\r\n\t
\r\n\t-production; advances in decline curve analysis, determining of optimal well spacing, parent-child wells relation, frat hit, stress shadowing, well interference,
\r\n\t-completion; determining optimal fracture spacing, optimal pad volume, optimal proppant volume, size and type, fiber optics,
\r\n\t-environmental aspects; produced water management, environmentally sustainable operation, footprint, and water consumption,
\r\n\t-improved oil recovery; Huff and Puff gas injection, surfactant injection, pilot tests, upscaling of lab-results to pilot-scale and field-scale,
\r\n\t-economics; integration of gas utilization, reducing operational costs, and water treatment.
After the initial thermal insult, tissue necrosis is continued in burn wound, which is referred to as the phenomenon of “burn wound progression” [1]. The progression of burn wound is an important problem in clinic, largely determining the morbidity and mortality of burn patients. Generally, the burn wound can be divided into three concentric zones [2]: the zone of coagulation, the zone of stasis, and the zone of hyperemia. While the central zone of coagulation is distinguished by irreversible tissue necrosis and the outer zone of hyperemia can always naturally recover, the intermediate zone of stasis may either progress into necrosis or can be salvaged if optimal treatments be available [3].
\nIt has been demonstrated that burn wound progression is attributed to many mechanisms, including tissue hypoperfusion, prolonged inflammation, edema, hypercoagulability, and free radical damage [4]. Many studies have aimed to ameliorate burn wound progression by intervening these above mechanisms, and certain advance has already been achieved. However, further studies are still needed to help us better understand this complicated process.
\nAutophagy is a lysosomal‐dependent degradation pathway, which is indispensable for survival, development, differentiation, and cellular homeostasis [5]. Autophagy has been reported to protect against ischemic injuries, inflammatory diseases, and other disease models [6]. To understand the role of autophagy in burn wound progression, firstly, we designed an animal study to examine the expressing pattern of autophagy in burn wounds. We found that autophagy level in the zone of stasis was increased when comparing to the normal unburned tissue. We speculated that the increase of autophagy level in the zone of stasis was a survival mechanism against tissue ischemia, excessive inflammatory response, and oxidative stress in burn wounds [7].
\nRapamycin is a macrolide antibiotic agent, which was initially used as an antifungal drug, and has potent anti‐proliferative and immunosuppressive properties. Rapamycin is now a commonly used autophagy‐enhancing agent and it can induce autophagy by inhibiting mTOR kinase activity [8]. In the second part of the work, we used a rat model of second degree burns and selected rapamycin as an autophagic‐enhancing agent to determine whether it could enhance autophagy in burn wounds and ameliorate burn wound progression while promoting wound healing. We found that rapamycin enhanced the level of autophagy in burn wounds, ameliorated the early progression of burn depth and promoted burn wound healing, possibly by protecting the zone of stasis from further necrosis and by reducing the extent or level of apoptosis commonly seen in burn wounds [9].
\nLevels of LC3 and Beclin‐1 protein were maintained at a certain degree in normal skin tissue. After burn was inflicted, levels of these proteins declined continuously in wound tissue until 24 h after the burn. Levels then increased slightly, but remained far lower than in normal skin samples. Quantitative analysis show that autophagy level decreased about fourfold over 24 h, and then began to increase but still could not reach their normal level (Figure 1).
\n(A) Western blot analyses of LC3 and Beclin‐1 in wound and normal unburned skin at different time points after burn. (B, C) Quantitative analysis of LC3II/I and Beclin‐1 in burn wounds. B and C show that the levels of these proteins declined continuously in wound tissue until 24 h after the burn. Levels then increased slightly, but remained far lower than in skin samples. The times trends for LC3II/I and Beclin‐1 change were almost identical. Data are presented as means ± SD (*P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, n = 8 per group).
To investigate the apoptosis level of burn wounds, we conducted TUNEL staining to see how the apoptosis level in burn wounds would change after burn was inflicted. We found more cells undergoing apoptosis in burn wounds than control. The apoptotic rates in burn wounds at 6, 24, 48, and 72 h are 4.56 ± 0.27, 11.76 ± 0.7, 13.16 ± 0.65, and 8.14 ± 0.62%, respectively, versus 2.23 ± 0.23% of controls (mean ± SD, P < 0.05 at 6 h, P < 0.01 at 24, 48, 72 h) (Figure 2).
\nTUNEL staining of normal skin (A) and burn wound tissue 1 day (B), 2 days (C), and 3 days (D) post burn. Cells with shrunken brown stained nuclei were considered positive (black arrows). E: The p values for 6h, 1d, 2d and 3d are 0.028, 0.005, 0.003 and 0.007 respectively. Scale bars = 50 um, *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, n = 8 per group.
LDF value in burn wounds is an indicator of burn wound blood flow, while MPO activity reflects the inflammatory response in the burn wound. We found that the LDF values decreased fourfold over 12 h after burn and then began to increase but still far lower normal level. The MPO activity increased about 5.3‐fold over 48 h after burn and then decreased slightly, yet still significantly higher than control (Figure 3).
\nLDF value and MPO activity in burn wounds and normal skin. (A) LDF values in the burn wounds were significantly decreased as compared to the control group. LDF values in the burn wounds decreased fourfold over 12 h and then began to rise, yet still could not reach their normal level. (B) MPO activities in burn wounds were significantly increased than the control. The levels of MPO activity in burn wounds were increased 5.3‐fold over 48 h, and then decreased but still far higher than normal. Alterations in the LDF value were significant at all the time points post burn. Changes in the levels of MPO activity between burn and control groups were significant at the time points of 1, 2, and 3 days post burn. The values described herein were mean ± SD (burn versus control group, *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, n = 8 per group).
Immunohistochemical staining of LC3 (black arrows, cells with brown cytoplasm) in deep dermis of normal skin (A) and burn wounds (B–D). (B) 1 day post burn; (C) 2 days post burn; (D) 3 days post burn. At all time points after burn, the cells expressing LC3 were increased in the deep dermis of burn wound tissue as compared to that of control. Scale bars = 50 um. (E) Semi‐quantitative analysis of the immunohistochemical staining results. The expression of LC3 in the deep dermis of burn wounds was significantly higher than that of the control at all time points. The values herein were mean ± SD (*P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, n = 8 per group).
We found that LC3‐positive cells in the deep dermis adjacent to the subcutaneous tissue, which in this deep second‐degree burn model, may represent the zone of stasis, which were much more than that of control. We conducted a quantitative analysis and found that the increase of LC3‐positive cells in the deep dermis was significant at 6, 24, and 48 h post burn (Figure 4).
\nWestern bolt analysis showed that the protein levels of two autophagy markers, LC3 and Beclin‐1, were significantly augmented in the thermal burn wounds of the rapamycin‐treated group as compared with the levels seen in the control group (Figure 5). The expression of both proteins in burn wounds were at their lowest 24 h post‐thermal burn injury and then gradually increased with time. The patterns of LC3‐II/LC3‐I and Beclin‐1 expression were almost identical (Figure 5). Moreover, the increases in expression of these proteins were statistically significant at 6 h (p < 0.05) and at 24 and 48 h post‐thermal burn injury (p < 0.01).
\nWestern immunoblot assay of LC3 and Beclin‐1 expression in burn wounds of control and treatment groups (A–C). The values herein were mean ± SD (*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, n = 8 per group).
To further investigate if the enhanced autophagy had any effects on apoptosis of burn wounds, we conducted TUNEL staining to see if the apoptosis level in burn wounds of treated rats were different from controls. Cells with shrunken brown stained nuclei were considered positive. We found fewer cells undergoing apoptosis in rats treated with rapamycin. The apoptotic rates in burn wounds of treated rats at 6, 24, 48, and 72 h are 2.99 ± 0.33, 8.85 ± 0.6, 12.48 ± 0.67, and 6.7 ± 0.31%, respectively, versus 4.56 ± 0.27, 11.76 ± 0.7, 13.16 ± 0.65, and 8.14 ± 0.62% of controls (mean ± SD, p < 0.05 at 6, 24, 72 h). Besides, we found that the TUNEL‐positive cells were mainly observed in the epithelium of hair follicles or blood vessels (Figure 6).
\nTUNEL staining of burn wounds in control (A–C) and treatment (D–F). (A, D) 6 h post burn; (B, E) 24 h post burn; (C, F) 72 h post burn. TUNEL positive cells were characterized by shrunken nucleus with brown staining. Scale bars = 50 um. (G) Quantitative analyses of TUNEL staining results. The values herein were mean ± SD (*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, n = 6 per group).
The LDF values and Na/K‐ATPase activities in burn wounds of the treatment group were significantly increased when compared to those of the control group (Figure 7A, B). Furthermore, both LDF values and Na/K‐ATPase activities in burn wounds were lower than those of normal unburned skin. The IL‐8 level, MPO activity, and MDA content in burn wounds of the treatment group were significantly decreased when compared to those of the control group. In addition, these measurements were almost all higher than those of normal unburned skin (Figure 7C–E). Changes in the activities of Na/K‐ATPase and MPO between the treatment and control groups were significantly different at the time points of 1 day and 2 days post‐thermal burn injury. The changes in LDF, MDA, and IL‐8 content between the treatment and control groups were also significant at the time points of 1, 2, and 3 days post‐thermal burn injury.
\nNa/K‐ATPase activities, LDF values, MDA contents, MPO activities, and IL‐8 contents in burn wounds of the treatment group, vehicle control, and normal unburned control. A: The p values for 1d and 2d are 0.008 and 0.006. B: The p values for 1d, 2d and 3d are 0.007, 0.007 and 0.043, respectively. C: The p values for 1d, 2d and 3d are 0.009, 0.006 and 0.008, respectively. D: The p values for 1d and 2d are 0.005 and 0.003. E: The p values for 1d, 2d and 3d are 0.006, 0.004 and 0.006, respectively. The values described herein were mean ± SD (treatment versus control group, *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, n = 8 per group).
Histopathological examination demonstrated that the burn wound progression was reduced in the treatment group when compared to the controls (Figure 8). Fewer residual hair follicles, deeper tissue necrosis, more severe collagen denaturation, and more inflammatory infiltrations in burn wounds of the control group were seen when compared to those of the treatment group. Masson staining showed that less intense staining with Masson red were seen in the treated rats when compared to control, which may indicate less tissue necrosis in the treated rats (Figure 8A–F).
\nH&E and Masson staining of normal skin tissue and burn wounds. (A–F) Masson staining of burn wounds of 1‐day control (A), 1 day following treatment (B), burn wounds of 2‐day control (C), 2 days following treatment (D), 3‐day control (E), and 3 days following treatment (F). (G, H) H&E staining of 3‐day control (G), and 3 days following treatment (H). (I, J) H&E and Masson staining of normal skin tissue. Scale bars = 200 um.
Finally, the time to wound re‐epithelialization was shorter in treated rats as compared with controls (22.5 ± 1.4 vs. 24.8 ± 1.3 days, respectively). (mean ± SD, p<0.01, Figure 9).
\nTime to wound re‐epithelialization. The time to wound re‐epithelialization was significantly shorter in treated rats compared with controls.
The phenomenon of burn wound progression has long been considered a complex and challenging clinical and theoretical challenge. For over half a century, investigators in the field have been attempting to study the mechanisms of burn wound penetration of the epidermal and dermal layers of the skin with the objective of gaining greater insights into the pathology. Several studies [10] have demonstrated that a number of factors contribute to the invasive deepening of thermal burn wounds including a deficiency in local burn wound perfusion, edema, thrombosis, free radical damage, accumulation of factors that contribute to cell‐mediated toxicity and inflammatory cell infiltration.
\nThe first part of our study showed that after the occurrence of burn injury, laser Doppler flow values and Na/K‐ATPase enzyme activities, which collectively represent the burn wound blood circulation and index of energy metabolism, decreased significantly. Moreover, both MPO and MDA activities, which respectively represent wound inflammation and free radical generation, increased significantly. Moreover, the autophagy level was at first reduced and then increased, yet remained far below those in normal skin. We speculate that at the early stage when the tissue necrosis due to thermal injury was inevitable, autophagy may not be a principal cellular activity as necrosis did in burn wounds and which is why autophagy level decreased at first. At the latter stage, when the inevitable tissue necrosis ceased, the remain viable tissue adjacent to coagulation was subject to ischemic and inflammatory damage among others, and then autophagy may protect against these stress stimuli as a survival mechanism which account for the latter rise of autophagy level. The prosurvival role of autophagy is supported by our another finding in IHC staining, which demonstrated significantly activated autophagy in the deep dermis which in this burn model, and represents the zone of stasis (or ischemia). In addition, at the latter stage (48–72 h) after burn, tissue perfusion as determined by LDF was restored and inflammatory infiltration in burn wounds as shown by MPO activity was reduced, in coincidence with the increase of autophagy level at the same time, which may add to evidence for the pro‐survival roles of autophagy in this burn model.
\nTo further dissect the role of autophagy in burn wound progression, we used rapamycin as treatment intervention in the second part of the study. The results demonstrated that the autophagic levels in burn wounds were enhanced following treatment with rapamycin. Furthermore, both LDF values and Na/K‐ATPase activities (indicators of blood perfusion and energy metabolism) in the wounds of treatment group were significantly increased as compared to those of the control group. However, the IL‐8 level, MPO activities, and MDA content (representative of inflammatory reaction and free radial damage) in the wounds of rapamycin‐treated group were significantly decreased as compared to those of the control group [11]. Therefore, these results suggested that enhanced autophagy restored blood perfusion and energy metabolism, and inhibited inflammatory reaction and oxidative damage in burn wounds. Thus, it can be inferred that autophagy maintained cellular metabolic turnover and homeostasis in this experimental burn model [12].
\nHistopathological results showed that the burn wound depth of the rapamycin‐treated group was less remarkable and “more superficial” than that seen in the control group, particularly at 2 and 3 days following thermal tissue injury. Additionally, as compared with the burn wounds of the treatment group, there were fewer residual hair follicles, more severe denatured collagen events recorded, evidence of deeper tissue necrosis, and more obvious inflammatory infiltrates in the burn wounds of the control group. These results suggested that burn wound progression in the treated rats was ameliorated. At last, burn wounds in treatment group re‐epithelialized faster than those of control group, further indicating that prevention of burn wound progression were beneficial to burn wound healing.
\nAutophagy protects from burn wound progression and promotes burn wound healing through protecting the zone of stasis from further necrosis, which is probably mediated by phagocytizing damaged organelles to sustain homeostatic response and remodeling in the injured tissue.
\nProprietary or “paywall” publishing mode dominated the scholarly world throughout the late 20th and early 21st centuries. This is for-profit commercial publishing where publishers make their returns by the collection of research of scholars, application of peer-review, offering of editorial and formatting services, the collation of this research into subject-specific journals, and then selling subscription-based access of these works to academic libraries, scholarly societies and individual researchers. Access to individual articles on a short-term basis (typically 24 hours) is also supplied on a pay-for-use model. Commercial publishers also provide publishing facilities for books and monographs, although these have been on the decline [1]. The advent and wide use of the internet have strongly affected the process of scholarly publishing worldwide. A new mode of publication has emerged and widely employed by scholars and researchers. This new mode is Open Access (OA) publishing of scholarly work. This chapter will discuss OA focusing on its benefits to all the stakeholders and presenting other aspects of this new way of scholarly communication including its definition, types, development, its pros and cons and the myths and misconceptions surrounding it.
\nOpen access refers to free, unrestricted online access to research outputs such as journal articles and books. OA content is open to all, with no access fees. Open access is more than free access. When people think about open access (OA), they immediately relate it with free access. Providing reuse rights is another important asset of open access. Open access in its purest form is “digital, online, free of charge, and free of most copyright and licensing restrictions”. Open access entails a new model of publishing wherein the author, supported by an institution or funding agency, pays the publishing costs and owns the copyright. The publisher manages the peer review process and publishes directly to the Internet, where content is accessible free of charge to the public. Open access publishers take full advantage of available computing technology to streamline the publishing process [2]. Open Access aims to provide users with information that is unconstrained by the motive of financial gain or profits [3]. Furthermore, Open access implies that “users must be able to copy, use, distribute, transmit and display the work publicly and to make and distribute derivative works, in any digital medium for any responsible purpose, subject to proper attribution of authorship” [4, 5].
\nIn subscription-based publishing, authors are required to transfer the copyright of their works to the publisher who makes profits via the dissemination and reproduction of the works. Contrary to this, with OA publishing, authors can retain copyright to their work and
The OA movement can be said to have started in the year 1971 with Project Gutenburg Founded by Michael Hart [7]. This project is now providing free public domain text files with more than 60,000 eBooks. However, the modern open access movement began in the 1990s with the wide availability and access to the World Wide Web and online publishing became the norm. Starting in the early years of the 21st century there was a significant momentum towards making access to published research free of charge to scholars and universities through the Open Access movement. Three pioneering initiatives laid the foundation for the ideas and principles of OA movement. These are The Budapest Open Access Initiative on Feb. 14, 2002, The Bethesda Statement on Open Access Publishing on Apr. 11, 2003, and The Berlin Declaration on Open Access on Oct. 22, 2002 [8]. The Budapest Open Access Initiative was worked out during the human rights proponents gathering for the Open Society Institute meeting in December 2001. During the meetings a number of participants suggested that a global support is needed to create open information access within the scientific community. A draft was created during that meeting, and formalized two months later, in February 2002 as the Budapest Initiative. In April 2003, the United States and the United Kingdom based biomedical community convened and drafted a set of publishing principles guiding scientific dissemination. These principles were finalized and published in June 2003 as the Bethesda Statement. In October 2003, the European scientific community called for support by European researchers to engage in Open Access, with the Berlin Declaration [9].
\nMany stakeholders contributed to building institutions and resources for shaping up the global OA movements. Some of the institutions emerged during the first two decades of the third millennium are namely, Public Library of Science (PLOS), BioMed Central (BMC) – publishers of peer-reviewed OA journals, the Scholarly Publishing and Academic Resources Coalition (SPARC), and Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA) [10]. In addition to the previously mentioned (BBB); the Budapest, Berlin and Bethesda OA declarations or statements got signed by the scholarly communities, particularly by the funding agencies, research councils, learned societies, institutions, universities, and scientists for the OA dissemination of public funded research.
\nThe latest strong support for the OA movement is represented by what is known as PLAN S where the s could stand for “science, or shock” but “speed” is the most relevant where it refers to speed with the transition to direct and open access [11]. Plan S is an initiative for Open Access publishing that was launched in September 2018. The plan is supported by cOAlition S, an international consortium of research funders. Plan S requires that, from 2021, scientific publications that result from research funded by public grants must be published in compliance with Open Access journals or platforms.
\nThere are three basic types of open access publishing. These are Green Open Access, Gold Open Access, and Hybrid Open Access [12].
\nGreen Open access publishing refers to the self-archiving of published or pre-publication works for free public use. Authors provide access to preprints or post-prints of their works with publisher permission in an institutional or disciplinary digital repository. Thus, Green open access refers to the practice of republishing a publication in an open access institutional or disciplinary repository. In this case the publication is first published in a traditional, closed-access journal. These materials are then made available to all via the internet, without restrictions or pay walls. In the “Green Route” of open access, institutions create repositories for their own research which is made open after an appropriate embargo period agreed upon with commercial publishers. As such Green Open Access generally refers to the post-print of an article [1]. In this context, there are three basic version types that can be self-archived in repositories: These are:
Pre-Prints – The author’s copy of article before it has been reviewed by the publisher, or pre-reviewed.
Post-Prints – The author’s copy of article after it has been reviewed and corrected, but before the publisher has formatted it for publication, or post-reviewed.
Publisher’s Version – The version that is formatted and appears in print or online.
Gold open access publishing refers to works published in an open access journal and accessed via the journal or publisher’s website. The Gold Route involves publishing in an open access journal, which then provides the dissemination and curation services in the same way as current proprietary publishers. This form of publishing is funded through government, society or institutional grants, and sometimes through charging authors a fee for deposit, known as an article processing charge (APC). However, the latter practice is implemented by a minority of open access journals and most journals do not charge any fees at all [13].
\nHybrid open access publishing is mostly associated with gold open access. It takes place in journals that offer authors the option of making their articles open access, for a fee. Hybrid journals are subscription-based journals that make individual articles openly available in return for a fee. The hybrid route has been suggested as a means for traditional publishers to make a transition to open access publishing without significantly decreasing revenue, by charging fees for open access articles equal to the average subscription revenue per article. In the Hybrid Open Access publishing type, sometimes called Paid Open Access, the fee is paid to the publisher or journal by the author, the author’s organization, or the research funder [14, 15].
\nThere are a number of other variations of these major types of open access publishing types. These include the Diamond Open access and the Platinum Open Access. The Diamond Open access journals provide scholarly publishing free of fees and access charges. They have direct or indirect subsidies from institutions like universities, research centres, government agencies etc. Whereas the Platinum model of open access publishing refers to the situation in which journals are published directly by the research or funding institutions themselves.
\nIn Gold and Hybrid OA models, publishers usually publish articles with Creative Commons (CC) licenses. Open Access does not imply there is no copyright attached to the open document; rather, in most cases the Creative Commons Attribution License (CCAL) model is used. Founded in 2001, the CCAL states that users are free to share, adapt, or use the work as long as they give attribution in the manner specified by the author or licensor [16]. The Attribution License is one of six codes under the Creative Commons License. Thus Open Access journals do not charge subscription or pay-per-view fees compared to traditional journals. The authors, their institutions, or the research funders pay the “open access” fee to make it free to readers; authors retain copyright for the article and most permission barriers are removed [17, 18].
\nThere is a controversial type of open access called the Bronze Open Access. In the Bronze model no open access Fee is paid but the publisher chooses to make a publication freely available to read. Many Open Access advocates and research funders would not regard Bronze as truly Open Access because the publisher can stop the publications being freely available at any time, whereas genuinely Open Access publications have a specific licence that means the publication is irrevocably open access and the terms of use and reuse are clearly stated [19].
\nAlthough bronze OA lacks a license, it is temporarily free to read only on the publisher’s website, and Publishers can deny access to the majority of open-access articles at their discretion [20].
\nThese two terms are interlinked to the basic three types of open access. But in contrast to Gold, Green and Hybrid OA, they do not describe forms of publication, but define the attributes of an article published in OA. Therefore an article might be described jointly as Gratis Open Access, or Gratis Gold or Green Open Access, etc. [21]. Gratis Open Access means free of charge Open Access. This means that price barriers alone are removed from access to the publication. It allows no uses beyond what is considered legitimate under copyright and fair use. Libre Open Access, on the other hand, means free of charge and free of at least some permission barriers. This means that the article is free for some kinds of further use and reuse, and presupposes some kind of open licence that allows types of uses that are not permitted by default [22].\n
\nOpen access publishing has a plethora of advantages for authors, institutions and readers across all sections of society. These advantages can be summarised as follows [8, 23]:
Increased accessibility of research work by users and other researchers. This leads to the enhancement and acceleration of the research cycle when results are available on an Open Access basis, where work is published, read, cited and then built upon by other researchers.
Increased visibility for authors and institutions, resulting in a higher impact of the research. There are no financial or copyright barriers so the readership continues to increase, enhancing the visibility and impact of the author’s Work. There is a greater chance of research results being seen when scientific journals are free to read and use, thus influencing the thinking of others. This state of affairs results in the increase of the academic’s impact factor.
Immediacy and Shorter publication times compared to non-open access publishing. Open access publishing takes shorter period of time from the date of submission of an article to a journal to its publication date.
Increased citations. A number of studies revealed that open access publishing leads to a greater number of citations. There is accumulating evidence showing that open access research articles are cited more often than those closed access articles. The studies reveal that across most subject areas there is at least a twofold increase in citation rate and that in some subject areas it is even higher [24].
Removing of price barriers. Open access removes price barriers and that openly accessible works are often full-text indexed, helping potential readers easily locate a work using a search engine, and access the work without being turned away by pay walls.
Contribution to author royalties. Some authors found that widespread dissemination of their openly accessible works stimulates demand for print copies of their works, contributing to royalties for these authors [23].
Those seeking wider visibility of their research work, higher impact for their research, less publication cost, and a shorter period of time from the date of submission to the publication date, should opt for publication in an OA journal [25].
\nThe most prominent and prevalent disadvantage of OA publishing is the emergence of predatory publishers and predatory journals. A predatory journal will not maintain the academic standards that are expected of a reputable scientific journal. The objective of the predatory journal is to make money for the owners without concern for the quality of the research published. A predatory journal will pretend to follow the essential editorial processes required for authentic academic publishing, but will not so do. Thus the quality of the research published in a predatory journal is likely to be low. Predatory journals can be identified by a number of characteristics, the most important of which may be the fact that they tend to market themselves through intensive e-mailing to invite selective victims who might otherwise have difficulty in having their research published in reputable journals. This lead to the development of what has become known as the predatory journal, which for a fee paid by the author delivers an un-scrutinised and unedited piece of writing purporting to be a high quality report on a piece of rigorously conducted scientific research. These journals are then presented to the public as Open Access journals [8, 26, 27].
\nAnother claimed disadvantage of Open Access publishing is that some OA journals do not have high impact factors and this is considered detrimental to a researcher, though this is questionable as many OA journals are new and have not yet received their first impact factor (IF). However, high-IF OA journals are available in a variety of fields [25].
\nThere are a number of myths and misconceptions surrounding open access publishing mode. Some of the most common myths include the following:
Myth 1: “open access journals are not peer reviewed”.
Myth 2: “all open journals charge publication fees”.
Myth 3: “authors must choose between prestigious publication and Open Access publication”.
Myth 4: “post-print archiving violates copyright”.
Myth 5: “OA invites plagiarism.”
Myth 6: “OA helps readers but not authors.”
Myth 7: “All OA is gratis OA.”
Below is a discussion of these myth and misconceptions about open access publishing with points that help dispel them.
\nStudies show that the majority of OA journals are peer-reviewed with the same or higher standards as traditional scholarly journals. However, it takes time for a new OA journal to build a high impact factor [18, 28]. Indexing of a journal in a major citation database is also considered a reflection of a journal’s quality. Indexing newly established OA journals in major citation databases is complex and time-consuming, furthering existing misconceptions of quality [8]. This myth entails that Open access journals are intrinsically low in quality. But as early as 2004, it was found that in every field of the sciences there was at least one open access title that ranked at or near the top of its field in citation impact. It’s quite normal that open access journals can be of high quality and first-rate: the quality of a scholarly journal depends on its authors, editors, and referees, not its business model or access policy [29, 30].
\nThere are a number of OA journal business models and a number of OA book business models available. The models include the following options and variations:
\nAuthor-Pays model, author pays publishing fee.
\nResearch funder subsidies, funding organisations pay author fees.
\nInstitutional membership, author fees are paid as a lump sum.
\nPublishing support funds, institutions reserve funds for author fees.
\nHybrid business model, journals mix subscription based and author pays content.
\nCommunity-fee model, societies fund journals by both subscriptions and membership fees.
\nInstitutional subsidies, institutions support their own university presses.
Charging publication fees in the form of author fees or article processing charges is the best-known business model for open access journals, but it is not the most common. Most peer-reviewed open access journals nowadays charge no fees at all. The
OA is compatible with prestige for two reasons: First, a growing number of OA journals have already earned high levels of prestige, and others are earning it. The second reason is that most pay wall (Toll Access) journals allow OA archiving. When authors retain the right to self-archive, all journals willing to publish their work also allow self-archiving. The current misunderstanding has some negative effects. When scholars know about OA and don’t choose it, they are generally not opposed to it; many support it strongly. They are simply giving higher priority to prestige. But because OA is compatible with prestige, authors rarely have to choose. But they have to choose only when a prestigious journal doesn’t already permit post print archiving and when it rejects the authors’ individualized request for permission. Authors rarely have to choose between them, but to have both at once they will often have to choose to self-archive [32].
\nMost publishers allow their authors to self-archive their articles in institutional repositories or on their own personal websites. However, conditions and restrictions are frequently imposed. For example, authors are often obliged to observe an embargo period between the publication date and the date on which the document is made openly accessible online. The SHERPA/Romeo Listings provide information on the self-archiving policies of individual publishers. They used to classify publishers in different colours depending on their archiving policies; green publishers let authors archive preprint and post print or publisher’s version/PDF, blue publishers let authors archive post print or publisher’s version/PDF, yellow publishers let authors archive preprint, and white publishers do not formally support archiving. But they recently stated that they have now retired the Romeo colours, as open access policies have become more complicated and the colours no longer gave a clear overview [33]. Many of those authors, whose publishers do not allow self-archiving, supplement their standard publishing agreements with contract addenda which enable them to provide open access to their work in parallel with publication [34].
\nIn the early days of the OA movement some authors worried that OA would increase the incentive to plagiarize their work. On the contrary, OA might make plagiarism easier to commit, for people trolling for text to cut and paste. But for the same reason, OA makes plagiarism more risky to commit. Plagiarism from OA sources is the easiest kind to detect. Some of the misunderstanding here may arise from confusing plagiarism and copyright infringement. Plagiarism and infringement are two separate things although they are overlapping offenses. “Someone can commit plagiarism without infringing copyright (by copying a fair-use excerpt and claiming it as one’s own) and infringe copyright without committing plagiarism (by copying a larger excerpt but with attribution). One can also commit both together (by copying a large excerpt and claiming it as one’s own)” [32].
\nOA articles are accessible to everyone with an internet connection, a vastly larger audience than any scholarly journal can claim. Not all internet users will care to read your research, of course. But making your work universally accessible to the connected guarantees that it will be accessible to the subset which does care. If there’s an exception for the digital divide, there’s a larger exception for the non-digital or print divide. Moreover, there’s abundant evidence that OA articles are cited more often than non-OA articles, even more than non-OA articles from the same issues of the same journals [35, 36]. Many different studies have tackled this phenomenon, taking on different bodies of literature, using different methods, controlling different variables. They disagree on whether the OA impact advantage is large or small, and whether OA causes the increase in citations or is merely correlated with it. But they agree that OA articles are cited more often than non-OA articles. Authors
Gratis OA removes price barriers but not permission barriers. It makes content free of charge but not free of copyright or licensing restrictions. It gives users no more reuse rights than they already have through fair use or the local equivalent. Libre OA removes price barriers and at least some permission barriers. It loosens copyright and licensing restrictions and permits at least some uses beyond fair use [38]. There is some excuse for the opposite view, that all OA is libre OA. The Budapest, Bethesda, and Berlin definitions of OA all describe forms of libre OA. The current misunderstanding accepts that gratis OA is a kind of OA, but goes one step too far and assumes that gratis OA is the only kind of OA. The misunderstanding is that there is no libre OA, that libre OA adds nothing to gratis OA, or that what libre OA adds isn’t necessary or desirable. In general, OA repositories have good reasons to stick to gratis OA but OA journals don’t. Repositories can’t generate the needed permissions on their own, but journals can [37].
\nA large-scale study that investigates the prevalence and impact of OA publishing found that almost half of the scholarly papers that people attempt to access online are now freely and legally available [39]. The study tracked 100,000 online requests for journal papers in 2017. It examined reader data from a web-browser extension called Unpaywall which finds free-to-read versions of pay-walled papers in the Internet. The study authors analysed server logs of 100,000 papers that Unpaywall users tried to access during one week, and found that 47% of accessed studies were legally available to read for free somewhere on the web, and that around half the content being accessed was published in the previous two years. Their study also revealed that more than 20% of scholarly articles searched for through Unpaywall were available directly from journals, with clear licences describing whether the papers were free not just to read, but also to download or redistribute. Another 9% of the papers were still published behind a pay-wall, but authors later uploaded their paper to an online repository. The most intriguing category of papers was the 15% that were posted on a publisher’s site as free to read, but without any explicit open licence. The authors say this type of open-access — which they call ‘bronze’, in contrast to the widely used ‘gold’ and ‘green’ definitions — has been scarcely discussed. Of papers published in the most recent year examined −2015- 45% were freely available, which suggests that newer articles are more likely to be open. The authors of the study concluded that the percentage of literature that is OA continues to grow steadily, and that “In the next few decades, we’re going to be seeing nearly all the literature available freely.” [39].
\nPlan S is the latest initiative to promote and support open access publishing. Below is an excerpt from the Coalition website [40] which is the body responsible for the Plan S, revealing the target of this open access plan:
\n\nWith effect from 2021, all scholarly publications on the results from research funded by public or private grants provided by national, regional and international research councils and funding bodies, must be published in Open Access Journals, on Open Access Platforms, or made immediately available through Open Access Repositories without embargo [41].
\nThis chapter presented an overview of the basic principles and common practices of open access publishing as an emerging and expanding mode of scholarly publishing. The chapter started with an introduction to the concept of open access publishing with a brief background of the development of the open access movement. The different types of open access publishing are then highlighted and defined. These types include Gold Open Access, Green Open Access, and Hybrid Open Access, in addition to other variations of these basic types namely, the Diamond Open Access and the Platinum Open Access. The concepts of Gratis vs. Libre Open Access are also defined and explained. The chapter then discussed the advantages and disadvantages of open access focusing on the various advantages of this mode of scholarly publishing to authors and readers as well. The chapter then proceeded to discuss and refute the most common myths and misconceptions about open access publishing. The chapter is concluded with some views on the prevalence and future of open access publishing.
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