, independent of the type of cation used for cross-linking (Ca2+ or Ba2+). High-M also triggers macrophages to secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines including IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-α through interactions with the monocyte CD14 receptor [39]. However, recent studies seem to contradict these earlier findings, reporting a higher amount of cellular adhesion to high-G alginate capsules when compared to high-M alginate [40, 41]. It is likely that the observed difference in the immune response depends not on the identity of the alginate material, but instead on the quality of the alginate purification method [42, 43].
\nUsing surface modification, poly-methyl co-guanidine-cellulose sulfate/poly l-lysine-sodium alginate (PMCG)-CS/PLL was used for syngeneic transplant into T1DM canine recipients [44]. Their study reported normoglycemia in the canines for approximately 160 days, with one canine achieving euglycemia for 214 days [45].
\nAlginate converts into a gel form by ionic cross-linking with bivalent cations such as calcium, magnesium, and more commonly barium [46]. Cross-linking establish a mesh of porous material that allows bidirectional flow of materials, including oxygen, nutrients, and hormones (especially insulin). However, hydrogel polymerization does not result in uniform pore size, while internal permeability tends to vary between batches [38].
\nAn increase in the degree of cross-linking results in gels that have superior mechanical strength but inversely reduces the size of the pores available for diffusion. It is possible to artificially organize the islets in alginate gels into clusters mimicking natural islets [47].
\nSurface modification using polycations and anions can change the permeability and mechanical strength of alginate, but the polarity tends to increase the immune response. Common molecules used for this purpose include: poly-d-lysine (PDL), polyethylene glycol (PEG), poly-L-ornithine (PLO), and poly-L-lysine (PLL). This effect can be counteracted by adding another layer of alginate to prevent direct contact with a polar surface [38], or by modifying the alginate [48].
\nCapsule fibrosis was the most significant problem encountered when utilizing alginate capsules [23, 49–51]. Theoretically, immune isolation is achieved by encapsulation of the cells, but some levels of immune rejection and foreign body response still occur. Also, while oxygen and nutrients are able to freely diffuse across a matrix, studies have shown that at the time of explant, histology showed a necrotic core in the encapsulated islets without evidence of fibrosis. This suggests inadequate oxygen diffusion into the center of the encapsulated islets [52].
\nThe results demonstrated by these prior studies suggest that there are key points to be considered during engineering of the encapsulation vehicle. The raw and the purified capsule material must be nontoxic, while the purification method needs to be reproducible across batches. The polymerization of the capsule material needs to be noncytotoxic to the islets. If there is any degradation of the material, it must follow physiological tissue growth and its products must not adversely affect the coated cells or human body. For clinical application, it would be important for the capsule engineering to be easily scalable, while maintaining good manufacturing practices (GMP) adherence to satisfy regulatory standards.
Co-encapsulation is the process of adding additional molecules to the capsule to enhance the performance of the encapsulated islets. Encapsulation of islets along with dexamethasone, a corticosteroid serving as local immune suppression, can improve islet survival in mice recipients compared to those islets alone [53]. In another study, co-encapsulation of mouse monocyte macrophage cells and hamster kidney cells with ibuprofen improved the encapsulated cell survival both in vitro and in vivo [54].
\nWhile encapsulation protects the cells inside from large molecules such as antibodies as well as direct cellular contact, smaller molecules such as pro-inflammatory cytokines can still diffuse across most hydrogel gradients due to their smaller molecular weight. To achieve this, an attempt at islet encapsulation with a silicon nanopore membrane found observed cytokine protection and islet viability for over 6 hours, with the islets remaining responsive to glucose levels [55]. Thus, protection from these cytokines may promote capsule survival. In an in vitro study performed by Leung, capsules with anti-TNF alpha were able to remove active TNF-α, a pro-inflammatory cytokine from a culture medium, which resulted in better encapsulated cell survival [56].
In order to improve oxygen supply to the cell, access to a rich vascular bed is essential. Addition of the angiogenic factor, fibroblast growth factor 1 (FGF-1), into capsule was able to affect a continuous FGF-1 release for a 1-month period in vitro [57]. In another study, encapsulation of solid peroxide within polydimethylsiloxane resulted in sustained oxygen release from the matrix for approximately 6 weeks [58].
\nExtracellular matrix components, derived from laminin, have been shown to improve islet human islet function for encapsulated islet transplants. These extracellular matrix components are also found in native islets located in the pancreas prior to islet isolation. In this case, a variety of laminin-derived peptides or collagen were co-encapsulated with human islets and islet function was measured in vitro. Islet viability and insulin response to glucose were improved by the addition of laminin-derived peptide or collagen [59].
Prevascularization of islet implant consists of establishing a well-vascularized matrix or scaffold, by implanting the scaffold, then encouraging angiogenesis that leads to scaffold penetration by microcapillaries. Angiogenesis is promoted by addition of fibrin at the time of scaffold implant. Islets were then added to the scaffold after a certain duration that has been shown to allow significant vascularization, as shown in Figure 2. This method was shown to improve subcutaneous islet efficacy in restoring normoglycemia when compared to subcutaneous transplants of islets alone [60].
Prevascularized scaffold for islet transplant. Device is implanted subcutaneously 28 days before the introduction of the β-cell clusters during which the foreign body response and neovascularization are completed (A). The device contains polyethylene rods with high hydrophobicity to avoid cell adhesion. Upon removal of the rods, the islets can be infused (B).
One of the key issues facing the engineering of encapsulating material for islet transplantation would be to define standards for the materials. The standards required contain the choice of raw material, the purification method and quality control of the purification, the shape of the device used for encasing the islets, and the quality of the encased islets. The lack of such standards is likely to account for the current variability in the results reported in the literature on the encapsulated islet transplant.
\nAs an example of the standard necessary for clinical translation of the encapsulation technology, commercially available alginates used to create islet capsules have been found to contain pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPS). PAMP such as peptidoglycan, lipoteichoic acid, and flagellin among other proteins, endotoxins, and polyphenols [61] can trigger recognition by the innate immune system. PAMPS are recognized by toll-like receptors (TLRs) and pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs) [61, 62], leading to pericapsular fibrotic overgrowth (PFO) [63] as the immune system attempts to isolate the graft. PFO severely hinders graft survival by preventing diffusion of nutrients and waste.
\nIn addition to cellular adhesion and PFO, death of encapsulated islets may also be caused by chemokines and cytokines that are small enough to pass through the permeable capsules [64]. TLRs, upon recognition and binding of PAMPS to the receptor surface, initiate an intracellular signaling cascade ultimately resulting in the secretion of a host of inflammatory cytokines attributed to translocation of the NF-κB (nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells) into the nucleus [65].
\nBefore alginate can be used for clinical transplantation, it will need further development in the GMP manufacturing and purification of the raw materials, to ensure a low amount of PAMP detectable by the recipient’s immune system. In addition, the production of the encapsulated islets, including the islet isolation and the encapsulation process, needs to achieve a threshold of standard of quality to ensure a consistent and reliable result, to make it possible to compare the effect of the variety of encapsulation techniques and improvements.
In this chapter, we have covered the variety of options used to protect transplanted islets physically against both transplant rejection and autoimmune assault on β-cells. The technologies covered include the variety of encapsulation devices, materials, and addition of supportive materials to improve islet function and survivability.
\nA key step toward translating biomaterial encapsulation of islets toward clinical trial would be to develop a standard of quality that has to be met by the raw encapsulation material, the islets, and the encapsulation process. This will eventually lead to a process that can be scaled up and to adhere to GMP quality requirements. The current variability of results in the literature on encapsulated islet transplants as T1DM treatment can likely be explained by the lack of such standard, making it impossible to reliably compare multiple encapsulation technologies.
\nThe results in the literature on the encapsulation of islets for the treatment of T1DM showed that it is a promising technology that can revolutionize the treatment paradigm for diabetics. Although significant advances have occurred, there are several obstacles that must be addressed before achieving widespread use of this technology.
Recently, a white1 mother of a white, 3 year old son told me she was planning to talk to her son soon about race and so, given my scholarship in race and parenting [1], she’d want to have a conversation with me before she brought it up because she did not know what to say. She went on to note that her son’s best friend was Black, and she was so glad that her son had not brought up the race of his friend because “he just doesn’t notice race.” As she related this, I sensed a touch of pride from this mother that her small son did not see race.
Even though this mother seemed self-assured that her child had never heard or seen a racist or racially discriminate comment or action, I explained to her that children as young as her son not only can see color or race difference, but they are already forming social meaning and value based on that difference. The white mother’s face turned grim as I mentioned that oftentimes children, even though they are starting to think about race, learn from their white parents that it is rude or embarrassing to point out someone’s race. It is this taboo avoidance, as much if not more, than her son not noticing race that could be why her son had said nothing within earshot of his parents about his friend’s or his own race or color.
In this critical theoretical essay, I discuss literature related to white parenting and racialization as well as draw on autoethnographic mother writing [1, 2, 3], to show how whiteness is passed down intergenerationally particularly in the United States. Autoethnographic mother writing is a methodology that draws on motherscholars’ experiences and observations rooted in their roles as both mother and having been mothered [1, 2]. Although autoethnographic mother writing is radically specific [3], it is rich with lived experience and sense-making. By pairing this methodology with other existing scholarship related to whiteness and parenting, this essay offers practical anti-racist explanations and strategies immersed in theory, research, and narrative.
This essay also falls within a larger body of scholarly work known as Critical Race Parenting or ParentCrit [1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. ParentCrit falls within Critical Race Theory work as it applies to parenting children within racial realism and to be critically conscious. For Parents of Color and/or white parents of Children of Color, ParentCrit often focuses on parenting to teach self-love and how to combat racism in parenting Children of Color [4, 5, 7, 8]. For white parents, it often involves reflection on and combating whiteness in oneself and in one’s white or white-presenting children [1, 6, 9]. Yet, one of the tenets of ParentCrit is the continued learning and growing toward social justice in both parent and child [10], as well the way that this growth happens in relationship with parent and child [1].
Given this, the essay focuses on intergenerational whiteness in the midst neoliberal movements that insist that race is no longer socially significant [11] and where color evasive [12] stances twist the words of those working to increase critical consciousness around race and instead call them racist for even bringing up the word “race.” I end by offering several strategies for parents wanting to disrupt the cycle of whiteness in their parenting and in so doing, begin to reverse the complicity of most white parenting with white supremacy.
Before moving into this discussion, it is helpful to give starting definitions of whiteness and neoliberalism, although this essay delves into different dynamics of both. I define whiteness as a sociopolitical ideology, held mostly by white people, that is used to normalize and promote white supremacism [13]. Whiteness is embedded in systems through traditions and spoken and unspoken rules that privilege [14] or immunize [15] white people, protecting them from the racialized violence that is the reality for People of Color. This includes white people retaining amassed wealth particularly from ancestors who stole land from Native peoples or profited from African enslavement, access to quality education, and exemption to discrimination, microaggressions and larger acts of aggression due to race.
Whiteness is not a static phenomenon. White people constantly evolve their performances of whiteness to best normalize and uphold it and white supremacy [16]. Given this, one of the latest flavors of whiteness, particularly in the United States lies in white post-racial and neoliberal belief systems. Giroux shows how the racism of today or new racism [11, 17] is entwined with neoliberalism, and demonstrates how this neoliberalism is an individualistic endeavor, focused on free market that, in its pursuit toward these, has relied on pretense and a color evasive political project that denies how race and racism work in our world, particularly to benefit white people. Instead, neoliberalism and its users have adapted a language that explains white beneficiaries as meritorious and uses a cultural racism [17] to blame People of Color for their own disenfranchisement.
In the 1950s, Black Pscyhologists, Kenneth and Mamie Clark [18] conducted a series of experiments studying how children interpreted race. In these experiments, children of different races were presented with two dolls, a Black doll with black hair and a white doll with yellow hair. The children were then asked a series of questions, like which doll is beautiful, which doll is the good doll, or which is the bad doll. Most of the children, regardless of the child’s race chose the white doll when asked which was beautiful, and similarly most children chose the white doll when asked which was the good doll and, conversely, the Black doll when asked which was the bad doll. The Clarks at the time used their research to demonstrate the damage to self-identity and self-esteem of Black children in the then segregated US school system. The Clarks even testified compellingly in the Brown v. Board of Education (1954) case [19] in support of school desegregation.
The Clarks’ doll study was significant in the way that it showed that not only did small children recognize race, but they also made social value judgments based on race at that same young age. Although the Clarks’ original studies were published in the 1940s and 1950s, similar experiments with children’s perceptions of race have since been replicated, with results being similarly troubling [20, 21]. One significant difference is that Black children identify the Black doll as the bad one to a lesser extent [21], perhaps signaling improved self-image for those Black children whose parents diligently provide them with dolls, books, toys, etc. that are positive representations of Black people and Black culture. However, white children in the 1950s and today in the US, despite the national rhetoric touting a post-racial society where color no longer matters, still tend to make value judgments based on race that favor white people [20, 22]. But, why? Most children in the US today have grown up with a Black President, they have seen Doc McStuffins on TV, they have worn Black Panther costumes for Halloween. Certainly, these Black role models have had some impact on children’s racial values. So, why would a white boy wearing a t-shirt with the latest Spider-verse Spiderman character (a Black, Latinx boy) still say the Black doll is bad [20, 22]?
Thandeka, a Black scholar and Theologian wrote the book Learning to Be White, [23] published in 1999. In the book, she describes how white parents pass down whiteness to their white children or “teach them to be white” by withholding love or shaming their children when those children engage with Children of Color. For instance, white parents berating their children for playing with the Black child next door or refusing to talk to their child when they show up at home dating a Person of Color are examples of the punishment some white parents impart when their white children do not keep to their own. All of these subtle and not-so-subtle reprimands of white parents signal to their white children that if they have relationships with People of Color, the cost will be the ending of their relationship with their parents. Thandeka describes this withholding of love or this race-conditioned love as akin to child abuse, and shows the damage done to white children, as they are groomed to be the next generation of whiteness keepers.
Thandeka captures the white parenting process and also touches on how white people teach themselves to avoid thinking of themselves as white or even part of a racialized system. White people tend to think that race is something possessed by People of Color. It is in this belief that white people then begin to found the normalization of whiteness. Things that are white are normal; everything else is different, diverse, exotic, strange…race. Thandeka describes a game she created where she invites white people for a week to identify each person they talk about as white (if they are), e.g., My white neighbor, Sally, stopped by for a cup of coffee with my white friend, Angie, and all of our white kids played out back. Thandeka relates how none of the white people she invites to play this game can manage to do it for more than a day. They all find themselves embarrassed or shamed to racialize themselves and other white people and cannot stand the looks of disdain from other whites when they are breaking this cardinal rule of never racializing whites and, in so doing, maintaining the normalization of whiteness.
Thandeka does elucidate multiple elements of whiteness and the intergenerational passing on of whiteness in her book. And, what she describes is still very much at play in many white families. However, her book was written over 20 years ago, and what critical whiteness scholars show, is that whiteness and white tactics evolve to best uphold white supremacy. [13, 16, 24] Whiteness is slippery in the way that it’s hard to get a handle on. As soon as you think you have nailed down how whiteness is operating, whites have already morphed how they perform and maintain it. As soon as you have developed an antiracist training to confront the problem of whiteness, white people have already taken a diversity training and are employing the same language to instead promote white norms. My point is that Thandeka, at the time of her book’s writing could not foresee how white neoliberal parents of the next generation were going to mold the principles of whiteness they’d learned from their parents. When these younger neoliberal parents were raised by the Baby Boomers, it was socially acceptable in many white communities to forbid your child to play with the Black kid next door. Today, in many places, this is not socially acceptable. So, white parents (often unconsciously) employ a more tactful maintenance of whiteness, one that no one can call you racist for. This leads to a whiteness performance that creates a scapegoat of racist Uncle Donald at the holiday dinner table while quietly allowing today’s white parents to go about affirming white norms and superiority with their children, all the while assuring themselves that they and their children aren’t racist.
Thandeka captured the shame that white people have when asked to racialize themselves and acknowledge their whiteness, but in addition to whites’ aversion to identifying their own race, today’s neoliberal white parent also does not want to identify anyone else’s race; it’s uncouth. Beverly Tatum, in her book, Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together in the Cafeteria: And Other Conversations About Race, [25] points out that white people consider race talk taboo. She remarks on how white people tend to whisper that a person is Black or Latinx as if identifying the race or ethnicity of a Person of Color is an insult or a dirty secret that nobody dare say. This taboo of identifying anyone’s race is rooted in early colonization and enslavement where white people, and particularly white women taught themselves to fear Black people, and particularly Black men. Black Psychologist, Frantz Fanon, in his book Black Skin, White Masks [26] vividly describes a moment of walking down the street in Martinique, when a white child points at him and cries to his mother, “Look, a negro!” His mother gasps and pulls her son to the other side of the street and out of harm’s way. Fanon analyzes this action and names the fear behind both the white child’s utterance and his mother’s response. This illustration although written about in the 1950s feels uncannily relevant today. A white child, particularly one who has not been around People of Color because he/she was raised in a white suburban enclave, upon first seeing a Black person, points and says in a loud voice, “Mommy, look that person is Black!” The white mother then swiftly teaches the child the race taboo by shushing the child, getting embarrassed, or even scolding the child for identifying something new they are seeing – race [1]. Although, as Tatum discusses, there is nothing negative about identifying a Person of Color’s physical attributes, the white mother out of embarrassment, and perhaps deep-rooted fear or disdain tries to distance herself from the Person of Color the child has pointed out. But, even though these may be deep-rooted racist reactions to a Person of Color, today’s nice white neoliberal parent instead rationalizes their reaction because their child has not intuited the cardinal rule of color evasion, which the parent justifies is all about equality [1].
Sociologist, Eduardo Bonilla-Silva identified this white neoliberal race evasion in his book, Racism Without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in America. [17] Although Bonilla-Silva coins this phenomenon as “color-blind racism,” I opt for an expression that does not use ableist language as recommended by Annamma, Jackson, and Morrison [12]. I refer to this concept as color evasive racism or color evasion. Bonilla-Silva’s book is based on interviews with white adults. Through these, he identifies several ways that white people employ color evasion. These include making false justifications for the evidence of racism that do not sound explicitly racist, for instance describing gentrification and racial segregation of schools as being a natural result of people just wanting to be around people who are like them. Bonilla-Silva also identifies what he describes as “abstract liberalism,” which gets at the heart of color evasion. White people, when asked a question about race often default to “Oh, I don’t even see race.” Or, as Bonilla-Silva showed, when asked about affirmative action, i.e., preferences for people from under-represented racial groups in higher education or the job market, white people would often say they were against it because they thought everyone should be treated equally. Of course, this abstract liberalism sounds nice. How can you call the person speaking racist when they have just said they want everyone to be treated equally? Yet, this nice, color evasive talk is perpetuating racism in the way that it denies the lived reality of People of Color and instead blames their disenfranchisement on People of Color, themselves.
It will come as no surprise then, that these same white adults, use the same color evasive approaches if and when they teach their children about race. The white parents focused on in Thandeka’s book are in no uncertain terms telling their white children to stop playing with Kids of Color, if they want to remain in the family. But, currently, there is a growing crop of neoliberal parents who are avoiding conversations about race with their children, but if their child asks a question about race or color, white parents resort to canned abstract liberalism, assuring their kids that everybody is equal and color does not matter.
Years ago, I was conducting research with focus groups of white kindergartners in the rural Midwest of the United States. I had their white teacher read them several multicultural picture books and then asked the children a series of question about the books. I wanted to know how white children in a mostly white setting understood race and culture through the books. As we began the study, the kindergarten teacher went off script. She asked all of the children to hold out their hands. A plentitude of beige, pinkish, and peachy little hands all reached into the circle where the teacher also held out her hand. “Are we all the same color?” she asked. “No,” replied most of the kids, identifying freckles or the slight variations of shade in their hands. “That’s right!” congratulated the teacher, “we all have different color skin, but we’re still all the same!” I remember thinking at the time that this teacher might as well have concluded her mini race lesson with, “So, there’s no reason for us to ever talk about color or race again!”
As mentioned, one of the core problems with teaching white children to be color evasive is that color evasion ignores the reality of racism and white supremacism. While the color evasive parent will read children’s books about Martin Luther King Jr. to their children, particularly on MLK day, most of those books read as though when the ‘white only’ signs came down racism ended and today we are all treated equally. Racism, as it were, is a thing of the past and a thing of the US south. This is the message that well-intentioned, neoliberal white parents teach the next generation about race. And this serves white families well, as they continue to normalize themselves and their dominant narratives. This is also why we frequently see white college students demonstrating what Robin DiAngelo refers to as white fragility [27] when they are first confronted with the racial realities of People of Color in a course that deals with race. Or a white student is assigned a roommate who is a Person of Color and not willing to go along with the shallow color evasive framework the now white young adult has embraced and managed not to question [22], in part cause they knew how upset their white family would get if they went and brought up a nasty topic like race.
I titled this chapter, “Racist Babies?” to get at the paradox of whiteness in parenting, which is this: Although we know kids see race and make value judgments about it, children are not born racist. White children are parented into racism. Yet, given how whites have constructed whiteness norms within their families, the first time a child makes an observation about race, the parent is shocked at the audacity of their child breaking the taboo and worries that the child is racist instead of examining themselves and how whiteness is at work [28] in their parenting.
White neoliberal parents tend to avoid conversations about race with children. They do this possibly because they are in denial that race and racism are real and relevant. Perhaps they do not know what to say about race and are uncomfortable breaking the race taboo that they were raised to uphold. Or, maybe they think their children will just naturally grow up to “do the right thing.” These same parents are thrown into upheaval the first time their child makes a comment on or asks a question about race. This is when, as a race scholar and white mother, my nice, white neoliberal friends come to me and explain that their child is racist and can I recommend some good kids’ books that will teach their children to not be racist? One white friend’s child did not like his brown-skinned swim instructor. One child pointed at a Black woman, saying she looked like a brownie. Neither of these statements are inherently racist. These white children are noticing skin color and trying to make sense of it, particularly when they have not been around many People of Color previously. My own child, when he began a new preschool class, declared that he did not like one of his teachers. “Which teacher don’t you like?” I asked. “The Black one,” he answered. I’ll admit, even as a person who studies race and whiteness in parenting, I was taken aback with my 4 year old’s comment. But, I was careful not to scold him for identifying race, which we had discussed. “You don’t like Ms. Andrea?” I clarified, identifying his teacher who I’d noted was the most strict, and as he had identified had the darkest skin of all of his teachers. We then went on to have a conversation where I encouraged him to learn all of his teachers’ names and also began a conversation about racism and how white people treat Black and Brown people unfairly. “That’s why it’s super important for us as white people to respect Black and Brown people and especially our teachers by knowing their names,” I concluded.
To be honest, on the fly, I’m not sure how well I articulated any of this or how much my son understood. But, what is important is that I continue to have conversations with my children about race and racism to ensure that we are not participating in color evasive racism. This also allows me to continue to guide my children’s interpretations and understanding of race and racism as they grow. Although I have a leg up on many white parents given that I am a researcher of race, racism, and whiteness, it is still crucial for all white parents, including me, to continue our work to understand how whiteness is working in ourselves, in our partners, and in our children.
Below, I offer some ParentCrit strategies, particularly for white parents who are working to parent critically conscious, socially just people, and are they themselves working to be the same. It’s important to note that parenting is not the only influence that children receive that teach them about race. Certainly, a child’s experience at school, in social settings, and with various media also convey messages about race to white children and Children of Color. When we as parents work with our children to develop a critical consciousness around systems of oppression, we must be working with them to interpret, critique, and dismantle those systems whether they manifest in their classroom or in their Saturday morning cartoons.
The United States is highly racially segregated in our neighborhoods, schools, workplaces, etc. This is not coincidental or natural. It is by design [29]. Historical and current processes and legacies have continued to disenfranchise People of Color in the United States and maintain white privilege and power. Systems such as redlining and gentrification to mass incarceration and school privatization go to work every day to keep most white Americans in their bubble.
Although this allows most white children in the US to be surrounded by other white children, white teachers, and white community, Families of Color are forced to navigate the white world to participate in systems such as economic, education, medicine, law, etc. Thus, white children raised in white enclaves develop an understanding of their white identities and their whiteness as normal, which Children of Color do not have the luxury of doing [30]. This allows for white children to then see anything that is not within these white norms as different, weird, exotic, or even deviant or bad.
Once, after I had offered a community training on ‘dismantling whiteness,’ I had a white father approach me. He and his wife were upper class and white and were raising their two biological children in a wealthy white suburb. We were discussing white children and their understanding of race, and he said, “My 7 year old, Skyler, said to me yesterday, ‘Dad, why are all Black people famous?’” Upon sharing this, he offered me an incredulous look in which I think he expected me to share in his utter confusion. “Does he know any Black people?” I asked. The man furrowed his brow, and said, “No, just those he sees on TV.” After describing the painfully obvious connection between his child thinking all Black people were famous and how it was because he only saw Black people on TV, I went on to discuss the importance of children having relationships and engaging with racially diverse communities so as not to stereotype People of Color. The father nodded, but then added, “It’s just that our neighborhood is so white.” With that, he shrugged and our conversation ended. This Dad could not envision making choices about where his family lived or learned that considered his children’s critical consciousness and racial awareness. Subsequently, his white son was learning about Black people from TV. This meant that the source of his son’s race knowledge was and would continue to be formed by mass media, and all the racist stereotypes therein. The intergenerational whiteness was being almost perfectly maintained in this nice, white, neoliberal family.
My point here is that environment matters when you want to raise critically conscious, socially just children. Within the higher education Affirmative Action2 struggle, those defending Affirmative Action have argued about the importance of a Critical Mass of Students of Color within the college classroom. They argue that this critical mass is important for all students to have a rich and diverse college experience. Part of this idea is that if you have only one or two Students of Color in an otherwise all-white classroom, the white students are more likely to tokenize and stereotype the few Students of Color. This argument fairly suggests that white college students upon meeting a Student of Color (often one of the first People of Color they have met) are likely to make sweeping generalizations about an entire racial group based on the experiences with that one Person of Color. Thus, a critical mass is achieved when there is enough diversity in the diversity (coded as People of Color) [31].
I bring this up, because if knowing and working with People of Color is actually important to the white neoliberal groups that largely serve as the leadership, faculty, staff, and students of predominantly white institutions of higher education, why is it not important to raise those same white children in community with People of Color? My point is that, of course, environment is crucial in raising critically conscious, socially just children and families.
When I began talking with my first child at three about race, I was shocked at how color evasive my descriptions were. Things like “People have different skin colors but we’re all the same” or describing racism as “People treating people with other skin colors bad,” just fell out of my mouth. I was quick to correct myself, particularly on the latter comment to say “When white people treat people with Black or Brown skin bad…” But, horrified, I stumbled through conversations while my preschooler quickly lost interest in my race lessons. I realized that like any good educator, I needed to plan out what I wanted my child to understand and then back track to identify and teach the building blocks to that concept. I wanted my kids to understand racism at the individual but also the systemic levels and I also wanted them to confront it when they saw it.
I started by identifying key concepts, equating race with skin color while simultaneously reading books and talking about the US enslavement of Africans and the stealing of native lands. I then introduced the concept of racism. This worked as a good transition. When my son understood race and also the history of race in the US, particularly around enslavement, it was easier to show how racism only went in one direction, given that white people had historically created the concept of race and used it to steal rights and power [32]. Yet, my previous research helped me understand that white kids often understand racism as happening only in the past and only in the south. So, I also offered my children examples of racism, including those from the news or even comments or things I noticed. We would discuss police shootings of Black people. We would discuss how racism was working in our leaders’ justification of separating Latinx children from their parents at the US/Mexican border. My partner and I and our friends would discuss race and racism openly in front of the kids, whether or not they were paying attention. These ongoing race conversations not only helped my children build their understanding of race and racism, but it also gave them permission and even encouragement to bring up race topics and to ask questions of their own.
As a critical race scholar, I was laser focused on my white-presenting boys’ understanding race and racism. When they would talk about gender or something being a girls’ toy, I would say little more than “There is no such thing as a girls’ toy.” Shortly after my oldest son began public elementary school, a fourth grade Latinx boy within our school district died by suicide shortly after he had come out as gay. Immediately, all of the heteronormative and gender-binary school traditions that I had kept quiet about became urgent to correct. As I saw it, the public school system of which we were part was scapegoating children as bullies and letting themselves off the hook for all of the practices that said “you (cisgender conforming child) are normal, and you (nonconforming child) do not belong and deserve your isolation.” These practices included the lining up after the school bell by binary gender, no bathroom options for trans or gender nonconforming students, and allowing the gender policing of children (e.g., teasing a boy who used a pink crayon).
Interestingly, we had family friends who were laser-focused on gender and LGBTIQ+ issues to the detriment of discussions of other systems of oppression, including race. I think it’s difficult for parents who hold multiple forms of privilege and dominant identities to hold these all together at the same time, whereas parents who combat multiple forms of oppression, do not have the luxury of isolating one with their children. Indeed, intersectionality is meant to combat the rendering of queer Black women as invisible [33, 34] Reading Audre Lorde’s words [35] makes this clear. She simultaneously holds her identities as mother, scholar, Black, woman, and lesbian as she navigates raising her Black children. There is no moment where she forgets that she and her children are Black or that she is raising her children as a lesbian woman. She holds them all and navigates them simultaneously.
This is not the case for white, heteronormative parents. So, we must do the work to understand how these systems of white supremacism, patriarchy, classism, heteronormativity, ableism, etc. are all working simultaneously for or against our children. Holding our understanding, oppression, and dominance together as we raise our kids, and not letting one system or another go because they will not oppress our kids directly today is vital. The point here is that we cannot teach anybody, including our children, how any system of oppression really works without understanding and offering an intersectional approach. We cannot fully understand white supremacy without understanding patriarchy, nor can we understand patriarchy without ableism, or ableism without classism and so on. So, as we work to build critical consciousness in our children, we must not set aside any part of the story.
It feels like new kids’ movies come out by the week these days, and, luckily, there is generally a critique of each new film. I actually included my racial critique of Zootopia in a 2018 article [1], showing how it drew on white saviority, racial stereotypes, and color evasive racism to form its storyline. By most accounts, children’s movies seem to be getting better and more thoughtful. For example, consider the 1995 Disney film, Pocahontas, along with its stereotyping of indigenous people as noble or savage with the 2017 Pixar film Coco, which is a beautiful and thoughtful depiction of a Mexican story.
Yet, when we take a comprehensive look at child media we still see the same problematic depictions of race, i.e., racial stereotypes, color evasions, and other racial fictions. For instance, while the first Frozen movie, happily avoided race by making every notable character in it lily white, Frozen II tried to make up for it by depicting a racially ambiguous indigenous group that was having their way of life stolen by an unambiguously white king. While this may have paralleled the settler colonialist history and stolen lands of the United States, the movie ends with the two white granddaughters of the colonizer-king saving the day, the land, and restoring justice, which included one of the white sisters (Elsa) becoming queen over the indigenous peoples and land.
The point I want to make here is that I do not think we should keep children from seeing the latest Disney or Pixar film, but we should be diligent about critiquing storylines and messages within media with our kids. We should be deconstructing both the explicit and hidden messages in children’s movies with our kids. This demonstrates to them that they cannot take what they see at face value even in their seemingly morally resplendent movies. When we describe what we see in the movies and critical interpretations of the media our children are watching, they learn to not only question what they see and understand, but learn that it’s important to do so. Soon enough, we will not need to bring up racist stereotypes or white savior storylines in the movies our children are watching; pretty soon, they’ll catch it and point it out before we do.
These discussions also reinforce that race talk is okay and encouraged. My white-presenting son received a Black Panther costume as a gift from his grandparents around Halloween last year. Although he already had planned to be a video game character for trick or treating, he told me he thought he might wear his Black Panther costume to school. My son’s school is made-up of mostly Black and Brown students, and I worried about my son co-opting one of the few Black heroes available to Kids of Color.
“I actually don’t think you should wear your Black Panther costume out of the house,” I said to my son.” “Why not?” he asked. “Well, because Black Panther is a Black super hero, and because of racism, there aren’t a lot of Black super heroes that look like Black and Brown kids. But there are a whole bunch that look more like you, so I think we should treat Black Panther as a special super hero that just Black and Brown kids get to dress up as at school.” “Ok,” my son resolved quickly, “I think I’ll be a Harry Potter character for school then.” “Perfect!” I said.
When we normalize race and racism conversations with our children, we build their skills and critical consciousness. In Beverly Tatum’s book [25], she mentions a white kid that asked her Black son if his skin was brown because he drank too much chocolate milk. Children, including white children, are trying to make sense of their world and their social interactions. They pick up on who gets included and who does not, on who’s considered beautiful, and who is not, on who’s considered smart and who is not. If we do not advise them in this sense making process, we should not then be surprised when, in the next round of doll studies they tell us that the white doll is good and beautiful and the Black doll is bad.
White parents have got to set aside their fear of race talk, shrug off the taboo, and educate themselves on how race works in the US and how they and their white skin are normalized and privileged. Only then can we educate the next generation of children to resist whiteness and make strides toward equity and justice, instead of just reframing whiteness to trick ourselves as we raise the next generation of racist babies.
I dedicate this chapter to my children and those of the next generation. May we invest in you critical consciousness and social justice, along with our hopes and dreams.
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\\n\\nThe Author will be held responsible for the payment of the agreed Open Access Publishing Fee before the completion of the project (Monograph/Compacts publication).
\\n\\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of issue of the invoice. The Author or whoever is paying on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\\n\\nThe Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Work worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen, at its request, the original copies of such consents for inspection or the photocopies of such consents.
\\n\\nThe Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from those who might recognize themselves or be identified by others, for example from case reports or photographs.
\\n\\nThe Author shall respect confidentiality during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Author and Co-Authors are confidential and are intended only for the recipients. The contents of any communication may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\\n\\nAUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm and warrant that the Work does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Work contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy.
\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm that: (i) the Work is their original work and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Work has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors have not assigned, and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign, any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
\\n\\nThe Author agrees to indemnify IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses, as well as all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of, or in connection with, any breach of the agreed confirmations and warranties. This indemnity shall not apply in a situation in which a claim results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\\n\\nNothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\\n\\nTERMINATION
\\n\\nIntechOpen has the right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Author and/or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (being a private individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (as a corporate entity) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for, or enters into, any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\\n\\nIn the event of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Author of the decision in writing.
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\\n\\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen, at its discretion, agrees to publish the Work attributing it to the Author and Co-Authors.
\\n\\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen agrees to provide publishing services which include: managing editing (editorial and publishing process coordination, Author assistance); publishing software technology; language copyediting; typesetting; online publishing; hosting and web management; and abstracting and indexing services.
\\n\\nIntechOpen agrees to offer free online access to readers and use reasonable efforts to promote the Publication to relevant audiences.
\\n\\nIntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\\n\\nIntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nMISCELLANEOUS
\\n\\nFurther Assurance: The Author shall ensure that any relevant third party, including any Co-Author, shall execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\nThird Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\\n\\nEntire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by, or on behalf of, the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (known as the "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of any fraudulent pre-contract misrepresentation or concealment.
\\n\\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\\n\\nVariation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall have effect unless it is in writing and signed by the parties, or their duly authorized representatives.
\\n\\nSeverance: If any provision, or part-provision, of this Publication Agreement is, or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted. Any modification to, or deletion of, a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\nNo partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
\\n\\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2018-09-11
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'When submitting a manuscript, the Author is required to accept the Terms and Conditions set out in our Publication Agreement – Monographs/Compacts as follows:
\n\nCORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\nSubject to the following Article, the Author grants to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright, and any extensions or renewals of that term, the following:
\n\nThe foregoing licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Publication Agreement for any reason.
\n\nThe Author, on his or her own behalf and on behalf of any of the Co-Authors, reserves the following rights in the Work but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Work as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\n\nThe Author, and any Co-Author, confirms that they are, and will remain, a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Work and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process, including all published versions, is retained by the Author and any Co-Authors.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Author and Co-Authors retain patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Work.
\n\nAll rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the specific approval of the Author or Co-Authors.
\n\nThe Author, on his/her own behalf and on behalf of the Co-Authors, will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Work as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Work arising from the translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits as determined by IntechOpen.
\n\nAUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\nWhen distributing or re-publishing the Work, the Author agrees to credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Author guarantees that Co-Authors will also credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Work.
\n\nThe Author agrees to:
\n\nThe Author will be held responsible for the payment of the agreed Open Access Publishing Fee before the completion of the project (Monograph/Compacts publication).
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of issue of the invoice. The Author or whoever is paying on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\nThe Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Work worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen, at its request, the original copies of such consents for inspection or the photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from those who might recognize themselves or be identified by others, for example from case reports or photographs.
\n\nThe Author shall respect confidentiality during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Author and Co-Authors are confidential and are intended only for the recipients. The contents of any communication may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\nAUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm and warrant that the Work does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Work contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy.
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm that: (i) the Work is their original work and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Work has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors have not assigned, and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign, any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
\n\nThe Author agrees to indemnify IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses, as well as all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of, or in connection with, any breach of the agreed confirmations and warranties. This indemnity shall not apply in a situation in which a claim results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\nNothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\nTERMINATION
\n\nIntechOpen has the right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Author and/or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (being a private individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (as a corporate entity) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for, or enters into, any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn the event of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Author of the decision in writing.
\n\nIntechOpen’s DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen, at its discretion, agrees to publish the Work attributing it to the Author and Co-Authors.
\n\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen agrees to provide publishing services which include: managing editing (editorial and publishing process coordination, Author assistance); publishing software technology; language copyediting; typesetting; online publishing; hosting and web management; and abstracting and indexing services.
\n\nIntechOpen agrees to offer free online access to readers and use reasonable efforts to promote the Publication to relevant audiences.
\n\nIntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\nIntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\nMISCELLANEOUS
\n\nFurther Assurance: The Author shall ensure that any relevant third party, including any Co-Author, shall execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\nThird Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\nEntire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by, or on behalf of, the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (known as the "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of any fraudulent pre-contract misrepresentation or concealment.
\n\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\nVariation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall have effect unless it is in writing and signed by the parties, or their duly authorized representatives.
\n\nSeverance: If any provision, or part-provision, of this Publication Agreement is, or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted. Any modification to, or deletion of, a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\nNo partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
\n\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2018-09-11
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). 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