Important polymorphic human DMEs, cofactors, biochemical reactions, substrates and their intermediate metabolites.
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
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Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"169258",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia",middleName:null,surname:"Popoola",fullName:"Patricia Popoola",slug:"patricia-popoola",email:"popoolaapi@tut.ac.za",position:null,institution:{name:"Tshwane University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"176896",title:"Dr.",name:"Sisa",middleName:null,surname:"Pityana",fullName:"Sisa Pityana",slug:"sisa-pityana",email:"spityana@csir.co.za",position:null,institution:{name:"Council for Scientific and Industrial Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"177716",title:"Dr.",name:"Olawale",middleName:null,surname:"Popoola",fullName:"Olawale Popoola",slug:"olawale-popoola",email:"popoolao@tut.ac.za",position:null,institution:{name:"Tshwane University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"283922",title:"Mr.",name:"Sadiq",middleName:null,surname:"Raji",fullName:"Sadiq Raji",slug:"sadiq-raji",email:"rajchandy2355@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"292715",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatai",middleName:null,surname:"Aramide",fullName:"Fatai Aramide",slug:"fatai-aramide",email:"AramideFO@tut.ac.za",position:null,institution:{name:"Tshwane University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}}]},book:{id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Aerodynamics",slug:"aerodynamics",publishedDate:"February 10th 2021",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"12102",leadTitle:null,title:"Current Trends in Ambulatory Care",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tThe goal of this book will be to introduce the current change in ambulatory care affected by the new development of medical knowledge, new technology, and social ethics. The COVID-19 pandemic plays an important role in the acceleration of the adoption of telehealth or telemedicine in medical care. Both patients and medical providers adopt it quickly. The new devices make it possible for remote measuring or monitoring vitals or other physical parameters and communication pathways that provide other tools for medical providers to change the pattern of management of different chronic diseases, like hypertension, diabetes, obesity, congestive heart failure, etc. Some techniques can switch some procedures from the hospital to the patient’s home or clinic so, which will not just make such procedures more convenient for patients but also save expense on medical care. The quality of medical care will improve once both medical providers and patients understand such changes, and cooperate proactively. Medical providers can learn how and what tools they can update and apply for caring for patients. Patients can understand and learn how to proactively engage in their health management.
\r\n\r\n\tThe quest to ensure a perfect patient safety record is at the heart of the decades-long quest to improve quality, enhance value, and increase trust in our healthcare delivery systems. Beginning with the landmark report, To Err Is Human, the Institute of Medicine set an ambitious agenda for the medical community to reduce the number of patients harmed by healthcare-related errors and preventable adverse events. As a result, large-scale initiatives were initiated, including electronic medical records, trainee work hours restrictions, and the advent of evidence-based care bundles. To help support the effort, various governmental and non-governmental agencies established funding for patient safety research and actively fostered the development of well-defined Patient Safety Goals via the National Quality Forum. Parallel to targeted efforts aimed at reducing human and systemic errors leading to patient harm, legislative efforts resulted in bills intended to increase public reporting of medical errors and a paradigm shift allowing public support of the concept that most patient injuries are a result of system failures and not provider errors. This book will intend to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art in patient safety, featuring an easy-to-follow, vignette-based format that focuses on the most important evidence-based developments in this critically important area.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-192-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-191-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-193-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"fa37d79f81893fd0a9ab346ae1c3e4a9",bookSignature:"Dr. Xin-Nong Li",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12102.jpg",keywords:"Pandemic, Telehealth, Communication, High Technology, Chronic Disease, Remote, Monitor, Quality, Diabetes, Hypertension, Digital Device, Cardiovascular Disease",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 26th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 28th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 26th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 15th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 13th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"16 days",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Li, MD, graduated from Sun Yat-Sen University of Medical Sciences as an Outstanding Student. He later retrained as a resident in the department of internal medicine at the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center. He gained rich professional experience by working at Basel University, Switzerland, the University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA, and Medical School, the University of California at Davis. He is a Fellow of the American College of Physicians and a member of the American Medical Association.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"345917",title:"Dr.",name:"Xin-Nong",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"xin-nong-li",fullName:"Xin-Nong Li",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/345917/images/system/345917.jpg",biography:"Dr. Xin-Nong Li, MD is an internal medicine specialist in Fair Oaks, CA. Dr. Li completed a residency at U Pittsburgh MC Shadyside. He currently practices at Xin-Nong Li, MD, and is affiliated with Mercy San Juan Medical Center. He accepts multiple insurance plans. Dr. Li is board-certified in Internal Medicine.\r\n\r\nEducation:\r\nU Pittsburgh MC Shadyside, Residency Hospital — 1999\r\nU Pittsburgh MC Shadyside, Internship Hospital — 1997\r\nSun Yat Sen University Med Sci, Medical School — 1982",institutionString:"Sutter Health",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Sutter Health",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"466997",firstName:"Patricia",lastName:"Kerep",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/466997/images/21565_n.jpg",email:"patricia@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9500",title:"Recent Advances in Bone Tumours and Osteoarthritis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea4ec0d6ee01b88e264178886e3210ed",slug:"recent-advances-in-bone-tumours-and-osteoarthritis",bookSignature:"Hiran Amarasekera",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9500.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67634",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiran",surname:"Amarasekera",slug:"hiran-amarasekera",fullName:"Hiran Amarasekera"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3828",title:"Application of Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"51a27e7adbfafcfedb6e9683f209cba4",slug:"application-of-nanotechnology-in-drug-delivery",bookSignature:"Ali Demir Sezer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3828.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"56416",title:"Genetic Polymorphism of UDP-Glucuronosyltransferase",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69206",slug:"genetic-polymorphism-of-udp-glucuronosyltransferase",body:'Pharmacogenetics enables the personalized therapeutics based on genetic profiling and describes Patient’s variation in response to therapy due to genetic factors. Pharmacogenetics is the study of inter-individual differences in the sequence of particular genes affecting drug metabolism [1]. Genetic polymorphism is the variation in the sequence of DNA among populations and individuals. Inter-ethnic variations in drug response are connected to polymorphisms with racial populations showing discrete allele frequencies and inconsistency from each other [2–4]. Genetic polymorphisms may occur by chance and they may be caused by some agents such as chemicals, radiations or viruses. In the human genome, the most common source and simple form of genetic polymorphism are the single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) and it contributes to 90% of human DNA polymorphisms. Genetic polymorphisms of drug-metabolizing enzymes (DMEs) can influence the biodisposition of drugs and thus alter the concentration of drugs in plasma and in target tissues [5].
In the human population, person-to-person variations in gene expression and functional activity of drug-metabolizing enzymes have been found to be associated with the change in their responses to toxicants, carcinogens and drugs [6]. Progress in pharmacogenetics has displayed that a series of drug-metabolizing enzymes have become essential to consider the biotransformation of drugs. Allelic variants with different catalytic functions have been recognized from common and wild-type allele as the number of drug-metabolizing enzymes is increased. In individualizing drug therapy, these specific genetic variants are valuable to phenotype/genotype an individual [7, 8]. Hence, the interplay of pharmacogenetics and biotransformation of drugs has recently been a focus of research.
Genetic polymorphism within a population arises as a result of alteration in genes encoding metabolizing enzymes with a variant allele frequency of more than 1% [9]. For such genes, an allelic site has a number of single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) which may result in increased, reduced or even no enzyme function and their disrupted biological regulations through incorporating several mechanisms. A genotype is referred to a comprehensive study of an organism’s particular genetic make-up while the associated observable traits of an individual describe its phenotype. However, keeping in view that a phenotype is influenced by the combination of genetic and environmental determinants, it may not always express a complete concordance with associated genotype [10].
Single-nucleotide polymorphism in genes of drug-metabolizing enzymes affects the response of drug to body and absorption, distribution, biotransformation, and excretion of drugs. These SNPs are a source of inter-individual and inter-ethnic differences. Some mutations in the coding region cause amino acid change, which results in alterations of enzyme activity, substrate selectivity and sometimes, protein stability. Ensuring functional differences causes different metabolizer phenotypes [11]. Pharmacogenetics analysis provides insight into mechanisms included in drug response, with the ultimate goal to achieve optimal drug efficacy and safety.
Drug-metabolizing enzymes (DMEs) have a significant role in biotransformation and final excretion of xenobiotics and drugs by increasing their hydrophilicity. Biotransformation of drugs is usually comprised of phase I (oxidation, reduction and hydrolysis) reactions carried out by cytochrome P450 enzyme, and phase II conjugation reactions involve glucuronidation by uridine diphosphate glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs), acetylation by N-acetyltransferase (NAT) and glutathione-S-transferase in the liver, with numerous proteins accountable for transportation. These phase I and phase II enzymes are highly polymorphic leading to variation in the level of enzyme expression
The first polymorphism in drug-metabolizing enzyme was reported in patients more than 40 years ago with the incidence of side effects after administration of a recommended therapeutic dose of the drug [13]. An array of possible physiological and environmental factors has been assigned to human variability in drug response. The physiological features consist of hepatic and renal function, age, gender and bodyweight, whereas the environmental features include concomitant drug administration, contact to definite chemicals and dietary intake as well. Genetic factors have traced that individual’s body respond to drug therapy in a different way as some people are well tolerated while others have harmful effects [12].
The uridine diphosphate glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs) exist in almost all living beings counting microorganisms (viruses, bacteria), animals, plants and humans. UDP-glucuronosyltransferase is a microsomal enzyme carrying the glucuronidation of several exogenous (different carcinogens as well as drugs) and endogenous compounds (bilirubin; breakdown product of heme, hormones). Glucuronidation is a primary reaction for the removal of countless substrates and drug compounds. The genetic variations in UGT enzyme lead to its changed regulation and expression. The activities of UDP-glucuronosyltransferase contribute to pharmacological and physiologic consequences [14].
In humans, a main drug-metabolizing reaction called glucuronidation is catalysed by uridine diphospho glucuronosyltransferase enzyme (EC 2.4.1.17). Glucuronidation is the conjugation of small lipophilic molecules with uridine diphosphate (UDP) as a sugar donor, altering them into more water-soluble metabolites and accounts for 40–70% of xenobiotic elimination approximately [15]. UDP-glucuronosyltransferases are primarily expressed in the liver but are also distributed in various organs of the body, including the heart, kidney, thymus, spleen, olfactory epithelium, brain, intestine, adrenal glands and lungs. The expression of UGT is known to be affected by genetic polymorphism, physiological and environmental factors like age, diet, disease state, induction and inhibition by chemicals [16].
The superfamily UGT is divided into four subfamilies called UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1, UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 2, UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 3 and UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 8. This classification is kept on sequence similarity at the level of amino acid. The isozymes of family UGT1A have the first exon that is spliced into two to five common exons and thus producing a C-terminal and N-terminal domain. The gene-specific promoter region is possessed by each member of UGT1A family [17]. The 13 isoenzymes of UGT1A gene (9 functional and 4 pseudogenes) are all originated due to alteration in exon 1 region of this gene located on chromosome 2q37 and 6 isoforms of UGT2B subfamily emerge to be encoded by a rigid cluster of separate genes located on chromosome 4 in humans [18].
The covalent conjugation of sugar with the small organic molecule is brought about by a super family UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT). This superfamily of UDP-glucuronosyltransferase enzyme has been explored in microorganisms (bacteria), plants and animals evolutionarily conserved and adapted to combat with the dynamic interaction with lipid-soluble compounds. The UDP-glucuronosyltransferases are protein in nature that is bound to the membrane and is confined to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) and nuclear compartment of the cell. They have a significant role in glucuronidation of many antibiotics and xenobiotics [14]. UGTs are synthesized as approximately 530 residues precursor containing an N-terminal signal peptide [19].
The mammalian UGT superfamily comprises of four families, and members of each of four families can also be recognized in various lower vertebrates. The UGT superfamily comprises of all glucosyltransferases that contain the UGT signature sequence (FVA)-(LIVMF)-(TS)-(HQ)-(SGAC)-G- X(2) -(STG)-X(2)- (DE)-X(6)-P-(LIVMFA)-(LIVMFA)-X(2)-P-(LMVFIQ)- X(2)- (DE)-Q, (X is any amino acid) [20], and add sugar to small lipophilic compounds. Glucuronidation of compounds forms a range of glucuronides containing functional groups (O-, N-, S- and C-), which significantly enhance the solubility of the parent drugs and terminates its biological effect [21].
Approximately, the drugs from all therapeutic classes containing an extensive range of acceptor groups pass through glucuronidation process. However, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and analgesic agents are usually metabolized by this mechanism. It is well recognized that the liver has the maximum abundance and array of UDP-glucuronosyltransferases [22, 23]. The members of UGT1A and UGT2B subfamilies are also found in many other tissues and organs incorporating the epithelium, brain, nasal cavity, stomach, small intestine, colon, kidneys, lungs, ovaries, mammary glands, testis and prostate gland, in addition to hepatic abundance [16, 23]. The kidneys and GIT (gastrointestinal tract; stomach, small intestine and colon) are the most important extra-hepatic sites in case of drug metabolism [24]. All members of the UGT1A and UGT2B families are expressed differentially in human liver with the exception of some members of both families including UGT1A5, 1A7, 1A8, 1A10 and 2A1 [25]. In contrast to the UGT1A and UGT2B, members of UGT3 family are principally expressed in thymus, testis and kidney with nearly untraceable expression in liver and GI tract [26].
The UDP-glucuronosyltransferase enzyme catalyses the transfer of sugar glucuronic acid (GA) from uridine-diphospho-glucuronic acid (UDP-GA) to various exogenous as well as endogenous compounds containing hydroxyl, thiol, amine, carbonyl, carboxylic and hydroxylamine due to structural diversity of the substrates. Binding with glucuronic acid is a quantitatively most important phase II reaction and is a primary pathway in nature for detoxification of a wide range of drugs, dietary compounds, cancer causing agents and their oxidized metabolites, and a variety of environmental chemicals and thus excreting lipid-soluble waste compounds from the body in urine and bile [27, 28]. Glucuronidation of compounds forms a range of glucuronides containing functional groups (O-, N-, S- and C-) which significantly enhance the solubility of the parent drugs and terminates its biological effect [21].
Substrates containing different functional groups chemically form different glucuronides like aliphatic alcohols and phenols form ether glucuronide, while those containing a COOH- group form ester glucuronides (acyl glucuronides). The compounds, which possess both phenolic and COOH- groups, can be transformed into both ether and ester glucuronides such as mycophenolic acid (MPA). Glucuronidation of amines (primary, secondary and tertiary) and sulfhydryl compounds result in the formation of N-glucuronides and S-glucuronides, respectively, whereas C-glucuronides are obtained from compounds containing carbonyl group. The most common and rare drug glucuronides in humans are O-glucuronides and C-glucuronides, respectively [29].
There are many enzymes in humans that are polymorphic in nature and metabolize a variety of drugs through biotransformation reactions presented in Table 1.
Polymorphic enzymes | Endogenous cofactor | Biochemical reactions involved | Specific substrate | Intermediate metabolites | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sulfotransferase (SULT) | Sulfate | Sulfation | Salbutamol | Salbutamol sulfate | [30] |
UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) | UDP glucuronic acid | Glucuronidation | Morphine | Morphine-3-glucuronide | [31] |
Glutathione-S-transferase (GST) | Glutathione | Glutathione conjugation | Doxorubicin | Glutathione metabolite | [32] |
N-acetyltransferase (NAT) | Acetyl-CoA | Acetylation | SMX, caffeine | N-Ac SMX AFMU | [33, 34] |
Methyltransferase (MT) | Methyl | Methylation | Mercaptopurine, captopril | Methyl metabolite | [35] |
Important polymorphic human DMEs, cofactors, biochemical reactions, substrates and their intermediate metabolites.
The large substrate specificity of each UGT isoform makes possible the glucuronidation of structurally isolated molecules. In humans, roughly (40–70%) drugs administered clinically undergo glucuronidation [36]. In humans, 19 UGT isoforms have been recognized, expressed and differentiated: 9 UGT1A members encoded by the UGT1A gene locus are positioned on chromosome number 2 and nine members of UGT2B family (7 members of UGT2B and 2 members of the UGT2A subfamily) are located on chromosome 4. The isoforms of the UGT1A and UGT2B families have a key role in dispensing lipophilic compounds because of their ability to glucuronidate an extensive array of structurally different substrates. Different UGT isoforms are involved in the formation of drug glucuronides but they reveal overlapping and unusual substrate selectivity and specificity. Individual UGTs differ from each other in sense of regulation and expression. UGT activity is known to be affected by physiological and environmental factors like age, diet, disease state, induction and inhibition of UDP-glucuronosyltransferase by chemicals, ethnicity, genetic polymorphism and hormonal level [37]. Some general conjugation reactions of glucuronidation carried by UGT are expressed through chemical equations A–F, given below [38].
R -OH + UDP -GA → UDP + R -O-GA
R – SH + UDP -GA → UDP + R - S-GA
R -NH2 + UDP-GA → UDP + R NH−GA
R –CHO + UDP-GA → UDP + R -CO-GA
R -COOH + UDP-GA → UDP + R –CO−(OGA)
R -NHOH + UDP-GA → UDP + R -N−(OH)GA
The UGT1A isoforms are encoded by a single intricate and complex locus that is organized similarly in all mammals. The nine functional proteins are encoded by UGT1A gene locus (1A1, 1A3, 1A4, 1A5, 1A6, 1A7, 1A8, 1A9 and 1A10). In humans, the UGT1A gene size is about 200 kb located on chromosome 2q37 and encodes 13 isozymes. Each isoform has a distinctive promoter region, unique exon-1, and shares (2–5) four common exons [39]. Transcription is commenced at unique promoter. Consequently, each of the 13 transcripts has a unique 5′ end and a similar 3′ end, which is engaged in identification of the UDP-sugar molecule. The human UGT1A isoforms can be divided into four groups on the basis of sequence resemblance, amplification and divergence of gene: UGT1A1, UGT1A6 and UGT1A2P to 1A5 cluster and UGT1A7 to 1A13P cluster. Exons of UGT1A1 and UGT1A6 made proteins that are nearly 50% alike; conversely, within exons of 1A2P–1A5 and 1A7–1A13P clusters, the resulting proteins are more than 90% identical [17]. Four members (1A2P, 1A11P, 1A12P and 1A13P) of UGT2A subfamily have been recognized as pseudogenes since they have mutations that would avert their translation into functional proteins. It has been observed that complexity to the UGT1A locus produces another form of the common exon 5 so-called as 5b exon that can be merged into the human UGT1 proteins. The alternative forms produce mRNAs that encode smaller polypeptides of each UGT1 protein. These smaller proteins do not have a transmembrane part but keep their ability to confine themselves to smooth endoplasmic reticulum. These small UGT1 forms are non-functional and can heterodimerize with whole UGT1 form and lack their activity [40]. In human tissues, short-form UGT1 transcripts are largely distributed and expressed at considerable levels [41].
UGT1A1 is the most important isoform of UGT1A gene that brings about the glucuronidation of bilirubin (a breakdown product of haemoglobin) which required to be eliminated from the body. Genetic alterations in the UGT1A gene are presumed to have an intense effect on the health of affected individuals, particularly those that modify UGT1A1 activities and correspond to rare mutations. Sixty rare mutations have been well known as point mutations, deletions and insertions in UGT1A1 gene. Only a small number of these mutations are reported in common population with high frequency (up to 41%). These mutations called polymorphisms in TATA box region of UGT1A1 promoter produce variant alleles that lead to decrease in activity and rate of glucuronidation by UDP-glucuronosyltransferase [42–44]. These mutations in the UGT1 gene are correlated with two forms of the unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia syndromes. The wild type and common variant allele include six and seven repeats, respectively [45]. The UGT1A isoforms appeared to be expressed at a lower level in different populations of the world: approximately 0–3% in the Asian population, 2–13% in Caucasian population and up to 16–19% in Africans [44].
Paracetamol is being used as a probe drug to study slow and fast acetylation capacity of human [46], which is mainly cleared by hepatic glucuronidation from the body. Inter-individual variability in capacity to glucuronidate paracetamol and possible risk for liver damage could be explained by polymorphisms in genes encoding the paracetamol glucuronidation [47].
Court et al. used human liver samples for accessing paracetamol glucuronidation activity by UGT isoforms (1A1, 1A6, 1A9 and 2B15) that chiefly glucuronidate paracetamol. Three single-nucleotide polymorphisms (rs10929303, rs1042640 and rs8330) positioned in 3\' untranslated region of UGT1A1 were found to be associated with paracetamol glucuronidation activity. Consistently the highest glucuronidation activity is observed with SNP rs8330. This single-nucleotide polymorphism did not modify stability of mRNA and translation capacity [48].
In the pharmacokinetic studies, acetaminophen and SN-38 were used as phenotyping probes
The UGT2 gene family is further divided into two subfamilies on the basis of sequence resemblance: UGT2A and UGT2B. The genes in each subfamily usually have more than 70% sequence resemblance. The great level of resemblance makes it complex to establish orthologous associations between species in each subfamily. Therefore, a sequential numbering system based on their chronological order of discovery has been used for UGT2 genes [20]. In the human genome, the UGT2 family comprises of three UGT2A and six UGT2B members. The members of UGT2A subfamily are called pseudogenes as they do not form functional proteins. The members of UGT2B subfamily are encoded by separate and independent genes, including UGT2B4, UGT2B7, UGT2B10, UGT2B11, UGT2B15 and UGT2B17. The UGT2B genes emerge to be encoded by a firm group of genes located on chromosome number four [18].
The members of UGT2 family are supposed to be developed by replication of whole UGT2 gene. UGT2A3 gene has six distinct exons. However, UGT2A1 and UGT2A2 genes have a variable and shared exon structure similar to that of the UGT1A family. The UGT2 members also have first unique exon and a set of five shared (2–6) exons. The first 2 exons of each UGT2 gene encode a region of 241 amino acids similar to that of UGT1A gene locus [51].
UGT2B4 gene of UGT2 family plays an important role in biotransformation and glucuronidation of bile acids allowing their glucuronide efflux from hepatocytes
UGT2B4 gene is expressed in the chief metabolizing organ: liver and in several extrahepatic tissues [18, 54]. Polymorphism in the co-substrate binding region of UGT2B4 gene resulted in mutant allele, which causes change in position of amino acid from aspartate to glutamate at 458 codons [54]. The single change in position of amino acid alters the rate of glucuronidation. This variant allele is present in the Caucasian, African and Hispanic populations at a frequency varying between 0.17 and 0.38, whereas it is absent from the Asian population [54–56]. Lampe et al. used human liver samples to study polymorphisms in UGT2B4 gene. These polymorphisms cause a change in position of amino acids: from phenylalanine to leucine at codons 109 and 396. It was found that these polymorphisms are rare because they were absent in a big group of 272 individuals [56].
UGT2B15 gene showed glucuronidation activity towards steroid hormones, a number of classes of drugs and their metabolites [57–60]. A guanine to thymine replacement at codon 85 causes an amino acid change from aspartate to tyrosine in substrate binding site of UGT2B15 gene. The homozygous wild-type allele is not common in Caucasians as compared to the Asian, Hispanic and African populations. On the whole, 19–32% of the studied population have been found to bear homozygous variant allele. Levesque et al. studied the effect of UGT2B15 gene polymorphisms on function and enzyme activity
Lampe et al. evaluated the rate of recurrence of the UGT2B4, UGT2B7 and UGT2B15 polymorphisms in Caucasian and Asian individuals. For all polymorphisms, the genotype and allele frequencies were considerably different in both populations. The distribution of the genotypes also differed by ethnic group. All Asians were homozygous for common allele, and incidence of wild-type allele is two times higher in them as compared to Caucasians [56].
Navarro et al. investigated the effect of UGT1A6 and UGT2B15 genotypes on paracetamol glucuronidation in a controlled feeding trial. 1000 mg paracetamol was administered to healthy volunteers orally, and saliva and urine samples were collected for determining the concentration of paracetamol and its metabolites. The concentration of unchanged paracetamol is higher in men as compared to women who had more paracetamol glucuronide. The percentage of unchanged paracetamol is higher in individuals with homozygous common allele relative to heterozygote and homozygous variants. The UGT2B15 gene considerably affected the paracetamol glucuronidation while the involvement of UGT1A6 in paracetamol glucuronidation was moderate [61].
Mutlib et al. demonstrated the importance of UGT1A and UGT2B15 genotypes: 1A1, 1A6, 1A9 and 2B15 on paracetamol glucuronidation. It was observed that UGT1A1 and UGT2B15 contribution was highest in conjugating paracetamol [62]. The polymorphic variations in UGT1A and UGT2B genes are presented in Figure 1.
Schema representing the genetic polymorphic pattern of human UGT1A & UGT2B genes.
The third family of UGT superfamily is UGT3A that consists of two genes: UGT3A1 and UGT3A2. It is situated in a 115 kb piece of chromosome number 5p13. Each gene of this family includes seven unique exons that are just about 30 kb size and encodes 523 amino acids of protein. At protein level, both genes are 80% similar which shows larger conservation of sequence in UGT3A than that found in UGT1A and UGT2B families [63].
The fourth family of UGT superfamily is UGT8 gene family. This family is composed of a single gene which contains five exons and is situated on chromosome number four (4q26) together with genes that encode other phase II enzymes. The UGT8 gene is greatly conserved and does not involve in the biotransformation of drugs. This is due to its partial expression in the brain where exposure to xenobiotics is restricted [51].
In the human population, individual-to-individual variations exist genetically in UGT activity and are phenotypically divided as rapid or slow glucuronidator. On the basis of UDP-glucuronosyltransferase activity, humans are divided into bimodal and trimodal distributions. In bimodal distribution, humans are categorized as fast and slow glucuronidators or fast, intermediate and slow glucuronidators in trimodal distribution. UGT1A and UGT2B subfamilies exhibit overlapping but different substrate specificities and variable levels of expression in different organs [16, 36, 64, 65].
An increasing integer of functional single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) is identified in humans at UGT1A gene locus with a potential relevance for drug therapy. A single-nucleotide polymorphism or a combination of multiple nucleotide substitutions and insertion or deletion is responsible for allelic variants of UGT (UGT1A and UGT2B) [66]. The most common isoforms of UGT associated with drug metabolism are UGT1A1, 1A6, 1A9 and UGT2B4, UGT2B15. Many studies have described associations between specific phenotypes for UGT polymorphic enzyme and susceptibility to cancer, particularly lung and bladder, breast cancer, Parkinson’s disease and the autoimmune disease systemic lupus erythematosus. These associations may be due to differences in the ability of enzyme phenotypes to activate or detoxify chemical toxins or, alternatively, to linkage disequilibrium where a particular allele coding for another gene with a direct role in determining disease susceptibility shows genetic linkage with an allelic variant of the xenobiotic-metabolizing enzyme [67].
Genetic polymorphisms lead to truncated and shorter gene which efficiently diminishes enzymatic activity and even a single mutation alone can account for decrease or increase in enzymatic regulation. On the other hand, increased and elevated enzymatic activity may be due to elevated mRNA stability [59]. The expression and activity of UGT increase during childhood and adolescence. Many cis factors (polymorphism) and trans-factors including transcription factors (TFs) and nuclear receptors (NRs), miRNA targeting and other epigenetic regulating factors play an important role in the regulation of UGT enzyme expression. In the liver, transcription levels of UGTs determine their activity. The tissue specific and ligand-activated TFs and NRs play a chief role in the expression of UGTs by binding to cis-regulatory elements. The ontogeny of drug-metabolizing enzymes is analogous by the maturation of organ systems among children and has intense effects on drug disposition [68].
In the beginning, UGT1A and UGT2B families assumed to be evolved as consequences of their neutralizing function against noxious chemical at the hepatic and gastrointestinal barrier. Regulation of UGTs may have developed along with some other drug-metabolizing enzymes (DMEs) in the course of animal and plant competition [69]. The families expanded in different ways on different chromosomes, but similar exon-intron structures encode a protein family with similar functional architecture despite the amino acid sequence diversity [70]. UGTs performed their functions at pre-systemic, systemic level and locally in cells.
Glucuronidation by UGT provides a critical detoxification pathway for exogenous compounds and drugs from several therapeutic classes, including analgesic and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents, anticonvulsants, antipsychotics, anti-viral agents and benzodiazepines [27, 28, 71].
Some substrates and drugs are fairly selective for a particular UGT enzyme as the endogenous molecule; bilirubin is particularly glucuronidated by UGT1A1 enzyme. However, the bulk of substrates (small and hydrophobic molecules) are often metabolized by several UGT isoforms [72], thus making it complex to recognize which UGT enzyme is primarily accountable for the glucuronidation of compounds. The accessibility of individual cDNA has made it possible to study the function of each UGT enzyme, even though the quantitative variations in the rate of reaction might be present based on their expression [28]. Moreover, there are facts and figures which designate that UDP-glucuronosyltransferase enzymes are linked as homo and hetero-oligomers
Lampe et al. found that individuals possessing homozygous variant allele of UGT1A1 and UGT1A6 isoform presented abnormality in the conjugation of a variety of drugs. In Tankanitlert’s study, the combined effect of UGT1A1 and UGT1A6 genes was investigated in thalassemic patients. Thalassemic patients were grouped into three categories. It was figured out that there is no difference in glucuronidation capacity of patients with homozygous wild-type allele and those who were heterozygous, but rate of glucuronidation is lower in patients with variant alleles signifying that variant alleles are a potent modifier of acetaminophen glucuronidation [76].
In the human population, wide variations are found in their glucuronidation capacity of drugs. The extent of variations can range from 3-fold to more than 100-fold, considering the studied drug. Many genetic and environmental factors act discretely and in combination to produce broad inter-individual differences. Phenotype-like glucuronidation capacity of UGT is not separated from genotype but somewhat displays continuous and overlapping changes due to multiple interacting environmental and genetic factors [77].
In general population, polymorphisms in phase I and phase II drug-metabolizing enzymes lead to differences in enzyme expression level. This variability in enzyme expression is due to the presence of genetic polymorphisms and mutations in the wild-type gene, resulting in impaired or reduced activity of the enzyme. Individuals having mutated enzymes may differ from normal individuals in their vulnerability to certain diseases. Some specific phenotypes for these polymorphic enzymes are related to increased vulnerability to cancer, predominantly lung, bladder cancer and Parkinson’s disease. This altered enzyme activation or certain chemicals including constituents of tobacco, xenobiotics and neurotoxin initiate these diseases [78].
Biotransformation is a key process in the body that finds out the pharmacokinetics of an administered drug. Several factors, which control the level of biotransformation, include physiological state of the patient, genetics and co-administered drugs, and these may cause the toxic or sub-therapeutic concentration of drugs. The large inter-individual variability is gradually accumulating in glucuronidation due to underlying genetic mechanisms but a few polymorphisms have been described in UGTs with probable clinical relevance. The polymorphisms can lead to altered drug clearance with a clinically relevant phenotype. However, the proof
Human UDP-glucuronosyltransferase enzyme was appeared to be polymorphic genetically. Genetic polymorphisms in this enzyme are unlikely to participate in toxicity of drugs since the isozymes illustrate broad overlapping specificity and tissue distribution [79]. Polymorphisms lead to varying degree of transcriptional as well as functional variations that might reduce the activity of UGT enzyme and consequently affected individuals present some sort of pathology. The polymorphisms in UGT1A and UGT2B gene families were also suggested to change the risk of diseases either due to reduced inactivation of hormone or as a result of decreased detoxification of carcinogenic chemicals and production of their reactive conjugates [64].
The variant alleles of UGT1A1 gene result in some syndromes associated with the diminishing bilirubin conjugation capacity of UGT1A1 isoform. Kadakol et al. summarized the data of approximately 50 polymorphisms of UGT1A1 gene contributing to Crigler-Najjar syndrome type I and II. Crigler-Najjar syndrome type 1, also known as non-hemolytic jaundice, is entirely deficient of UGT1A1 activity due to which bilirubin exerts toxic effects on brain [80]. One of the widespread diseases caused by inactivity of UGT1A1 gene is Gilbert’s syndrome. More than 10% of the population suffered from this localized chaos was differentiated by sporadic unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia. This syndrome is associated with polymorphism in the promoter region of UGT1A1 enzyme [45]. In patients with Gilbert’s syndrome, when irinotecan drug was administered, it resulted in increased toxicity of an active metabolite of SN–38 because in these patients, UGT1A1 gene is not functional as it is responsible for the formation of inactive glucuronide of irinotecan [81].
Several studies assessed the function and differential expression of the UGT1A isoforms in the colon [82], liver [83], pancreas [84] and kidney cancers [85]. The inquiry of a case-controlled study exposed that individuals carrying variant alleles of UGT1A gene were at increased risk of having colorectal cancer [86]. In two independent studies, it was investigated that polymorphisms in promoter and coding regions of UGT1A isoforms were correlated with the toxicity of irinotecan drug in Japanese cancer patients and with neutropenia [66, 87].
Yilmaz et al. examined the association between mRNA expression of UGT (1A3 and 1A7) isoforms and pancreatic cancer. Healthy and tumour samples were collected from pancreatic patients. The mRNA expression of both isoforms of UGT1A gene was notably higher in pancreatic cancer tissue than normal healthy tissue, and this high expression was also linked with tumour size and its progression [88].
Cengiz et al. reported that expression of UGT1A genes was different in healthy normal and tumour cells of patients suffering from stomach cancer. This differential expression might affect the growth and progression of a variety of cancers [89]. Several authors studied the role of UGTs in breast cancer risk and incidence in different populations. They focused on the expression of isoforms of UGT1A gene by using cell lines of breast cancer and concluded that women with mutations in UGT1A1 enzyme were at higher risk of developing breast cancer due to its reduced activity but no relationship was observed between estrogen receptor status and UGT1A1 genotype [44, 90].
Bigler et al. examined the function of UGT1A6 polymorphisms in healthy controls and patients of colon adenoma in the context of aspirin use. A conflicting association was found between aspirin users’ colon adenoma patients and the UGT1A6 variants [82]. Several studies have explored the relationship between polymorphisms of UGT1A7 gene and colorectal, hepatocellular carcinoma and lung cancer in Japanese [91, 92], Chinese [83], Caucasian [93], French [94] and Koreans [95] with reduced incidence of common wild-type allele [96].
Uridine disphospho glucuronosyltransferase (UGT1A and UGT2B) enzyme contribute to the removal of miscellaneous drugs, environmental chemicals and endogenous compounds [27, 28]. The majority of human uridine disphospho glucuronosyltransferase enzymes metabolize aliphatic alcohol and phenol compounds of low molecular mass. Most of UGT genes contain single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) those altered drug metabolism, excretion and drug function and have been found to be associated with Crigler-Najjar syndrome type 1 and 2, hyperbilirubinemia and Gilbert’s syndrome. It is believed that SNPs in regulatory regions have the highest impact on phenotype [97].
MacLeod et al. observed that the individuals with elevated level of androgens might be at higher risk of prostate cancer due to presence of lower activity allele [98]. An independent case-control study verified that the patients of prostate cancer with homozygous variant allele had lower enzymatic activity [99]. A positive association has been reported between prostate cancer risk and low-activity UGT2B15 allele or a complete UGT2B17 deleted gene [99, 100]. The UGT2B15 gene is recognized to be greatly expressed in cell lines of prostate cancer [58, 101], and a noteworthy involvement was found between the UGT2B15 homozygous variant genotype and cancer recurrence [102]. The UGT2B15*2 variant allele appeared to be a risk factor for the incidence and poor subsistence of patients of breast cancer. It was reported in breast cancer patients who had mutations in more than one drug-metabolizing enzymes as one UGT2B15*2 allele and also the SULT1A1*2 allele had mainly reduced survival rates of five years.
In humans, uridine diphospho glucuronosyltransferase 2B (UGT2B) proteins facilitate the elimination of testosterone hormone in form of glucuronide metabolites. Grant et al. evaluated the association between UGT2B15 and UGT2B17 genes of UGT2B family relative to plasma levels of androgens and development of cancer in Whites and Blacks. An association was determined between copy number variant of the UGT2B17 gene and plasma androgen levels in Whites, but surprisingly, no association was found in Blacks [103].
A number of glucuronides are known to acquire pharmacologically useful and harmful activities. Morphine is mainly cleared from the body by glucuronidation pathway and possessed two binding domains [38]. The morphine-3-glucuronide (M-3-G) is the main glucuronide and is a powerful inhibitor of morphine [31, 104]. The deposition of M-3-G reduces the effectiveness of morphine and exerts excitatory effects on the central nervous system [105]. Decreased glucuronidation of morphine to morphine-6-glucuronide
Navarro et al. [61] evaluated the impact of UGT1A6 gene and dietary inducers on urinary excretion of aspirin in Caucasians and Asians. They undertook this study on healthy 264 men and 264 women aged between 21 and 45 years. These healthy volunteers were administered 650 mg aspirin, and their urine samples were collected at predetermined time intervals. Considerable variation was found in excretion pattern of aspirin between sexes and ethnicities. Asians excreted more aspirin, salicylic acid acyl-glucuronide and salicylic acid phenolic glucuronide as compared to Caucasians. Diet might manipulate the excretion of aspirin but effects were due to binding of glycine endogenous molecule rather than glucuronic acid. In another study, the glucuronidation of aspirin was undertaken in relevance to UGT isoforms: 1A1, 1A3, 1A4, 1A6, 1A7, 1A8, 1A9, 1A10, 2B4, 2B7, 2B15 and 2B17. It was analysed that all UGT isoforms conjugated aspirin except UGT1A4 and UGT2B17 [107].
Two polymorphisms in exon 1 region of UGT1A6 gene resulted in amino acid substitutions, and these substitutions were likely to be related to reduce enzyme activity towards numerous phenolic compounds [108]. UGT2B15 gene catalyses the metabolism of multiple substrates, thus enhancing their clearance from the body [60].
Many polymorphisms have been reported for UGT1A and UGT2B genes and new polymorphisms are continuously evolving. These polymorphisms affect the phenotype and extent of variation depends on the nature of the polymorphisms and their position in the gene. Knowledge about genetic polymorphisms underlying the extensive inter-individual differences in glucuronidation process is progressively gathering but only a small number of polymorphisms in UDP-glucuronosyltransferase enzyme have been reported with possible clinical significance. Patients possessing different genetic polymorphisms illustrated lower or even diminished glucuronidation of a wide range of drugs from almost all therapeutic classes. The incidence of polymorphisms is variable in different populations of the world for various isoforms of UGT1A and UGT2B.
Classification of UGT implicated in phenotyping reaction of a compound depends upon the activity of UGT, the expression and the incidence of glucuronidation rate. But the ever-increasing accessibility of agonists and antagonists probes for individual UGTs provides the dependable prospect for glucuronidation phenotyping. Moreover, many factors affect the functions and activities of UGT proteins
The tissue-specific expression of each UGT1A and UGT2B isoforms is the subject of genetic polymorphisms, and these individual isoforms can be induced and inhibited by drugs. The individual isoforms differed from each other in sense of substrate specificity and selectivity, the incidence of genetic polymorphisms and gene functions that resulted in broad inter-individual variability in metabolic clearance. It is apparent that polymorphisms in the coding and regulatory segments of all UGT enzymes are likely to be altered their functions and expression. In addition, induction of metabolism may increase the clearance of therapeutic agents, leading to sub-therapeutic exposures and lack of pharmacological effect. Alternatively, inhibition of metabolism may reduce the clearance of drugs and lead to supratherapeutic exposures, resulting in undesired side effects or toxicity.
Variation in DNA sequence results in SNPs, and analysis of SNPs in diseases allows investigation of the influence of genetic polymorphisms on disease vulnerability, drug resistance and eventually the health care. The study of SNPs provides a potent resource for establishing a relationship between a phenotype and regions of the DNA. Genetic polymorphism are sources of variations at all levels. Genetic polymorphism of genes encoding phase I and phase II enzymes describes inter-individual variability in the biotransformation of xenobiotics.
In the modern world, universities are living communities, immersed in the socio-economic and political environment of their residence, sharing the ideas, concerns, and major objectives of society at large. As Ernest Boyer [1] so adequately defined it, the university community, comprised of professors, students, administrative and support staff, is educationally purposeful, open, just, disciplined, caring and celebrative. The university community is
Universities face the same opportunities and threats as all the other types of communities and need to project plans ensuring their resilience during and after unexpected disruptions. They are not immune to natural or man-made disasters, the numerous examples in the 21st century – to limit the discussion only to these – offering ample food for thought. Hurricane Katrina in Louisiana (USA) in 2005, shooting on campus at Virginia Tech in 2007, earthquakes in Taiwan, 2019, extreme weather events in Australia, led to the adoption of guidebooks, emergency plans and training packages preparing the higher education system to manage the crisis and ensure the transition to the “business-as-usual” model. Region by region and country by country universities adopted the types of measures and documents suiting the specifics of their situation. Australian universities, for instance, constantly renew their internal regulations according to the nationally developed Emergency Planning Handbook [2], which emphasizes extreme weather events (2020). American universities base their crisis and emergency plans on the Department of Education’s Guide of 2013 [3], preparing both for natural, and man-made disasters. Taiwan incorporated disaster literacy in school programs, to facilitate disaster prevention and recovery from the frequent earthquakes in the region. Resilience plan for earthquakes and tsunamis are also adopted in Japan, Indonesia, India, etc. [4]. Inland countries, such as Romania, are less exposed to extreme weather events. Apart from drills related to firefighting or earthquakes, no significant preparation was made in Romania, for example, to face potential threats posed to education since the most major crises in the past century did not affect this sector to the extent of disruption. Higher education institutions, therefore, treated crisis-related topics lightly. Emergency topics remain relevant on the global scale, with UNESCO, as the United Nations lead for education, unfolding ample processes to ensure crisis preparedness and the response of countries and regions facing armed conflict, refugee crisis, natural hazards, and other types of risks [5].
Despite the theoretical, practical and actional preparedness, reflected in the above-mentioned guidelines, handbooks, policy recommendations referring to disasters (natural, man-made or otherwise), crisis, emergencies, or other significant events, the magnitude and depth of the global health crisis triggered by the COVID-19 pandemic took the educational system by surprise. On March 11, 2020, the World Health Organization publicly declared COVID-19 a pandemic [6]. Social distancing, face masks wearing in public places and stay-at-home measures were recommended, to “flatten the curve” and slow the spread of COVID-19. Reportedly, the pandemic affected 94% of the world’s student population, educational institutions struggling to diminish the impact of the crisis [7]. Buildings were untouched, the population was not displaced, but traditional educational face-to-face interactions were put on hold for an indefinite period. The solution resided in adopting emergency remote formats. The continuation of educational processes could not prevent regression in the recruitment and retention rates of students, many of the dropouts not having the intention to return to school even after “business as usual” is resumed. Hence, the importance of reflecting upon education during and in the aftermath of the crisis.
Emergency remote education (ERE) is not an innovation brought by searching for responses to the COVID-19 crisis. It received special attention with the creation of the Inter-agency Network for Education in Emergencies (INEE) [8], during a strategy session on Education in Emergencies held at the 2000 World Education Forum in Dakar. Since its’ creation, INEE developed the concept of education in emergencies, understood as “quality learning opportunities for all ages (…). Education in emergencies provides physical, psychosocial, and cognitive protection that can sustain and save lives. Common situations of crisis in which education in emergencies is essential include conflicts, situations of violence, forced displacement, disasters, and public health emergencies”. INEE develops standards, training packages and even publishes a
Higher education systems relied, at the peak of the COVID-19 crisis, on the pedagogical acquisitions of online learning experiences, even though for many stakeholders in the educational process online learning, e-learning or distance education represented entirely different cohorts from the in-campus education. One of the most referred to articles in the current literature on the educational response to the COVID-19 crisis is Charles Hodge’s
Assessment is a crucial element of the educational process, representing the segment during which professors evaluate, measure, and document the academic readiness, learning progress, skill acquisition, or educational needs of students after a teaching-learning sequence. It is often considered as a pivotal element for modernizing education systems, affecting how teaching and learning take place, but also as a tool for certification, enabling potential employers to understand the academic achievements of an individual [16]. Educational literature emphasizes the need to incorporate assessment provisions in the curriculum design and to ensure coherence and synergy between curriculum, pedagogy and learning outcomes [17]. In UNESCO’s Education strategy 2014–2021 assessment is treated as an important part of action towards “more just, inclusive, and equitable learning societies” [18]. However, the crisis of 2020–2021 brought new meanings to the assessment-related concerns.
The traditional pen-and-pencil exam was replaced by new tools, and frenzic searches for reliable and acceptable forms of assessment were enacted. Studies from the field show mixed reactions: to some practitioners, COVID-19 was the modernizing driver, that accelerated the incorporation of technological tools and facilitated the qualitative leap forward [19]. Others looked more at the “dark side” of technologically mediated assessment activities, which leave ample room for cheating and academic dishonesty on the part of the students [20]. A third path, however, is more fruitful in terms of enhancing the reliability and acceptability of assessment activities: the path opened by David Boud in his conceptualization of
Due to social isolation measures and the remote delivery of educational content, assessment activities were organized also in a remote fashion. Emergency remote assessment could not take place without the mediation of technology. Therefore, depending on the taught subject-matter, on the technological affordances, the teacher’s own capacity to innovate, students’ consent to the proposed activity, the emergency remote assessment took the form of:
peer-assessment [22]
take-home exams [24]
e-assessment activities (exams), human-led or computer-based [26].
All the above have been already carefully documented by Boud and Soler [21] as paths towards sustainable assessment implementation, but the disruption caused by the pandemic accelerated these possibilities as viable alternatives to the traditional assessment activities and enrich the community of practice with new case studies, reflections, and recommendations regarding the modernization of assessment. The calls to experiment and change in assessment practices, long claimed for [21, 27] could not be ignored.
Evidence from the abundant literature on teaching amid the COVID-19 crisis points to the fact that teachers felt overwhelmed by the added responsibilities to the workload assumed before the outbreak of the pandemic, while students felt anxiety, anger, detachment, and a loss of purpose in their educational path. Universities succeeded at uneven rates to provide normative and instructional support mechanisms to ease the shift from in-campus education to emergency remote teaching and learning [11]. The whole higher education ecosystem was challenged, and the psychological factors had to be considered alongside pedagogical solutions, technical affordances and the commitment of teachers and students to keep educational processes functional.
The pandemic situation forced a change in the environment for assessment activities. Instead of face-to-face exams (be those pen-and-pencil, oral, or computer-assisted, but with the physical presence of instructors in the exam room), a virtual environment had to be created, affecting the very medium of the exam conditions. It was
Overwhelmed by the amount of data and the task of offering rapid feedback to students, some professors experimented with diversifying the
Another element of the assessment that professors may have control over is the timing of the examination interaction. Many examples of the published case studies indicate that the dominant choice was a
The type of work submitted for assessment is of consequence to the way the activity is organized. Faced with the necessity to ensure access to education and non-discriminatory conditions for students with limited access to technology and/or the Internet, professors embraced to a larger extent
Emergency remote assessment (ERA) can best work if Boyer’s six principles are applied:
ERA needs to be
ERA needs to be
ERA needs to be
ERA relies on
ERA needs to be
Finally, ERA needs to be
In terms of the elements that need special attention for unfolding the emergency remote assessment, findings in the literature (case studies, surveys, and pedagogical reflections on the matter) show that the following four dimensions need to be considered:
Technological solutions that facilitate access to the educational process and ensure the support for assessment activities.
Appropriate pedagogical approaches, that consider the affordances of the newly created learning environment (virtual or otherwise).
Supporting measures, in the form of norms, regulations and procedures about the exceptionality of the emergency situation and allowing for the accommodation with the adaptive tools and procedures that account for the assessment activities.
Support structures and provisions ensure the well-being of teachers and learners as well, preventing burnout, technology fatigue, alienation, or disconnectedness.
For the first issue, ERA can benefit largely from the acquisitions of e-learning practices and computer-based assessment [7, 9, 29]. Students’ voices, however, warn that while ERA represented a breakthrough in educational practices and they welcome the comfort brought by the use of computers for assessment purposes, the human factor still needs to be present in the appraisal of the results [12]. Students liked that they could use computers or other digital devices during exams and those professors tried to offer feedback on time. However, they also showed that their satisfaction rate depends on the relationship negotiated with the instructor and that they do not fully trust technology to provide an accurate assessment of the learning outcomes, a reaction anticipated also in earlier research [30]. Change in assessment is often unwelcomed [30], but the COVID-19 crisis made it compulsory. Efforts were undertaken to overcome resistance in the face of new forms and in presenting assessment as more than a mechanism for gatekeeping and achievement certification.
In terms of pedagogical approaches, we share the belief that Torrey Trust and Jeromie Whalen voiced in proposing that teachers be trained in emergency remote education as part of their set of professional skills and as a precondition to ensuring the resilience of the educational system in times of future crisis [31, 32]. These authors advance the idea that exploring the difference between emergency, blended teaching, and online teaching “may help scholars and teacher educators identify professional learning topics that can improve teachers’ feelings of preparedness for teaching in any situation moving forward”, in all the instances about the educational process [32]. Taking one step further, we believe that the experiences of remote teaching and remote assessment should not be forgotten and the return to the “new normal” education needs to preserve the lessons of 2020–2021 in the institutional memory and practices, such as it is recommended by crisis management literature [33]. In reflecting upon the accumulated experiences, teachers and institutions contribute to building resilience, understood as the ability of colleges and universities to prevent, protect against, mitigate, respond to, and recover from the crisis, be it triggered by natural disasters or by man-made disruptive activities. By incorporating the lessons of education during the COVID-19 pandemic into institutional memory and practices, appropriate plans can begin to be formulated on how to steer universities towards being resilient.
Supporting measures were rapidly developed during the pandemic, a synthetic document drafted by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development grouping the available resources along with three categories: Curriculum Resources, Professional Development Resources, and tools [34]. These resources were developed by a variety of actors: educational systems, represented by ministries or alliances of universities, by private initiatives, by educational non-governmental organizations, etc. At the micro-level, each institution adopted its’ own set of measures to provide support to teachers and/or students, as shown by the numerous cases in the research literature on emergency remote education during the COVID-19 crisis.
Finally, the support measures and provisions ensuring the well-being of teachers and learners ensure the possibility of “building back better” the educational system in the aftermath of the pandemic, as listed among the nine ideas that shape the future of education in the post-pandemic world [35].
This intellectual journey into the pedagogical, managerial, and political experiences accumulated during the COVID-19 pandemic necessitating the adoption of emergency remote assessment (as part of the emergency remote education) stresses the necessity of researchers, policymakers, and educational practitioners to join forces and find solutions to the unexpected challenges brought by crisis situations. Beyond the immediate
Throughout its history, the university assessed itself as a learning, adaptive and evolving organization. It follows naturally that the university will use the pandemic lessons in post-event analyses, increasing the knowledge of the organization, in building anticipation of and preparation for future (disruptive) events. The coping phase, manifested at the outbreak of the pandemic in the form of adopting emergency educational solutions was replaced by the adaptation phase, during which acquisitions from other experiences were called upon (mainly from e-learning and technology-assisted education) and, finally, by the transformational phase, during which universities once again prove themselves to be drivers of innovation. Educational systems aim at building sustainable, resilient universities as part of the development of academic life, “continuously influenced by sociocultural, technological, and environmental changes” [37]. In the process, assessment practices need to evolve towards sustainable models, ensuring that appropriate pedagogical resources are activated, that students understand, accept and extract meaning from the assessment activities, that society acknowledges and recognizes the result and those technological affordances are put to use in the process. With each case study, a note from the field, review, or reflection the community of assessment practices enlarges and gains momentum.
Assessment activities, although occurring after a cycle of teaching-learning string, are planned at the initial phase, and incorporated in the curriculum. The specifics of the emergency situations cancel some of the features, if not the entire projection of assessment and new models need to be put in place. The future, resilient university should make room in the curriculum design for sustainable assessment forms, that are less influenced by external factors and allow for a smooth shift from in-campus activities to remote education. Such a sustainable model needs to be not only student-centered, but also co-created with students, to ensure that they understand, accept, and comply with the new provisions in their academic journey. Assessment should gain more visibility in institutional debates and policies, and despite all adverse events it cannot be canceled without risking that the progress of students through the curriculum eludes appraisal instruments. Innovative models of assessment should be encouraged, such as self-assessment, peer assessment, take-home exams, open-book exams, enhancing the responsibility of the learners towards learning, their understanding of the process and their preparation for transitioning from school to work.
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Restoration",slug:"soil-fauna-diversity-function-soil-degradation-biological-indices-soil-restoration",totalDownloads:7796,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:59,abstract:null,book:{id:"3007",slug:"biodiversity-conservation-and-utilization-in-a-diverse-world",title:"Biodiversity Conservation and Utilization in a Diverse World",fullTitle:"Biodiversity Conservation and Utilization in a Diverse World"},signatures:"Cristina Menta",authors:[{id:"145410",title:"PhD.",name:"Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Menta",slug:"cristina-menta",fullName:"Cristina Menta"}]},{id:"46202",doi:"10.5772/57425",title:"Marine Ecosystem Diversity in the Arabian Gulf: Threats and Conservation",slug:"marine-ecosystem-diversity-in-the-arabian-gulf-threats-and-conservation",totalDownloads:4790,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:48,abstract:null,book:{id:"3821",slug:"biodiversity-the-dynamic-balance-of-the-planet",title:"Biodiversity",fullTitle:"Biodiversity - The Dynamic Balance of the 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Vitule",authors:[{id:"58022",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean Ricardo Simões",middleName:null,surname:"Vitule",slug:"jean-ricardo-simoes-vitule",fullName:"Jean Ricardo Simões Vitule"},{id:"61834",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinicius",middleName:null,surname:"Abilhoa",slug:"vinicius-abilhoa",fullName:"Vinicius Abilhoa"},{id:"123966",title:"Dr.",name:"Hugo",middleName:null,surname:"Bornatowski",slug:"hugo-bornatowski",fullName:"Hugo Bornatowski"},{id:"123968",title:"BSc.",name:"Raul",middleName:"Rennó",surname:"Braga",slug:"raul-braga",fullName:"Raul Braga"}]},{id:"38670",doi:"10.5772/48351",title:"Efforts to Combat Wild Animals Trafficking in Brazil",slug:"efforts-to-combat-wild-animals-trafficking-in-brazil",totalDownloads:4697,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:33,abstract:null,book:{id:"2719",slug:"biodiversity-enrichment-in-a-diverse-world",title:"Biodiversity Enrichment in a Diverse World",fullTitle:"Biodiversity Enrichment in a Diverse World"},signatures:"Guilherme Fernando Gomes Destro, Tatiana Lucena Pimentel, Raquel Monti Sabaini, Roberto Cabral Borges and Raquel Barreto",authors:[{id:"142735",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Guilherme Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Gomes Destro",slug:"guilherme-fernando-gomes-destro",fullName:"Guilherme Fernando Gomes Destro"},{id:"148026",title:"Ms.",name:"Raquel",middleName:null,surname:"Monti Sabaini",slug:"raquel-monti-sabaini",fullName:"Raquel Monti Sabaini"},{id:"148027",title:"MSc.",name:"Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Cabral Borges",slug:"roberto-cabral-borges",fullName:"Roberto Cabral Borges"},{id:"148028",title:"MSc.",name:"Raquel",middleName:null,surname:"Barreto",slug:"raquel-barreto",fullName:"Raquel Barreto"},{id:"154825",title:"MSc.",name:"Tatiana Lucena",middleName:null,surname:"Pimentel",slug:"tatiana-lucena-pimentel",fullName:"Tatiana Lucena Pimentel"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"56873",title:"Impacts of Climate Change and Climate Variability on Wildlife Resources in Southern Africa: Experience from Selected Protected Areas in Zimbabwe",slug:"impacts-of-climate-change-and-climate-variability-on-wildlife-resources-in-southern-africa-experienc",totalDownloads:3368,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"Climate change and variability pose a threat to wildlife resources in semi-arid savannahs. With examples from selected protected areas in Southern Africa, this chapter highlights studies on detected climate changes particularly rainfall and temperature, outlines the predicted and observed impacts of climate change and variability on wildlife resources in savannah ecosystems and highlights the adaptation and mitigation strategies and implications for conservation. Literature indicates that Southern Africa is characterised by highly variable, erratic and unpredictable rainfall and increasing temperature coupled with an increasing trend in climate-related extreme events such as frequent droughts, cyclones and heat waves. Drought, in particular, has led to death in several wildlife species. This has implications on long-term survival of the species. Changes in rainfall and temperature patterns influence habitat quality and consequently abundance of distribution of wildlife species. Large herbivores such as elephants and hippopotamus in particular are vulnerable to climate change due to their ecology, whereas other species are less vulnerable. Climate-related extreme events, coupled with other anthropogenic stressors, interact to influence changes in abundance and distribution of wildlife resources. Understanding the influence of these climatic factors on wildlife resources is vital for adaptive management and protection of biodiversity.",book:{id:"5934",slug:"selected-studies-in-biodiversity",title:"Selected Studies in Biodiversity",fullTitle:"Selected Studies in Biodiversity"},signatures:"Olga L. Kupika, Edson Gandiwa, Shakkie Kativu and Godwell\nNhamo",authors:[{id:"202318",title:"Ms.",name:"Olga Laiza",middleName:null,surname:"Kupika",slug:"olga-laiza-kupika",fullName:"Olga Laiza Kupika"},{id:"202328",title:"Prof.",name:"Edson",middleName:null,surname:"Gandiwa",slug:"edson-gandiwa",fullName:"Edson Gandiwa"},{id:"202330",title:"Prof.",name:"Shakkie",middleName:null,surname:"Kativu",slug:"shakkie-kativu",fullName:"Shakkie Kativu"},{id:"202334",title:"Prof.",name:"Godwell",middleName:null,surname:"Nhamo",slug:"godwell-nhamo",fullName:"Godwell Nhamo"}]},{id:"57718",title:"Methods for Biodiversity Assessment: Case Study in an Area of Atlantic Forest in Southern Brazil",slug:"methods-for-biodiversity-assessment-case-study-in-an-area-of-atlantic-forest-in-southern-brazil",totalDownloads:2825,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Populations and species are disappearing due to disturbances in the environment caused by human activities. Given, the obvious risk of loss of diversity, it is increasingly necessary to take actions concerning preservation, in which safety features are necessary for measuring the variation of diversity in space and time. The aim of this study was to evaluate the structure and diversity in the arboreal component and natural regeneration in an area of Araucaria Forest in Southern Brazil. The vegetation sampling was performed by analyzing 180 subunits of 10 × 10 m, where all the arboreal individuals and natural regeneration were inventoried. Different alpha and beta indexes of diversity were calculated. The Margalef, Shannon, and the Beta indexes were underestimated, possibly influenced by the size of sample unit. Index Menhinick represented the diversity in a very real form, even in small sampling units. The indexes of Simpson and MacIntosh denote low dominance and the equity indexes showed high uniformity in species.",book:{id:"5934",slug:"selected-studies-in-biodiversity",title:"Selected Studies in Biodiversity",fullTitle:"Selected Studies in Biodiversity"},signatures:"Maria Raquel Kanieski, Solon Jonas Longhi and Philipe Ricardo\nCasemiro Soares",authors:[{id:"219216",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Raquel",middleName:null,surname:"Kanieski",slug:"maria-raquel-kanieski",fullName:"Maria Raquel Kanieski"},{id:"220250",title:"Dr.",name:"Solon Jonas",middleName:null,surname:"Longhi",slug:"solon-jonas-longhi",fullName:"Solon Jonas Longhi"},{id:"220251",title:"Dr.",name:"Philipe Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Casemiro Soares",slug:"philipe-ricardo-casemiro-soares",fullName:"Philipe Ricardo Casemiro Soares"}]},{id:"46541",title:"Ecosystem Biodiversity of India",slug:"ecosystem-biodiversity-of-india",totalDownloads:3492,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"3821",slug:"biodiversity-the-dynamic-balance-of-the-planet",title:"Biodiversity",fullTitle:"Biodiversity - The Dynamic Balance of the Planet"},signatures:"Vivek Khandekar and Anita Srivastava",authors:[{id:"51372",title:"Dr.",name:"Anita",middleName:null,surname:"Srivastava",slug:"anita-srivastava",fullName:"Anita Srivastava"},{id:"170148",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivek",middleName:null,surname:"Khandekar",slug:"vivek-khandekar",fullName:"Vivek Khandekar"}]},{id:"38697",title:"Floral and Avifaunal Diversity of Thol Lake Wildlife (Bird) Sanctuary of Gujarat State, India",slug:"floral-and-avifaunal-diversity-of-thol-lake-wildlife-bird-sanctuary-of-gujarat-state-india",totalDownloads:4012,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"2719",slug:"biodiversity-enrichment-in-a-diverse-world",title:"Biodiversity Enrichment in a Diverse World",fullTitle:"Biodiversity Enrichment in a Diverse World"},signatures:"Jessica P. Karia",authors:[{id:"142623",title:"Dr.",name:"Jessica",middleName:null,surname:"Karia",slug:"jessica-karia",fullName:"Jessica Karia"}]},{id:"38612",title:"Soil Fauna Diversity - Function, Soil Degradation, Biological Indices, Soil Restoration",slug:"soil-fauna-diversity-function-soil-degradation-biological-indices-soil-restoration",totalDownloads:7791,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:59,abstract:null,book:{id:"3007",slug:"biodiversity-conservation-and-utilization-in-a-diverse-world",title:"Biodiversity Conservation and Utilization in a Diverse World",fullTitle:"Biodiversity Conservation and Utilization in a Diverse World"},signatures:"Cristina Menta",authors:[{id:"145410",title:"PhD.",name:"Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Menta",slug:"cristina-menta",fullName:"Cristina Menta"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"841",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82587",title:"Introductory Chapter: Factors That Affect Biodiversity and Species Richness of Ecosystems - A Review",slug:"introductory-chapter-factors-that-affect-biodiversity-and-species-richness-of-ecosystems-a-review",totalDownloads:16,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105890",abstract:null,book:{id:"10763",title:"Biodiversity of Ecosystems",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10763.jpg"},signatures:"Levente Hufnagel and Ferenc Mics"},{id:"81863",title:"Exploiting the Attributes of Biocontrol Agent (Neochetina bruchi) as a Potential Ecosystem Engineer’s",slug:"exploiting-the-attributes-of-biocontrol-agent-neochetina-bruchi-as-a-potential-ecosystem-engineer-s",totalDownloads:8,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104775",abstract:"The biodiversity of lakes is continuously declining and diverse communities are being substituted by monoculture of invasive Eichhornia crassipes, resulting in a slew of environmental cascade effects. The ability of the Neochetina bruchi to self-perpetuate is a desirable aspect of biological control since it decreases the population to a reasonable level, making the approach more sustainable. N. bruchi is often referred to as “ecological engineers” because of the number of services it provides to the environment and enables herbicide application to be substantially reduced. Despite the presence of highly effective weevils against this weed, its effect on water hyacinth in association with the nutrients present in sites, is likely to vary with levels of disturbance caused by natural and anthropogenic factors. Understanding the aspects that determine the performance of these eco-engineers as valuable management tools will help to guide future endeavors. Our objective is to better comprehend their utility and limitations, along with critical knowledge gaps, to further enhance future applications.",book:{id:"10763",title:"Biodiversity of Ecosystems",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10763.jpg"},signatures:"Prerna Gupta and Sadhna Tamot"},{id:"80833",title:"Comparison of the Effectiveness of Different Tags in the Sea Urchin Paracentrotus lividus (Lamarck, 1816)",slug:"comparison-of-the-effectiveness-of-different-tags-in-the-sea-urchin-paracentrotus-lividus-lamarck-18",totalDownloads:58,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102594",abstract:"The marking of sea urchins was implemented with the main objective of being able to individually identify the urchins in the natural environment once released. In addition, it’s very useful to monitor individuals in studies of growth, movements, development, population dynamics, etc., that develop in the natural environment. Numerous different marking methodologies have been tested for sea urchins, either by physical marking (external and internal labels) or by using chemical marking methods consisting of the use of fluorochromes, which adhere to the calcified structures of the urchin. In this work, 5 different physical marks were used to mark 400 urchins of the Paracentrotus lividus species, which were kept for a month at the ECIMAT facilities in Toralla island. The efficacy of the methods used in each case was analyzed, comparing the survival rate and the tag retention rate of the tagged urchins obtained with each tagging methodology.",book:{id:"10763",title:"Biodiversity of Ecosystems",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10763.jpg"},signatures:"Noelia Tourón, Estefanía Paredes and Damián Costas"},{id:"79769",title:"Elucidation of Some Ecological Traits of Carabids (Coleoptera: Carabidae) Inhabiting Kakuma Campus Grassland, Kanazawa City, Japan",slug:"elucidation-of-some-ecological-traits-of-carabids-coleoptera-carabidae-inhabiting-kakuma-campus-gras",totalDownloads:46,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101658",abstract:"Although adult feeding habits and food requirements are currently and reasonably well known for many coleopteran species, still some carabid species are with peculiar feeding guilds. Although many studies have shown a relationship between morphology of mandibles and feeding behavior in different taxal group, still many aspects concerning the feeding behavior of carabids are promising. An assemblage of carabid species was collected from Kakuma Campus grassland in Kanazawa City, Japan. These species were represented by five subfamilies and nine tribes where the highest number of tribes (3 tribes) was confined to subfamily Harpalinae. The collected carabid assemblage was subjected to mandibular analysis and being categorized into two main groups; carnivorous and omnivorous species. Homologies among mandibular characteristics and functional adaptations of the mandible were also proposed to explore how the interaction network of carabids can affect their behavior in different habitats.",book:{id:"10763",title:"Biodiversity of Ecosystems",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10763.jpg"},signatures:"Shahenda Abu ElEla Ali Abu ElEla, Wael Mahmoud ElSayed and Nakamura Koji"},{id:"79313",title:"The Diversity of Endophytic Aspergillus",slug:"the-diversity-of-endophytic-aspergillus",totalDownloads:131,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99717",abstract:"In plants, endophytic fungi and plant are closely related, endophytic fungi can use substances in plants as nutrients to survive. In return, they bring many benefits to the plant, playing an important role in protecting the host plant against the harmful effects of insects, harmful microorganisms or environmental disadvantages. Recently, secondary fungi metabolites, especially endophytic fungi, are gaining interest because they can produce many bioactive metabolites with antibacterial, anticancer and antioxidant properties. Some endophytic fungi are noted as Aspergillus, Penicllium, Fusarium due to the production of many metabolites for biological effects such as antibacterial, antiviral, anticancer, etc. in which Aspergillus species product many compounds have properties antibacterial such as terrequinon A, terrefuranon, Na-acetyl aszonalemin, etc.",book:{id:"10763",title:"Biodiversity of Ecosystems",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10763.jpg"},signatures:"Vo Thi Ngoc My and Nguyen Van Thanh"},{id:"79203",title:"Soil Biodiversity and Root Pathogens in Agroecosystems",slug:"soil-biodiversity-and-root-pathogens-in-agroecosystems",totalDownloads:157,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99317",abstract:"Soil ecosystem is a living and dynamic environment, habitat of thousands of microbial species, animal organisms and plant roots, integrated all of them in the food webs, and performing vital functions like organic matter decomposition and nutrient cycling; soil is also where plant roots productivity represent the main and first trophic level (producers), the beginning of the soil food web and of thousands of biological interactions. Agroecosystems are modified ecosystems by man in which plant, animal and microorganisms biodiversity has been altered, and sometimes decreased to a minimum number of species. Plant diseases, including root diseases caused by soil-borne plant pathogens are important threats to crop yield and they causes relevant economic losses. Soil-borne plant pathogens and the diseases they produce can cause huge losses and even social and environmental changes, for instance the Irish famine caused by Phytophthora infestans (1845–1853), or the harmful ecological alterations in the jarrah forests of Western Australia affected by Phytophthora cinnamomi in the last 100 years. How can a root pathogen species increase its populations densities at epidemic levels? In wild ecosystems usually we expect the soil biodiversity (microbiome, nematodes, mycorrhiza, protozoa, worms, etc.) through the trophic webs and different interactions between soil species, are going to regulate each other and the pathogens populations, avoiding disease outbreaks. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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