\r\n\tRadiation monitoring deals with the sampling and measurement of different products found in different radiation pathways from the environment ending with consumption in humans. Gamma-spectroscopy is the main tool for measurement of these radiations.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe aim of this book is to investigate the radionuclide concentrations in the most consumable food products, air, water and soil. Particularly, it is essential to investigate the radiations level in the surroundings of a nuclear facility.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"f28404d284d64cf01d21820a3fc44c64",bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Muhammad Zubair",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11144.jpg",keywords:"Radioactivity Investigation, Aerosols, Water, Food Products, Health Effects, Tritium, Scintillation Counter, Alpha-Beta Radiation Monitoring, Gamma Spectroscopy, Radioactive Sampling, Environmental Effects, Activity Concentration",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 29th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 27th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 26th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 16th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 15th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"7 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Associate Professor at the University of Sharjah, the United Arab Emirates whose interests include nuclear reactor safety, accident analysis, reliability, risk analysis, digital instrumentation and control, and radiation detection and measurements.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"320007",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Zubair",slug:"muhammad-zubair",fullName:"Muhammad Zubair",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/320007/images/system/320007.png",biography:"Dr. Muhammad Zubair is an Associate Professor at the Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering, University of Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. Prior to this role, Dr. Zubair worked as an assistant professor and graduate program coordinator at the University of Engineering and Technology Taxila, Pakistan.\nDr. Zubair’s interests include nuclear reactor safety, accident analysis, reliability and risk analysis, digital instrumentation and control, and radiation detection and measurements. He has a strong research background supported by publications in international journals, conferences, and book chapters. He is engaged in different research projects including one coordinated by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). 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From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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1. Introduction
Metalized ceramics by liquid metal have a crucial uses in several modern technological applications such as solar cell [1, 2, 3, 4] electrical devices [5, 6, 7] and Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS) [8, 9, 10]. Recently, these systems are used as the conductive wiring of microelectronic circuits; there has been considerable interest in the characterization of the structure and properties of liquid metal/ceramic interface [11].
However, the coating of ceramic surfaces can affect most of the properties of the interface. Therefore, the investigation of interfacial phenomena between metals and ceramic substrates is of great importance not only in technological applications but also in fundamental understanding of physical behavior of the adhesion between two different materials as far as their electrical structures and physiochemical properties are concerned. In fact, at the interface of a metal/ceramic system, adhesion occurs when the atoms or molecules of the two contacting surfaces approach each other so closely that attractive forces between approaching atoms (or molecules) bond them together. The strength of the bond depends on the size of the atoms, the distance between them, and the presence or absence of contaminant matter on the surface [1]. Hence, the strength or wea1kness of bonds is the key factor to determine the interface stability: good adhesion, welded adhesion, perfect bonding, weak bonding smooth interface, etc. The metal/ceramic contact is characterized by the adhesion energy, Wad, which is the work per unit area of the interface needed to separate reversibly a metal/ceramic interface [2]. This physicochemical parameter is given by Young-Dupré equation relating surface tension of molten metal above melting temperature, γLV, and measured equilibrium contact angle θ formed between deposited liquid metal and its ceramic substrate [12]:
Wad=γLV1+cosθE1
Adhesion energy represent in generally the sum of all interfacial interactions between two surfaces [13]:
Wad=Wnon−equil+WequilE2
Wnon-equil and Wequil represents non-equilibrium and equilibrium contributions respectively of interfacial interactions. The first term does not exist in the absence of chemical reactions, and the second term corresponds to non-reactive metals/ceramic systems [13], this later expressed by:
Wequil=WVDW+Wchem−equilE3
WVDW is van der Waals interaction and Wchem-equil is chemical equilibrium interactions accompanied by formation of these chemical bonds between two contact phases. It is imported to note that these interfacial bonds rested without rupture contrary in non-equilibrium systems [13].Van der Waals energy in metal/ceramic systems estimate the can be numerically estimated by considering the dispersion interaction between a pair of atoms:
WVDW=n3αMαC2R6IMICIM+ICE4
αM and αC are the polarizability volume of metal and ceramic; IM and IC the first ionization potential of metal atom and ceramic atom respectively. R is the distance between centers of the interacting atom.
At the interface zone, the surface acoustic wave (SAW) propagation which depends on elastic properties of solid substrates is greatly affected: the response would be different depending on the weakness or strength of bonds due to impedance mismatching [14]. Hence, in this context, we investigate the dependences of adhesion energy on acoustic parameters, in particular SAW velocities, for many metal/ceramic systems.
The objective of the electro-acoustic model [15] is the investigation of interfacial adhesion in liquid metal/ceramic systems subjected to non-reactive wetting in order to eliminate the non-equilibrium contribution Wnon-equil of adhesion work during a chemical reaction at the interface. A wide range of non-reactive liquid metals were used in this proposed model.
2. Choice of liquid metals
At the room temperature, most metals have a crystalline phase; the most widely used are iron, aluminum and copper. They are often present in oxide form (sodium oxide, magnesium oxide…), some metals are present in the non-oxidized state (precious metals: platinum, gold) or in the form of alloys. Metal alloys are in general the combination of two or more metals as in the case of brasses (alloys of copper and zinc); but they can also contain non-metallic elements (i.e. iron-carbon alloy). Metals and their alloys are usually very good conductors of heat and electricity; they are most often hard, rigid and plastically deformable. It should be noted that a large number of metals have a very high melting point, since they have relatively weak mechanical properties and are most often characterized by a wettability, a low thermal and electrical conductivity (as in the case of copper and gold). Therefore, the use of metals in metallized ceramic structures requires a fusion process in order to liquefy or melt these metals. For this, the role of metallization is to make the ceramic wettable by the liquid metal.
Several liquid metals parameters used in this investigation are listed in Table 1; sound velocities at melting temperatures are tabulated by Blairs [16], surface tension values are proposed by Keene [17], Liquid densities are taken by Crawley [18] and by Blairs [16]. Whiles the elastic constants, solid densities and Rayleigh velocity are obtained from Briggs [19].
Metal
c (m/s)
γLV (mJ/m2)
Plm (Kg/m3)
Tf (K)
E (GPa)
ρsm (Kg/m3)
VRM (m/s)
Na
2526
203
951
371
10
968
1875
Mg
4065
577
1589
922
45
1738
2978
Al
4561
1075
2390
933
70
2700
3130
Si
6920
859
2524
1685
169
2330
4863
Ca
2978
362
1378
1112
20
1550
2203
Fe
4200
1909
7042
1809
211
7874
3003
Co
4031
1928
7740
1768
209
8900
2905
Ni
4047
1834
7889
1726
207
8908
2796
In
2337
561
7015
430
11
7310
766
Cu
3440
1374
8089
1357
130
8920
2159
Zn
2850
817
6552
693
108
7140
2148
Ga
2873
724
5900
303
10
5910
749
Ge
2693
631
5487
1210
89,6
5323
2057
Ag
2790
955
9329
1234
83
10490
1658
Cd
2256
637
7997
594
51
8650
1446
Sn
2464
586
6973
505
50
7310
1400
Sb
1900
382
6077
904
55
6697
1540
Ba
1331
273
3343
1002
13
3510
1020
La
2030
728
5940
1193
37
6146
1443
Ce
1694
750
6550
1071
34
6689
1318
Pr
1926
716
6500
1204
37
6640
1380
Yb
1274
320
6720
1097
24
6570
1013
Ta
3303
2083
14353
3287
186
16650
2082
Pt
3053
1746
18909
2042
168
21090
1924
Au
2568
1162
17346
1336
78
19300
1536
Sc
4272
939
2680
1812
74
2985
3039
Ti
4309
1475
4141
1943
116
4507
3061
V
4255
1856
5340
2175
128
6110
2831
Y
3258
872
4180
1799
64
4472
2263
Zr
3648
1463
5650
2125
68
6511
2406
Nb
3385
1757
7830
2740
105
8570
2406
Pb
1821
471
10587
601
16
1146
2118
Pd
2657
1482
10495
1825
117
12023
742
Hf
2559
1517
11550
2500
78
13310
1789
Nd
2212
685
6890
1289
41
6800
1503
Sm
1670
431
7420
1345
50
7353
1411
Eu
1568
264
5130
1090
18
5244
1301
Gd
2041
664
7790
1585
55
7901
1083
Tb
2014
669
8050
1630
56
8219
1537
Dy
1941
648
8370
1682
61
8551
1525
Ho
1919
650
8580
1743
65
8795
1561
Er
1867
637
8860
1795
70
9066
1592
Lu
2176
940
9750
1936
69
9841
1426
Table 1.
Experimental sound velocities, c, surface tensions, σm, densities, ρlm of different liquid metals at the melting temperature, elastic moduli, E, solid density, ρsm, and calculated Rayleigh velocities, VR of these metals at solid state.
3. Relationship between the properties of metals in solid and liquid states
Analytical study has been proposed to express the relation between experimental sound velocities of liquid metals at the melting temperature, c, and determinate acoustic velocities, VR, of these metals at solid state by SAM technique. The variation of VR-values as function of c was made; it shows a linear increase of VR with c increasing. Simple fitting was made and resulted in a well-defined linear correlation between the quantities, as can be seen in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Correlation between experimental sound velocities of liquid metals and Rayleigh velocities of these metals in solid state [20].
Relationship between these parameters can be quantified by the following equation:
VR=0.674cE5
One can see also a clear tendency between the liquid metals densities, ρlm, with that of these metals at solid state, ρsm, as can be seen in Figure 2.
Figure 2.
Correlation between liquid and solid densities of metals [20].
The relationship that expresses this tendency can take the following form:
ρsm=1.088ρlmE6
A close comparative between one of very important properties of liquid metal, which is the surface tension, σm, and Young’s moduli, E, values shows a linier dependence between these parameters, as can be seen in Figure 3.
Figure 3.
Correlation between Young’s moduli and surface tension of liquid metals [20].
To quantify the relationship between elastic moduli and surface tension, a simple plot was made; a linear correlation is defined, that it can be written as:
E=0.083σmE7
The importance of the Eqs. (5)-(7) lies in the prediction of acoustic parameters from liquid to solid states of metals and vice versa.
4. Determination of adhesion energy in liquid metal/ceramic systems
Very recently, an electro-acoustical model [15] has been proposed to estimate and interpreted the work of adhesion of non-reactive liquid metal/ceramic substrates systems in terms of the Rayleigh velocity of acoustic wave propagation in surface of all types of corresponding ceramic substrates, VRC.
In this model, several metals are considered (Au, Cu, Sn, Ga and Ag) on a great number of ceramic substrates (AlN, Al2O3, BN, CoO, Er2O3, Ho2O3, Lu2O3, MgO, NiO, SiC, SiO2, TiC, TiO, TiO2, Ti2O3, Y2O3, Yb2O3, ZnO and Zr2O3). The characteristics of all ceramic materials: energy gap, Eg [21] density, ρC, Young’s modulus, EC, and Rayleigh velocities [19] are listed in Table 2.
Ceramics Substrate
Eg (eV)
ρC (kg/m3)
EC (GPa)
VRC (m/s)
AlN
5.6
3260
318
5616
Al2O3
7.1
3980
330
5650
BN
8.1
3487
34
1834
CoO
0.5
9423
281
2871
Er2O3
3.2
8651
179
2633
Ho2O3
3.9
8414
175
2639
Lu2O3
4.0
9423
204
2691
MgO
7.3
3580
310
5297
NiO
2.5
6670
420
6205
SiC
3.3
3210
393
6714
SiO2
7.9
2600
75
3678
TiC
0.3
4940
400
5370
TiO
0.0
4950
387
3960
TiO2
3.1
4230
315
4917
Ti2O3
0.1
4468
118
4411
Y2O3
5.5
5030
176
3398
Yb2O3
1.4
9293
229
2677
ZnO
3.4
5606
125
2730
ZrO2
8.0
5600
244
3781
Table 2.
Characteristics of investigated ceramic materials: energy gap, Eg, density, ρC and Young’s modulus, EC, and determined Rayleigh velocities, VRC.
The variations of work of adhesion on Rayleigh velocity for different ceramic substrate, VRC, in contacting with different non-reactive metals (Au, Cu, Sn, Ga and Ag) are investigated. In this study, some published data on wok of adhesion for different metals/ceramics systems are considered [12, 13, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34].
In the first time liquid gold/ceramic combinations are taken the obtained results are illustrated in Figure 4.
Figure 4.
Work of adhesion as function of calculated Rayleigh velocities of different ceramic substrates in contacting with gold [15].
In order to generalize the above observations obtained with liquid Gold/ceramic systems and to put into evidence the results reproducibility, several other nonreactive metals deposed in different ceramic substrates are considered, i.e., (Cu, Sn, Ga and Ag):
The obtained results are illustrated in Figure 5 in terms of work of adhesion as a function of ceramic Rayleigh velocities in contacting with several non-reactive metals. All the curves show the same behavior: the work of adhesion increases linearly with increasing VRC. However, two sets of linear dependences are distinguished that are regrouped according to the band gap energy of the ceramic substrate, as discussed below.
Figure 5.
Work of adhesion as function of calculated Rayleigh velocities of different ceramic substrates in contacting with several metals [15].
The dependence of Wad on VRC (Au) is quantified via curve fitting, (lines in Figures 4 and 5). We distinguish two parallel dependences for gold/ceramic substrate systems: for higher energy values (upper curve) the linear variation is found to be of the form:
WadAu=0.07VRC+553E8
Whereas, for small energy values (lower curve), the linear dependence is found to be of the form:
WadAu=0.07VRC+76E9
Moreover, it should be noted that the same behavior of two parallel lines is obtained for all metal/ceramic systems. Therefore, all curves have a same slop not only for small gap materials but also for large gap ceramics; the general expression takes the form:
WadMe=0.07VRC+CE10
WadMe=0.07VRC+ĆE11
where the subscript, (Me), represents any given investigated nonreactive liquid metal (Ag, Au, Cu, Ga and Sn), C and Ć are characteristic constants for each metal/ceramic combination.
The exact corresponding values of characteristic constants C (for small gap ceramic materials) and Ć (for large gap ceramic materials) of several liquid metal/ceramic systems are giving in the Table 3.
Metals
C (mJ/m2)
Ć (mJ/m2)
Ag
991
14
Au
533
76
Cu
1309
228
Ga
863
78
Sn
602
37
Table 3.
C and Ć values of different liquid metal/ceramic system.
The similar dependence (with the same slope equal to 0.07VRC) is indicative of the existence of the same mechanism responsible for this behavior. However the existence of two parallel dependences for every system is due to the energy band structure of the ceramic materials in particular the energy gap (Table 1). A close analysis of Figure 5 and the Eg column clearly shows that the upper set of curves corresponds to solid ceramic materials with small energy gaps (Eg ≤ 3 eV), whereas the lower ensemble of curves represents ceramic materials with large energy gaps (Eg > 3 eV).
In fact, solid materials with small band gaps behave as conductors (Eg → 0) or semiconductors (Eg ≤ 3 eV). In this case, it was reported [35] that the high adhesion energy values of same metal/ceramic systems are associated with high electron density of metals and low band gap energy of solids ceramics. The interfacial adhesion between a metal and a ceramic crystal is assured by the electron transfer [12], it is interesting to define an interfacial propriety represents the minimum energy needed for appearance of a limit number of interfacial bonds responsible for generating of the adhesion between the metal and the ceramic, this energy is caused by Van der Waals interaction, WVDW. The intensity of the electron transfer at small band gap solid ceramic is increased because of its wealth by the free charges inside and the chemical equilibrium contribution Wchem-equil taking place.
For large band gaps, there will be practically a small number of free charges inside in the ceramic crystal. As a result, the chemical equilibrium contribution Wchem-equil, to the adhesion energy is negligible. Consequently, the adhesion energy is approximately resulted by from the Van der Waals interaction [12].
The Van der Waals contribution of adhesion energy rested constant and proportional with Rayleigh velocity of ceramic materials whether it is the band gap energy, for the first time it is determined exactly as follows:
WVDW=0.07VRCE12
The determinate WVDW energy values for different metal/ceramic systems depend directly on the choice of various parameters appearing in Eq. (3). For example, Mc Donald and Eberhart [36] calculated WVDW values equal to 500 ± 150 mJ/m2 for different metal/alumina systems, that in our model and for the same system we have found WVDW values equal to 396 mJ/m2. While Naidich [13] found WVDW values of 350 150 mJ/m2 for metal/oxide ceramic systems, this confirms the compatibility between our proposed model and other model of WVDW estimation.
For small gap ceramic materials, the characteristic constant C of Eq. (10) represents Wchem-equil contribution, this energy is relatively important compared to WVDW energy, it represents another interfacial property responsible for putting the stability and the perfection to the interface between metal and ceramic. The good convergence in Wchem-equil values for a given metal/small gap ceramics could be explained by the fact that for (Eg < 3 eV), here will be a big density of inside in the ceramic crystal and consequently height electron transfer.
In this work, an analytical approach [20] is adopted to express the relation between experimental sound velocities of liquid metals, c, at the melting temperature and determinate Rayleigh velocity of these metals at solid state, VRM, by SAM program. Hence, VRM is expressed in terms of c, as we recently reported [20].
VRM=0.674cE13
The determinate chemical equilibrium energy, Wchem-equil of metal/small band gap ceramic system by Eq. (10) are summarized in Table 4.
Metals
Wchem-equil (mJ/m2)
Z
Ag
991
2
Al
1269
3
Au
553
3
Cu
1309
2
Co
1341
3
Fe
1276
3
In
723
3
Ni
1193
3
Ga
863
3
Sn
602
4
Table 4.
Determinate chemical equilibrium energy, Wchem-equil of metal/small band gap ceramic system and the number of coordination’s of each atom of metal, z.
The variations of chemical equilibrium energy on normalized Rayleigh velocity, (VRM/z) for different bulk metals in contacting with several small band gap ceramic materials are investigated, where z is number of coordination’s of each metal atom. In this investigation, we consider Eq. (10) to determine Wchem-equil and some published wok on adhesion energy for different metals/ceramics systems [12, 13, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34]. The obtained results are presented below.
The dependence of Wchem-equil on (VRM/z) is quantified via curve fitting, (line in Figure 6). We distinguish dependence for liquid metal/small band gap ceramic substrate systems: the linear variation is found to be of the form:
Figure 6.
Chemical equilibrium energy of metal/small band gap ceramic system as function of normalized Rayleigh velocities of different bulk metals [15].
Wchem−equil=1.3/zVRME14
So, the chemical equilibrium contribution of adhesion energy in metal/ceramic system is related directly to the Rayleigh velocity of metals.
For large gap ceramic materials, the discrepancy in Ć values for a given metal/large gap ceramics could be explained by the fact that for (Eg > 3 eV), here will be a smaller density of inside in the ceramic crystal (practically no free charges inside) and consequently the electron transfer at metal/ceramic interfaces cannot be important [2]. As a result, the characteristic constant Ć values are negligible compared to WVDW energy and/or especially to Wchem-equil energy.
Therefore, the general expression of adhesion energy takes the form:
a. For small gap ceramic materials:
WadMe=0.07VRC+1.3/zVRME15
b. For large gap ceramic materials:
WadMe=0.07VRC+WneglE16
The importance of the deuced relation lies in its applicability to all investigated metal/ceramic systems. It could be extended, through familiar relations, to other acoustic parameters. Similar results for longitudinal and transverse velocities were obtained. Moreover, preliminary results for elastic constants (Young’s modulus and shear modulus) are very satisfying.
5. Conclusions
In this work, an interfacial phenomenon between liquid metals and ceramic substrates has been investigated. Moreover, same liquid metal characteristics (sound velocity propagation in liquid metal, liquid density and surface tension) were predicted by the metal characteristics in solid state (Rayleigh velocity, solid density and Young’s modulus). Adhesion energy terms in metals/ceramic systems were determined by using an electro-acoustic model. It was shown that the adhesion energy increases linearly with Rayleigh velocity of ceramic substrates for all types of ceramics. Van der Waals term of adhesion energy was deduced only depends on Rayleigh velocities of ceramic. On the other hand, the chemical equilibrium term was deduced strongly depends on the energy gap of the ceramics materials: it was higher for small band gap ceramic materials and depends on Rayleigh velocities of metals, for the opposite case it was deduced negligible. These universal relations that could be extended to other acoustic parameters are applicable to all metal/ceramic combinations.
\n',keywords:"Liquid metal, Ceramics, Adhesion, Interfaces, Gap energy, Acoustic parameters",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/76457.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/76457.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76457",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76457",totalDownloads:111,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:41,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 30th 2020",dateReviewed:"March 25th 2021",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"September 22nd 2021",dateFinished:"April 26th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"In this chapter, we study an interfacial phenomenon between liquid metals and ceramic substrates. Therefore, investigation of these phenomena is of great importance not only in technological applications but also in fundamental understanding of physical behavior of the adhesion between two different materials as far as their electrical structures and physiochemical properties are concerned. Moreover, adhesion energy is interpreted thermodynamically by the interfacial interactions and the nature of bonding between liquid metal and ceramic material. The adhesion energy in metal/ceramic systems is determined by using an electro-acoustical model based on the propagation of the acoustic wave in the interface and strongly depends on the electric properties of combination.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/76457",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/76457",book:{id:"10506",slug:"liquid-metals"},signatures:"Hadef Zakaria and Kamli Kenza",authors:[{id:"245268",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenza",middleName:null,surname:"Kamli",fullName:"Kenza Kamli",slug:"kenza-kamli",email:"kenza_kamli@yahoo.fr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"247737",title:"Dr.",name:"Zakaria",middleName:null,surname:"Hadef",fullName:"Zakaria Hadef",slug:"zakaria-hadef",email:"zaki_hd2013@yahoo.fr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Choice of liquid metals",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Relationship between the properties of metals in solid and liquid states",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Determination of adhesion energy in liquid metal/ceramic systems",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Gordon I, Van Gestel D, Van Nieuwenhuysen K, Carnel L, Poortmans J. Thin-film polycrystalline silicon solar cells on ceramic substrates by aluminium-induced crystallization, Thin Solid Films, 2005;487: 113-117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsf.2005.01.047'},{id:"B2",body:'Tabrizia AA, Pahlavan A. Efficiency, improvement of a silicon-based thin-film solar cell using plasmonic silver nanoparticles and an antireflective layer, Optics Communications, 2020;454: 124437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optcom.2019.124437'},{id:"B3",body:'Yan D, Phang SP, Wan YM, Samundsett C, Macdonald D, Cuevas A. 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Department of Physics, Faculty of Sciences, University 20 Août 1955-Skikda, Skikda, Algeria
Department of Physics, Faculty of Sciences, University 20 Août 1955-Skikda, Skikda, Algeria
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1. Introduction
Natural products are lead compounds, which are frequently produced by plants and microbes as their secondary metabolites, and securing large quantities of such compounds for industrial and clinical applications has been a persisting problem [1]. Natural products (chemical compounds or substances) are isolated from living organisms [2]. Biogenesis belief that complex living things come only from other living things and also the production of new living organisms or organelles using reproduction. Chemistry of natural product is produced by the pathway of primary or secondary metabolism [3]. Metabolism is used to describe all chemical reactions which include maintaining the living state of cells of an organism [4]. Metabolism can be in form of catabolism or anabolism. Metabolites are a product of metabolism and restricted to small molecules [5].
Plants produce natural products with highly diverse structures; these products are called “secondary metabolites” in contrast to the “primary metabolites”, which are essential for plant reproduction, and growth. The leaf, stem, root, or bark of the plant has plant secondary metabolites that have been produced, for example Alkaloids, Tannins, Flavonoids, and Phenolic compounds [6]. Most food, spices and herbs are indigenous plants has these secondary metabolites [7]. Plant secondary metabolites are exclusively produced by more than 30,000 different plants. They serve as defense compounds against pathogens and herbivores, as flower pigments that attract pollinators. Natural products have a strong impact on human culture and are used throughout human history as pigments, condiments, and pharmaceuticals [8].
This chapter therefore provides an overview of the biosynthesis of natural products, their multiple biological functions and multi-faceted cultural history.
2. Classification of plants secondary metabolite
Plants secondary metabolites can be classfied into three groups namely
Terpenoids constitutes the largest class of secondary products; they comprise of more than 40,000 different structures and are the largest natural products in plants [9, 10]. Terpenes consists of five-carbon isoprene units, and classified into hemiterpenes (C5), monoterpenes (C10), sesquiterpenes (C15), diterpenes (C20), triterpenes (C30), tetraterpenes (C40), and polyterpenes [11, 12]. Terpenoids originate from two different biosynthetic routes: plastid-located deoxyxylulose phosphate (DXP) pathway (also called methylerythritol phosphate or MEP pathway) and the cytosolic mevalonic acid (MVA) pathway (Figure 1) [13, 14, 15].
Figure 1.
Schematic overview of terpene biosynthesis in plants.
2.1.1 Hemiterpenes
This is a volatile compound synthesized from DMAPP, isoprene is the most abundant true hemiterpene from plants (Figure 2). The species that synthesize isoprene are found among ferns, mosses, angiosperms, and gymnosperms. The emission and production of isoprene are distributed very widely in the plant kingdom. Isoprene is emitted into the atmosphere and protects leaves to survive short periods of high temperature. Moreover, it increases the plant’s tolerance towards ozone and reactive oxygen species [16]. Hemiterpenes may also act as signaling molecules. The highly volatile hemiterpene methacrolein are emitted in the leaves of sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) (Figure 2) in addition to other volatile compounds like hexenal, monoterpenes, and methyl jasmonate when the plant is damaged, this is perceived by plants and enables them to react faster to a possible attack. A plant that is prepared in this manner is less likely to be damaged by herbivores [17]. The C-5 units derived from DMAPP are found in natural products of mixed biosynthetic origin, e.g., hop bitter acids, prenylated flavonoids, and hyperforin.
Figure 2.
Hemiterpenes.
2.1.2 Monoterpenes
Monoterpenes originate from one molecule DMAPP and one molecule IPP that are joined in most cases head-to-tail, yielding all- trans geranyl diphosphate (GPP) (Figure 3). Several plant families, e.g., the Lamiaceae and Asteraceae, have glandular trichomes with secretory cells that produce terpenes and secrete them into a shared subcuticular storage cavity [18]. Conifers accumulate a complex mixture of mono-, sesqui-, and diterpenes, oleoresin, in resin blisters or ducts, which are covered by a layer of epithelial cells that secrete and synthesize the terpenes into the lumen [19]. As in the case of the conifers, many other plants accumulate monoterpenes in mixtures containing the larger sesqui- and diterpenes, rather than monoterpenes alone. The physiological function of monoterpenes is defense, the attraction of pollinators, and plant–plant communication [20]. The plant-insect interactions role of terpenes has been well-studied in conifers and the bark beetle. The oleoresin is secreted from the ducts or produced newly upon tissue damage by the beetle [21]. Ingested monoterpenes are converted by the beetles to pheromones that either attract more beetles or serve as anti-aggregation signals. Besides, conifer monoterpenes take part in tritrophic interactions and attract insect predators that feed on bark beetles [19]. Most aromatherapy, insecticides, perfumes and pharmaceutical products are made from monoterpenes [18]. The essential oil of corn mint (Mentha arvensis var. piperascens) produce more than 7000 tons of menthol every year either by total synthesis or from the steam-distilled. The cooling sensation stimulated by menthol is caused by the excitation of cation channels that serve as thermal receptors [22]. Two monoterpenes with promising anticancer effects are perrillyl alcohol and (+)-(R)- limonene [23], these two compounds suppress translation of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA) reductase, an enzyme of the MVA pathway and induce apoptosis [24]. The 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA) reductase enzyme is a promising target for anti-tumor compounds because tumor cells have elevated HMG-CoA reductase levels and many proteins involved in cell growth are phenylated. The decreased terpene biosynthesis in humans leads to suppression of HMG-CoA reductase [25]. The secoiridoids yields from the cleavage of the cyclopentane ring of the iridoid skeleton, which are monoterpene indole alkaloids and the biosynthetic building units of the Ipecac alkaloids [25]. Many iridoids have an intense bitter-taste and therefore act as feeding deterrents (Figure 4) [26].
Figure 3.
Mono- and bicyclic monoterpenes derived from geranyl diphosphate (GPP).
Figure 4.
Iridoids.
2.1.3 Sesquiterpenes
In general, sesquiterpenes are less volatile than monoterpenes; they contain three isoprene units and are formed by condensation of DMAPP with two molecules IPP, the central C15 intermediate farnesyl diphosphate (FPP) can be folded into mono-, bi- or tricyclic systems [9]. Initially, it was assumed that all sesquiterpenes are produced via the cytosolic MVA pathway. Recent studies, however, revealed that certain sesquiterpenes originate from isoprene units provided by the DXP pathway [12, 13] or by both biosynthetic routes [27]. This can be explained by the transport of isoprenoid precursors from the plastids to the cytosol [28]. Abscisic acid is a sesquiterpene phytohormone that is induced by drought and promotes stomatal closure and seed dormancy. Other sesquiterpenes take part in tritrophic plant-herbivore-parasite interactions [13]. The sesquiterpenes (E)-b-farnesene and the (E)-a-bergamotene attract the parasitic wasp Cotesia marginiventris, in maize infested with lepidopteran larvae [29]. Maize roots release (E)-b-caryophyllene (Figure 5) upon an attack of larvae of the beetle Diabrotica virgifera to attract the parasitic nematode Heterorhabditis megidis [30]. Many sesquiterpenes (sesquiterpene lactones) contain a pentacyclic lactone group, these compounds occur abundantly in the family Asteraceae, because of their bitter taste sesquiterpene lactones presumably serve as feeding deterrents of herbivores [31]. Pharmacologically active sesquiterpene lactones often show anti-inflammatory effects due to inhibition of the transcription factor NF- kB that mediates immunological responses and inflammation [32]. One of the most popular medicinal plants, chamomile (Matricaria recutita) is a sesquiterpenes with such activities. Antimigraine action of some sesquiterpene lactones, e.g., parthenolide from feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium), is mediated by inhibition of platelet aggregation and serotonin secretion [9]. The reason for the cytotoxicity and allergenicity of sesquiterpene lactones with a, b-unsaturated lactone is the alkylation of proteins. Artemisinin is a novel promising agent against malaria. Structurally, it is a tetracyclic sesquiterpene with a six-membered lactone ring and an unusual 1, 2, 4-trioxane ring (Figure 5). The president of North Vietnam, to the Chinese government (Ho Chi Minh) discovered artemisinin for a cure against malaria to support his troops in the malaria-infested jungles during the American/Vietnamese war [33]. The ether extract from A. annua, and artemisinin (qinghaosu) revealed the antimalarial activity and the mode of action of artemisinin are still being investigated. Most likely, it interferes with sarco-endoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase (SERCA) of Plasmodium falciparum, but other mechanisms, for example, alkylation of biological macromolecules or the production of reactive oxygen species [34]. The structural feature required for antimalarial activity is the peroxide bridge. Artemether and artesunate (two semisynthetic analogs), in efficiency comparison to artemisinin were developed and are now used as first-line therapy in the treatment of malaria, in combination with other antimalarial drugs like the lumefantrine and quinine analogs mefloquine. This combination tends to prevent resistance to Plasmodium. The artemisinin and its analogs success has triggered by extraction of the sesquiterpene from the plant because A. annua contains only 0.01–1.5% of artemisinin [35]. Therefore, an powerful and affordable drug for the people in malaria-endemic areas are necessary, either by breeding of A. annua plants with elevated artemisinin levels or biotechnological production of the artemisinin precursor artemisinic acid by cloning the biosynthetic genes from A. annua [35] and engineering the pathway into the bacterium Escherichia coli or yeast [36, 37].
Figure 5.
Linear and cyclic sesquiterpenes.
2.1.4 Diterpenes
Diterpenes originate from the Plasmid DXP pathway and are synthesized from DMAPP and three molecules IPP yielding the C20 metabolite geranyl geranyl diphosphate (GGPP). GGPP is a smaller terpene; it can undergo rearrangements and cyclization to many different structures and also a precursor of the lipophilic phytyl side chain of chlorophyll and plastoquinone. Gibberellins are tetracyclic diterpenes that act as phytohormones and promote shoot elongation, flowering and seed germination [38]. Diterpenes like abietic- and levopimaric acid (Figure 6) are constituents of conifer oleoresin and function as a defense against herbivores and pathogens. After mono- and sesquiterpenes (turpentine) are removed from oleoresin by distillation, the solid diterpene fraction (rosin) is called colophonium. The mono and sesquiterpene containing distillate are used as oil of turpentine for the thinning of paints and varnishes [39]. Paclitaxel binds to microtubules, stabilizes them against depolymerisation and thus blocks cell proliferation [40]. Paclitaxel is used in the therapy of cancers (breast, ovarian, lung, head and neck and Kaposi’s sarcoma). In the bark of T. brevifolia (0.01–0.02%), paclitaxel occurs only in relatively low amounts and the trees grow slowly, other sources had to be found to supply enough of the diterpene for industrial production. Paclitaxel is obtained either by semisynthesis from baccatin III and 10-deacetylbaccatin III or from tissue cultures of various Taxus species, which can be extracted from the leaves and twigs of the common yew (T. baccata), a tree that grows much faster than T. brevifolia (Figure 6).
Figure 6.
Diterpenes.
2.1.5 Triterpenes and steroids
Triterpenes are synthesized from two molecules of FPP that are joined by tail-to-tail condensation to squalene via the MVA pathway. Various structures, mostly tetra- or pentacyclic yields from cyclization of its metabolite 2, 3-oxidosqualene followed by rearrangements and methyl shifts. The precursor of plant steroids is 2, 3-Oxidosqualene (Figure 7). In this case, it is cyclized to the triterpene cycloartenol, which is then converted to the C-27 compound cholesterol with the loss of three methyl groups. In both triterpenes and steroids the oxygen of 2, 3-oxidosqualene is usually retained as hydroxy group at C-3. Phytosterols are lipophilic and are readily incorporated into the micelles involved in fat digestion. Esters of phytosterols are therefore used as cholesterol-lowering food additives [9]. A group of plant hormones (Brassinosteroids) is derived from campesterol. They regulate various biological processes, e.g., stem elongation, leaf expansion, seed germination, and xylem differentiation [38, 41].
Figure 7.
Sterols derived from 2, 3-oxidosqualene.
2.1.6 Saponins
Monocots preferably accumulate steroidal saponins, which are abundant in the Agavaceae, Dioscoraeceae, and Yuccaceae. Triterpenoid saponins contain the lupane skeleton, tetracyclic dammarane backbone as aglycone and the pentacyclic a-amyrin (ursane), b-amyrin (oleanane). This aglycone is linked with one to three carbohydrate chains containing up to six sugar molecules or uronic acids [9, 42]. In the triterpene backbone, the first sugar chain is attached to the hydroxy group at C-3. When two or more carbohydrate chains are present, they are connected with carboxy or hydroxy groups at C-30 or C-28. Spirostanols and furostanols are two groups of steroid saponins. A tetrahydrofuran ring in furostanols is formed from the side chain of cholesterol, and the hydroxy group at C-26 is glycosylated. Upon cleavage of this sugar moiety, a second oxygen-containing heterocycle is formed, thus yielding a spirostanol (Figure 8). As in the case of the triterpene saponins, steroidal saponins carry a sugar chain at the C-3 hydroxy group [41, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47].
Figure 8.
Triterpene and steroid saponins.
2.1.7 Tetraterpenes
Tetraterpenes are synthesized from two molecules GGPP by tail-to-tail addition and comprise only one group of compounds, the carotenoids. The tetraterpene chain is cyclized to a six-membered ring at either one or both ends. Carotenoids with hydroxy or epoxy functions are classified as xanthophylls [9]. The important physiological functions of carotenoids in plants, is that it act as accessory pigments of chlorophyll, since they are part of the light-harvesting complex. Besides, they quench triplet oxygen and singlet oxygen in case of excess light energy and thus protect the plant from photo-oxidative damage. As pigments of flowers and fruits, carotenoids attract pollinators and seed dispersers [48]. Carotenoids (a-carotene, b-carotene) are essential for human health (Figure 9), b-cryptoxanthine is precursors of vitamin A. They serve as the pigment of the light receptors of the human eyes, and converted in the liver to vitamin A. To overcome vitamin A deficiency in areas with malnutrition, transgenic rice termed, golden rice “was developed that expresses high levels of carotenoid biosynthetic enzymes in the endosperm and accumulates elevated levels of carotenoids [49, 50, 51].
Figure 9.
β-Carotene.
2.2 Phenolic compounds
Phenolic compounds (phenolic acids and polyphenols) are derivatives of the shikimic, pentose phosphate, and phenylpropanoid pathways in plants [52]. Polyphenols are aromatic ring which contains a phenyl group and a hydroxyl functional group [53]. Plant phenolic compounds are lignin, flavonoids, carotenoids, tannins, and phytoalexins; they are responsible for antioxidant, antiaging, antiproliferation and anti-inflammatory activities. Vegetables, fruits and beverages are major sources of phenolics [54, 55]. Tannins significantly reduce the growth of many herbivores when added to their diets because they are generally toxic. Tannins can be seen in fruits like apples, blackberries, tea and red wine [56]. Tannins are mainly constituent of woody plants especially heartwood. Some derivatives of tannin include Gallic acid [56].
2.2.1 Phenol derivatives, especially flavonoids
The biosynthetic pathways are derived from the shikimate pathway (Figure 10), which is shared by indoles, and by several alkaloids and betalains. The phenylalanine is the precursor for the cinnamic acid derivatives and flavonoids, and it is converted by an enzyme, phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) to cinnamic acid. Rosmarinic acid has high antioxidative potential and also good aromatic qualities. The cinnamic acid derivatives serve as precursors for polymers (lignin), which is synthesized via cinnamaldehydes and monolignols. Much information is also available from maize and a legume, the latter also contains isoflavonoids (Figure 11). Other mutants in the pathway of, for example, the next enzyme encoding chalcone isomerase (which is responsible for the synthesis of naringenin), also show this phenotype, and consequently, the mutations were numbered consecutively, starting with “1.” Mutations in the transcription factors that control the synthesis of flavonoids have similar phenotypes [57].
Figure 10.
Schematic overview for the biosynthetic pathways of selected phenols from phenylalanine as a precursor (bold). A key enzyme, phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), is shown (red). Some example structures are depicted (blue) [57].
Figure 11.
The main pathways for flavonoid synthesis derived from different plant species. CHS: chalcone synthase; CHI: chalcone isomerase; IFS: isoflavonoid synthase; FNS: flavone synthase; F3H: flavanone-3- hydroxylase; FLS: flavonol synthase; DFR: dihdroflavonol reductase; ANS: anthocyanidin synthase; UGT: glycosyltransferase; ANR: anthocyanidin reductase [57].
2.3 Nitrogen-containing compounds
Alkaloids are heterocyclic nitrogen compounds biosynthesized from amino acids. Alkaloids represent one of the biggest groups of natural products, with currently more than 12,000 known structures. In addition to alkaloids, benzoxazinoids, glucosinolates, and cyanogenic glucosides will be represented. Like alkaloids, these metabolites contain nitrogen and are derived from amino acids. Morphine is an alkaloid isolated in 1805 from opium poppy Papaver somniferum [58, 59]. The role of alkaloids in the plant has been a subject of speculation for at least 100 years. Most alkaloids are now believed to function as a defense against especially mammals, because of the general toxicity and deterrence capacity [60]. One group of alkaloids, the pyrolizidine alkaloid illustrates how herbivores can become adapted to tolerate plant defensive substances and even use them in their defense [60].
2.3.1 Alkaloids
Alkaloid was introduced by a German Chemist, Carl F.W Meissnerin in 1815. Alkaloids are Alkali-like and derived from the word Alkali. They are a group of naturally occurring organic compounds which are basic, contain one or more nitrogen atoms normally of Heterocyclic nature. They also possess specific physiological actions on the human and animal bodies and are abundant in higher plants (Angiosperm). Major types of alkaloids and their examples are represented in Table 1. Families rich in alkaloids are- Apocynaceae, Rubiaceae, Solanaceae, Papaveraceae, Berberidaceae, etc. Alkaloids are present in many parts of the plant- Aerial part (Ephedra – Ephedrine), Entire plant (Vinca- Vincristine, Vinblastine), Leaves (Tea- Caffeine), Root (Rauwolfia- Reserpine), Bark (Cinchona- Quinine), Seed (Nuxvomica), Fruit (Black pepper- Piperine), Latex (Opium- Morphine, Codeine). Pharmacological uses include; Anagelsic, Antimalarial, Antispasmodic, Hypertension, Mental disorder, Anticancer etc. Alkaloids occur mainly in plants as Salts of organic acid (oxalic acid, citric acid, acetic acid, maleic acid, tartaric acid, fumaric, benzoic, etc). Functions in plants include; protective against insects and herbivores (bitterness and toxicity), a product of detoxification (a waste product) in a certain case, a reservoir for protein synthesis, and a source of nitrogen in case of deficiency. Many precursors are involved in various pathways, such as aromatic amino acids (tryptophan, tyrosine and phenylalanine), and also aspartate, glutamine, lysine, glycine and valine (Figure 12). Besides, the nonproteinogenic amino acid ornithine is an important precursor for various alkaloids. For several alkaloids, two different precursors are needed for the biosynthetic pathways. In the case of terpene indole alkaloids (Figure 12), it is not only tryptophan that is involved as a precursor for the indole moiety, but also monoterpenes for the synthesis of side chains. Another example is the biosynthesis of the tropane alkaloids hyoscyamine and scopolamine, where ornithine and phenylalanine are required for the different parts of the molecule (Figure 12) [57].
Type
Plant source
Example
Uses
Pyrrolidine
Leaves of Peruvian coca shrub
Hygrine
Stimulants, Depressant
Tropine
Atropa belladonna
Atropine, Cocaine
Antidote of poison
Piperidine
Bark of bomegranate, Oil of hemlock. Conium maculatum
Coniine
Poison (paralyzes of motor neuron)
Pyramidine-pyridine
Tobacco leaf Nicotina tabacum
Nicotine
Respiratory stimulation
Quinoline
Cinchona tree
Quinine
Treatment of malaria
Isoquinoline
Papaver somniferum Seed of nuxvomica Strychnos
Codeine, morphine
Treatment of cough and Analgesic
Indole
Claviceps purpurea
Strychnine, Reserpine, Psilocybin
Treatment of hypertension, uterine atonia, postpartum bleeding, hallucination
Overview of the biosynthesis of selected alkaloids. Phenylalanine together with ornithine is needed for the synthesis of the second group of tropane alkaloids (violet). Caffeine and related substances are derived from purine (brown). The class of compounds is given in brackets [57].
2.3.2 Benzoxazinones
Benzoxazinones is a class of natural products known as cyclic hydroxamic acid, found in wheat, rye and maize in the family of Gramineae [61]. They act as plant resistance to insects and microbes. At present, it is still being investigated whether the pathway developed only once or several times independently after the divergence of monocots and dicots [62, 63]. Besides, they serve as feeding deterrents and reduce the vitality of pests. In particular, these metabolites confer resistance to one of the major corn pests, the European corn borer (Ostrinia nubialis) [64]. The mode of action of benzoxazinones can be explained by the modification of amino and thiol groups of biomolecules. The aldehyde function of the tautomeric open-ring form can react as an electrophile with NH2 groups and form Schiff bases [65]. The structural prerequisite for this oxidation is an electron-donating substitution at C-7 of the benzoxazinone skeleton (Figure 13) [66]. Benzoxazinoids that have been bio-activated by N -acetylation may act as alkylating agents towards nucleic acids and proteins. Due to their toxicity, benzoxazinones can also function as allelochemicals and are therefore discussed as natural herbicides [67].
Figure 13.
Enzymatic and chemical degradation of benzoxazines with hydroxamic acid function [61].
2.3.3 Glucosinolates
Glucosinolates are b -thioglucosides of (Z) - N - hydroximinosulfate esters (Figure 14). They share the first steps of cyanogenic glucoside biosynthesis. About 120 different structures of glucosinolates are known [68]. The glucosinolates are hydrolyzed by myrosinase (if the plant tissue is damaged), a thioglucosidase is spatially separated in the undamaged tissue [69] (Figure 14). The main product of the “mustard bomb” consisting of glucosinolates and myrosinase is isothiocyanates. These compounds are also responsible for many of the biological effects of glucosinolates, e.g., antibacterial, antifungal, nematicidal, and feeding deterrent activities [68]. The formation of hydrolysis products distinct from thiocyanates depends on the structure of the glucosinolates, pH, and the presence or absence of Fe2+ ions or specifier proteins [70]. Hydrolysis of b -hydroxyalknyl glucosinolates yields oxazolidine-2-thiones that can cause goiter by inhibiting the incorporation of iodine into thyroid hormones. To make the protein-rich seed cake that remains after the extraction of the oil suitable as animal foodstuff, Grape plants with low levels of glucosinolates have been developed by breeding efforts [68]. Sulforaphane enhances the excretion of cancerogenic compounds by inducing glutathione-S-transferase, UDP-glucuronosyl transferase, and NADPH quinone oxidoreductase (phase II detoxification enzymes) [70, 71]. The glucosinolates act as feeding deterrents, and many insect herbivores feed on plants containing these natural products. The detoxification of glucosinolates is known from two insect species which has two very different mechanisms [72]. The cabbage white butterfly (Pieris rapae) contains a specified protein that transforms glucosinolates in the presence of myrosinase to nontoxic nitriles that are excreted with the feces [73]. This requires either an endogenous myrosinase that is spatially separated from the glucosinolates in the insects or myrosinases from the gut microflora of their enemies [69].
Figure 14.
Exemplary structures of glucosinolates (a) and hydrolysis of glucosinolates by myrosinase and rearrangement to various products (b) Isothiocyanates are the predominant degradation products.
2.3.4 Cyanogenic glycosides
Cyanogenic glucosides are b-glucosides of a–hydroxy nitriles (syn. cyanohydrins), which are derived from the five proteinogenic amino acids phenylalanine, tyrosine, valine, isoleucine, leucine, and the non-proteinogenic amino acid cyclopentenyl-glycine. About 2500 different plant species including ferns, gymnosperms, and angiosperms produce cyanogenic glycosides [74, 75]. Despite their widespread occurrence, these natural products are found predominantly in the families Araceae, Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Passifloraceae, Poaceae, and Rosaceae [9, 76]. Some of the most abundant molecules are amygdalin (Rosaceae), linamarin and lotaustralin (Fabaceae), and the epimers dhurrin and taxiphyllin in the genus Sorghum [75]. The b-glucosidic bond can also be hydrolyzed by intestinal bacteria in the gut of herbivores. The hydrogen cyanide toxicity can be explained by its affinity to metal ions. Cyanide ions complex iron (III) in the active site of cytochrome oxidase thus inhibits the respiratory chain [77, 78]. Cyanogenic glucosides act as feeding deterrents, by transferring all genes required for the formation of the cyanogenic glucoside dhurrin from Sorghum bicolor into Arabidopsis, proved that cyanogenic glucosides play a role in plant defense [79, 80]. Several herbivores, especially insects, can feed on plants containing these natural products, despite the toxicity of the cyanogenic glucosides, and the toxic compounds may act as phagostimulants. Cyanogenic glucosides act as defense compounds for some species of beetles, centipedes, and millipedes, but particularly many moths and butterflies (Figure 15). The compounds are either taken up by feeding on cyanogenic plants or synthesized by endogenous enzymes [77, 78]. It has been postulated that cyanogenic glucosides also serve as storage compounds for reduced nitrogen and sugar [81, 82]. These treatments often results in loss of protein, minerals, and vitamins. Various approaches to produce transgenic cassava with reduced content of cyanogenic glucosides in roots are currently underway [76, 80, 83, 84].
Figure 15.
Representative structures of cyanogenic glucosides (a) and degradation of cyanogenic glucosides with concomitant release of toxic hydrogen cyanide (b).
\n',keywords:"natural products, biosynthesis, metabolites, phytochemicals, terpenes, phenolic compounds, nitrogen-containing compounds",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/76931.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/76931.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76931",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76931",totalDownloads:371,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:2,dateSubmitted:"November 23rd 2020",dateReviewed:"April 10th 2021",datePrePublished:"May 28th 2021",datePublished:"September 29th 2021",dateFinished:"May 28th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Natural products are in the form of primary and secondary metabolites and are isolated chemical compounds or substances from living organisms. Terpenes, Phenolic compounds, and Nitrogen-containing compounds are secondary metabolites. The biosyntheses of secondary metabolites are derived from primary metabolism pathways, which consist of a tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA), methylerythritol phosphate pathway (MEP), mevalonic and shikimic acid pathway. This chapter provides an overview of the diversity of secondary metabolites in plants, their multiple biological functions, and multi-faceted cultural history.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/76931",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/76931",signatures:"Stella O. Bruce and Felix A. Onyegbule",book:{id:"10290",type:"book",title:"Bioactive Compounds",subtitle:"Biosynthesis, Characterization and Applications",fullTitle:"Bioactive Compounds - Biosynthesis, Characterization and Applications",slug:"bioactive-compounds-biosynthesis-characterization-and-applications",publishedDate:"September 29th 2021",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Tatiele Casagrande do Nascimento and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10290.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-270-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-269-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-271-0",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"341144",title:"Dr.",name:"Stella Omokhefe",middleName:null,surname:"Bruce",fullName:"Stella Omokhefe Bruce",slug:"stella-omokhefe-bruce",email:"stellaobruce@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"415361",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",middleName:null,surname:"A. Onyegbule",fullName:"Felix A. Onyegbule",slug:"felix-a.-onyegbule",email:"dummy+415361@intechopen.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Classification of plants secondary metabolite",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Terpenes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"2.1.1 Hemiterpenes",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.1.2 Monoterpenes",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.1.3 Sesquiterpenes",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.1.4 Diterpenes",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.1.5 Triterpenes and steroids",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.1.6 Saponins",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.1.7 Tetraterpenes",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"2.2 Phenolic compounds",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"2.2.1 Phenol derivatives, especially flavonoids",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"2.3 Nitrogen-containing compounds",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"2.3.2 Benzoxazinones",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"2.3.3 Glucosinolates",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"2.3.4 Cyanogenic glycosides",level:"3"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Smanski M.J, Zhou H, Claesen J, Shen B, Fischbach M.A, Voigt C.A (2016). 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Engineering the provitamin A (beta-carotene) biosynthetic pathway into (carotenoid-free) rice endosperm. Science. 287, 303-305'},{id:"B50",body:'Riccioni G, Bucciarelli T, Mancini B, Corradi F, Di Ilio C, Mettei P.A, D’Orazio N (2007). Antioxidant vitamin supplementation in cardiovascular diseases. Ann Clin Lab Sci. 37, 89-95'},{id:"B51",body:'U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (2003). Routine vitamin supplementation to prevent cancer and cardiovascular disease: recommendations and rationale. Ann Intern Med. 139:51-55'},{id:"B52",body:'Randhir R., Lin Y.T., Shetty K (2004). Stimulation of phenolics, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities in dark germinated mung bean sprouts in response to peptide and phytochemical elicitors. Process Biochem. 39:637-646'},{id:"B53",body:'Taiz L and Zeiger E (2005). Plant physiology. Third Edition. Sinauer Association Inc., California, U .S. A. 690p'},{id:"B54",body:'Kondo T, Yoshida K, Kawai T, Tamura H and Goto T (2012). Structural basis of blue colour development in flower petal from Commelina communis. Nature. 358, pp515-518'},{id:"B55",body:'Li J. Lee O, Raba R and Last R.L (2003). Arabidopsis flavonoid mutant are hypersensitive to UV-B radiation. Plant Cell. 85, pp171-179'},{id:"B56",body:'Onyegbule F.A, Okoli O.G, Bruce S.O (2019). "In vivo Evaluation of the Antimalarial Activity of the Aqueous Ethanol Extract of Monodora myristica Seed in Albino Mice", International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), Volume 8 Issue 6, 1530-1538'},{id:"B57",body:'Gutzeit H.O and Ludwig-Muller J (2014). Plant Natural Products: Synthesis, Biological Functions and Practical Applications, First Edition. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Pp1-80'},{id:"B58",body:'Edeoga H.O, Okwu D.E and Mbaebie B.O (2009). Phytochemical constituent of some Nigeria medicinal plants. African Journal of Biotechnology. 4 (7): pp685-688'},{id:"B59",body:'Fessenden R.J and Fessenden J.S (1997). Organic Chemistry (2nd edn.). Willard Grant Press, Massachusetts, U. S. A. 57p'},{id:"B60",body:'Hartmann T (2013). Chemical ecology of pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Planta. 207, pp483-495'},{id:"B61",body:'Sicker D, Frey M, Gierl A (2000). Role of natural benzoxazinones in the survival strategy of plants. Int Rev Cytol. 198, 319-346'},{id:"B62",body:'Bravo H.R, Lazo W (1993). Antimicrobial activity of cereal hydroxamic acids and related compounds. Phytochemistry. 33, 569-591'},{id:"B63",body:'Bravo H.R, Lazo W (1996). Antialgal and antifungal activity of natural hydroxamic acids and related compounds. J Agric Food Chem. 44, 1569-1571'},{id:"B64",body:'Grombacher A.W, Russell W.A, Guthrie W.D (1989). Resistance to first-generation European corn borer (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) and DIMBOA concentration in midwhorl leaves of the BS9 maize synthetic. J Kans Entomol Soc. 62, 103-107'},{id:"B65",body:'Pérez F.J, Niemeyer H.M (1989). Reaction of DIMBOA with amines. Phytochemistry. 28, 1831-1834'},{id:"B66",body:'Atkinson J, Morand P, Arnason J.T, Niemeyer H.M, Bravo H.R (1991). Analogs of the cyclic hydroxamic acid 2,4-dihydroxy-7-methoxy-2H-1,4-benzoxazin-3-one (DIMBOA): decomposition to benzoxazolinones and reaction with beta-mercaptoethanol. J Org Chem. 56, 1788-1800'},{id:"B67",body:'Hashimoto Y, Shudo K (1996). Chemistry of biologically active benzoxazinoids. Phytochemistry. 43, 551-559'},{id:"B68",body:'Fahey J.W, Zalcmann A.T, Talalay P (2001). The chemical diversity and distribution of glucosinolates and isothiocyanates among plants. Phytochemistry. 56:5-51'},{id:"B69",body:'Halkier B.A, Gershenzon J (2006). Biology and biochemistry of glucosinolates. Ann Rev Plant Biol. 57, 303-333'},{id:"B70",body:'Wittstock U, Burow M (2007). Tipping the scales - specifier proteins in glucosinolate hydrolysis. IUBMB Life. 59, 744-751'},{id:"B71",body:'Higdon J.V, Delage B, Williams D.E, Dashwood R.H (2007). Cruciferous vegetables and human cancer risk: epidemiologic evidence and mechanistic basis. Pharmacol Res. 55, 224-236'},{id:"B72",body:'Ratzka A, Vogel H, Kliebenstein D.J, MitchellOlds T, Kroymann J (2002). Disarming the mustard oil bomb. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 99, 11223-11228'},{id:"B73",body:'Wittstock U, Agerbirk N, Stauber E..J, Olsen C.E, Hippler M, Mitchell-Olds T, Gershenzon J, Vogel H (2004). Successful herbivore attack due to metabolic diversion of a plant chemical defense. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 101, 4859-48564'},{id:"B74",body:'Hegnauer R (1986). Chemotaxonomie der Pflanzen. Vol 7. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel Volume 27, Issue 8, Pages 2423-2427'},{id:"B75",body:'Seigler D.S (1991). Cyanide and cyanogenic glucosides. In: Rosenthal GA, Berenbaum MR (eds) Herbivores: their interactions with secondary plant metabolites. Academic, San Diego, CA. 1, 35-77'},{id:"B76",body:'Bruce S.O, Onyegbule F.A, Ezugwu C.O (2019). Pharmacognostic, physicochemical and phytochemical evaluation of the leaves of Fadogia cienkowskii Schweinf (Rubiaceae). Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy. Vol. 11(3), pp. 52-60'},{id:"B77",body:'Zagrobelny M, Bak S, Møller B.L (2008). Cyanogenesis in plants and arthropods. Phytochemistry. 69, 1457-1468'},{id:"B78",body:'Selmar D, Lieberei R, Biehl B (1988). Mobilization and utilization of cyanogenic glycosides: the linustatin pathway. Plant Physiol. 86, 711-716'},{id:"B79",body:'Jones D.A (1998). Why are so many food plants cyanogenic? Phytochemistry. 47, 155-162'},{id:"B80",body:'Okoye V.O, Bruce S.O and Onyegbule F.A (2020). Phytochemical screening and pharmacognostic properties of Peuraria phaseoloides leaves (roxb) benth. (fabaceae). International Journal of Public Health, Pharmacy and Pharmacology, 2020; 5(2)11-24'},{id:"B81",body:'Sánchez-Pérez R, Jørgensen K, Olsen C.E, Dicenta F, Møller B.L (2008). Bitterness in almonds. Plant Physiol. 146, 1040-1052'},{id:"B82",body:'O’Brien GM, Taylor A.J, Poulter N.H (1991). Improved enzymatic assay for cyanogens in fresh and processed cassava. J Sci Food Agric. 56, 277-289'},{id:"B83",body:'Jørgensen K, Bak S, Busk P.K, Sørensen C, Olsen C.E, Puonti-Kaerlas J, Møller B.L (2005). Cassava plants with a depleted cyanogenic glucoside content in leaves and tubers. Distribution of cyanogenic glucosides, their site of synthesis and transport, and blockage of the biosynthesis by RNA interference technology. Plant Phys. 139, 363-374'},{id:"B84",body:'Siritunga D, Sayre R (2007). Transgenic approaches for cyanogen reduction in cassava. AOAC Int. 90, 1450-1455'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Stella O. Bruce",address:"stellaobruce@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
Pharmacognosy and Traditional Medicine, Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Felix A. Onyegbule",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria
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The BS method splits up-spin and down-spin electrons into two different special orbitals, so that a singlet spin state of the degenerate system is expressed as a singlet biradical. In the BS solution, therefore, the spin symmetry is no longer retained. Due to such spin-symmetry breaking, the BS method often suffers from a serious problem called a spin contamination error, so that one must eliminate the error by some kind of projection method. An approximate spin projection (AP) method, which is one of the spin projection procedures, can eliminate the error from the BS solutions by assuming the Heisenberg model and can recover the spin symmetry. In this chapter, we illustrate a theoretical background of the BS and AP methods, followed by some examples of their applications, especially for calculations of the exchange interaction and for the geometry optimizations.",signatures:"Yasutaka Kitagawa, Toru Saito and Kizashi Yamaguchi",authors:[{id:"19013",title:"Prof.",name:"Kizashi",surname:"Yamaguchi",fullName:"Kizashi Yamaguchi",slug:"kizashi-yamaguchi",email:"yama@chem.sci.osaka-u.ac.jp"},{id:"217025",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasutaka",surname:"Kitagawa",fullName:"Yasutaka Kitagawa",slug:"yasutaka-kitagawa",email:"kitagawa@cheng.es.osaka-u.ac.jp"},{id:"217026",title:"Prof.",name:"Toru",surname:"Saito",fullName:"Toru Saito",slug:"toru-saito",email:"tsaito@hiroshima-cu.ac.jp"}],book:{id:"6190",title:"Symmetry (Group Theory) and Mathematical Treatment in Chemistry",slug:"symmetry-group-theory-and-mathematical-treatment-in-chemistry",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"5795",title:"Dr.",name:"Hongbing",surname:"Ji",slug:"hongbing-ji",fullName:"Hongbing Ji",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5795/images/system/5795.png",biography:"Hongbing Ji is a professor and doctor\\'s supervisor at Sun Yat-sen University, China. He received a Ph.D. from the South China University of Technology. His research areas include the environmentally friendly catalytic process and green chemical technology. He is director of the Fine Chemical Research Institute, and dean of the Huizhou Research Institute, both at Sun Yat-sen University. He is also an editorial board member of the Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology and the Chinese Journal of Chemical Engineering.",institutionString:"Sun Yat-sen University",institution:{name:"Sun Yat-sen University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"15122",title:"Prof.",name:"Tofig",surname:"Nagiev",slug:"tofig-nagiev",fullName:"Tofig Nagiev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"16016",title:"Dr.",name:"Can-Cheng",surname:"Guo",slug:"can-cheng-guo",fullName:"Can-Cheng Guo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"16063",title:"Dr.",name:"Rong Xiu",surname:"Li",slug:"rong-xiu-li",fullName:"Rong Xiu Li",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"16134",title:"Dr.",name:"Ming-Hsi",surname:"Chiang",slug:"ming-hsi-chiang",fullName:"Ming-Hsi Chiang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"16591",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",surname:"Trytek",slug:"mariusz-trytek",fullName:"Mariusz Trytek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"17848",title:"Prof.",name:"Guo-Fang",surname:"Jiang",slug:"guo-fang-jiang",fullName:"Guo-Fang Jiang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"18503",title:"Prof.",name:"Marek",surname:"Majdan",slug:"marek-majdan",fullName:"Marek Majdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"18504",title:"Prof.",name:"Jan",surname:"Fiedurek",slug:"jan-fiedurek",fullName:"Jan Fiedurek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"18797",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiantai",surname:"Zhou",slug:"xiantai-zhou",fullName:"Xiantai Zhou",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"attribution-policy",title:"Attribution Policy",intro:"
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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
\r\n
\r\n\t
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
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Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. 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The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. 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