Dye types and fixation (steaming) time after printing.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83962-891-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-890-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-892-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c18f9a3871d63b08f276453abde84a0c",bookSignature:"Prof. Joseph Mizrahi and Dr. Andrew Smith",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9627.jpg",keywords:"Muscle Fatigue, Time Domain, Biofeedback, Control, Signal Analysis, Signal Classification, Muscle Force, Maximum Voluntary Contraction, Incontinence, Pelvic Muscle, Facial EMG, Face Recognition",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 28th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 25th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 24th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 12th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 13th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"5 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Professor Emeritus, a faculty member of the Technion BME Department, served as Head of the BME Department, held positions with the Universities of the Witwatersrand Johannesburg, Cape Town, Harvard, Hong Kong Polytechnic, Drexel and NCKU University in Taiwan, he has headed for 18 years the Biomechanics Laboratory at the Loewenstein Rehabilitation Center in Ra'anana, Israel.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"60744",title:"Prof.",name:"Joseph",middleName:null,surname:"Mizrahi",slug:"joseph-mizrahi",fullName:"Joseph Mizrahi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/60744/images/system/60744.png",biography:"Professor Emeritus J. Mizrahi is a faculty member of the Technion BME Department. He received his BSc in Aerospace Engineering; MSc in Mechanics; and PhD in Biomedical Engineering, all from the Technion. He was Chair-Professor and served as Head of the BME Department for 5 years. He has also held positions with the Universities of the Witwatersrand Johannesburg, Cape Town, Harvard, Hong Kong Polytechnic, Drexel and NCKU University in Taiwan. He has headed for 18 years the Biomechanics Laboratory at the Loewenstein Rehabilitation Center in Ra'anana, Israel. His research interests, in Orthopaedic Biomechanics and Rehabilitation Neuro-Engineering, include: musculo-skeletal mechanics; muscle/bone interactions; muscle fatigue; Functional Electrical Stimulation of excitable tissues; tissue engineering, musculo-skeletal redundancies and mechanical indeterminacies. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"53674",title:"Soybean: For Textile Applications and Its Printing",doi:"10.5772/66725",slug:"soybean-for-textile-applications-and-its-printing",body:'\nRising world population needs more amount of textile fibers from year to year leading to necessity for higher world fiber production to meet increasing world fiber demand [1]. This surplus fiber demand has been recently met by the increase of manmade fiber production from petrochemicals which are processed using highly toxic chemical methods and will not decompose naturally [2]. Moreover, increasing oil prices, descending petroleum reserves and rising concerns regarding ecology set off alarm bells. Therefore, researchers and textile manufacturers are seeking biodegradable, sustainable and renewable textile fiber alternatives as an effective tool for compensating the world fiber demand while reducing the influence of the textile industry on the environment due to rising consumer awareness and demands about eco-friendly and organic products [2, 3]. Soybean plant is the source for one of those promising renewable, sustainable and biodegradable fibers for more sustainable world textile production. Soybean plant is a species of legume native to East Asia and its bean is not only edible but also has many uses [4]. One of those uses is in the textile industry. The soybean plant can be used for both cellulosic- and protein-based textile fiber production [5]. The first attempts to produce textile fibers from soybean protein were carried out during the mid-twentieth century [1, 6–8]. However, there were noteworthy challenges on its production in economic quantities and on fiber performance such as fiber strength that led to a decreasing interest for soybean protein fiber at that time [5, 9]. Nonetheless, as aforementioned, at the end of the twentieth century, there was a growing attention on eco-friendly natural-based sustainable biodegradable fibers due to ecological concerns, which leads to the awakening of promising soybean protein fiber. Key technological developments also provide opportunity for soybean protein fiber production with an ecologically friendly route leading to renewed interest [10–13]. Soybean cultivation has recently become much more cost-effective and soybean is one of the most abundant agricultural crops [14]. Therefore, soybean is cheap and abundant [6]. Furthermore, recent technical performance enhancement of soybean protein fiber via genetic-engineering techniques extends the commercial scope of this fiber [10, 11]. Therefore, in the 2000s, new soybean protein fiber, made from soybean protein and polyvinyl alcohol, was developed and a new soybean fibers’ production process commercially promoted, standardized and launched to the textile markets [1]. The previous tenacity-related problems were also overcome with the inclusion of polyvinyl alcohol. Modern techniques for soybean fiber production make use of cutting-edge bioengineering principles by means of usable protein that is extracted from waste materials: the leftover dregs from soybean oil, tofu and soymilk production [15]. On the other hand, in the case of cellulosic-based textile fiber from soybean plant, natural cellulose fibers were produced from soybean straw by a simple alkaline extraction in 2009 and the researchers reported that these fibers exhibit similar properties and structure to natural cellulose fibers from conventional sources and natural cellulose fibers derived from soybean straws could be suitable for textile, composite and other industrial uses [2, 16].
\nSoybean fiber is the only protein-based botanic fiber and derived from renewable plant sources and a man-made fiber and manufactured in China in vast amount [2, 17]. Soybean fiber is manufactured from soybean protein that can be manufactured in massive quantities and at a low cost [17]. Soybean fiber is a kind of regenerative plant fiber that is created from regenerated soya GlycineMax soybean proteins along with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) as a predominant component [1]. So in other way of saying, soybean fiber (SPF) is natural plant-based man-made regenerated protein fiber that is produced from a blend of soybean protein and polyvinyl alcohol [9, 18]. The soybean plant, its seeds and soybean protein fiber are shown in Figure 1.
\nSoybean plant, soybean seeds and soybean fiber (SPF) [9, 19, 20].
Soybeans contain great quantity of proteins, approximately 37–42%, compared to peanut (25%), milk (3.2%) and corn (10%) proteins [1, 21]. Soybean proteins can be used as food, feed, textile fiber, pharmaceutical, ink, adhesive, emulsion, cleansing material and plastic [1, 6, 7]. Soybean proteins are globular proteins and they are composed of varied individual proteins and a large variety of molecular-sized protein aggregates [9, 18]. The most important proteins of soybean are globulins and soybean proteins have two storage proteins: glycinin (30% of the total soybean seed protein) and β-conglycinin (predominant and 30–50% of the total soybean seed) [1, 9, 18]. Soybean proteins comprise 18 amino acids and the predominant amino acid of soybean protein is glutamic acid with 18.2% share [1, 18]. In more detail, soybean proteins consist of glycine (8.8%), alanine (7.5%), phenylalanine (4.4%), valine (6.3%), leucine (9.8%), isoleucine (4.8%), serine (6.4%), threonine (4.3%), tyrosine, aspartic acid (12.8%), glutamic acid (18.2%), histidine (5.5%), arginine (0.8%), lysine (3.9%), tryptophan and proline (5.6%) [1, 18]. Moreover, soybean protein also includes little amount of sulfur containing amino acids such as cysteine (1%) and methionine (0.35%) [1]. Globular proteins comprise polypeptide segments that are linked by hydrogen and disulfide bonds and electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions [1, 18].
\nLiquefied soybean protein is extruded from soybean after the extraction of soybean oil and mechanically processed to manufacture soybean protein fiber by utilizing new bioengineering technology [2, 22]. The manufacturers of soybean protein fiber declared that the soybean fiber production is ecofriendly and does not impart any damage to atmosphere, environment, human body and water [9, 18]. Soybean fiber production steps are displayed in Figure 2. But initially, oil is extracted from soybean and residual cake from the extraction is kept aside [15]. Soybean protein is not suitable for fiber spinning owing to its globular structure and for this reason denaturation and degradation processes, which are important processes for fiber formation, are applied to soybean protein to convert the protein solution into a spinnable fiber spinning dope [18]. The denaturation process of soybean protein could be carried out with alkalis, heat, or enzymes using bioengineering techniques [18, 23, 24]. There are only conformational changes occurring in denaturation stage and in this step, the protein molecule unfolds to result in linear protein chains retaining its primary structure [18]. Subsequently protein spinning solution is prepared with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and protein that is extracted from this residual protein cake [15] (Figure 2). Then, fiber spinning solution is spun using the wet spinning method. In this part, the fiber spinning dope solution, which comprises soybean and polyvinyl alcohol, is filtered and then forced through the spinneret. In the spinnerets, molecular chains are oriented and arranged into a structure involving crystalline and amorphous regions [18]. This orientation is greatly maintained in two sequential coagulation baths and after the coagulation steps, the cross-linking process is applied to soybean fibers in order to improve their mechanical properties [18] (Figure 2). Coagulated fibers are passed into a cross-linking bath after winding and it is reported that cross-linking step with glutaraldehyde could improve the mechanical properties of soybean protein fiber [18]. The last stages of the soybean protein fiber manufacture are washing, drying, followed by the drawing process in order to enhance the tensile strength properties of soybean fibers. Then the fiber can undergo winding, heat setting and cutting processes. Finally, soybean fibers with various specifications and varied lengths can be produced [15].
\nProduction steps of soybean fiber [9, 13, 18, 20].
Soybean protein fiber is under the classification of Azlon group and it is also known as “vegetable cashmere,” “artificial cashmere,” and “soy silk” due to its cashmere feel [5, 9, 25]. The natural color of soybean protein fibers is pale yellow or cream [5, 15]. Soybean fiber merges environmental advantages with satisfactory textile performance. As aforementioned, soybean fiber is eco-friendly, sustainable and biodegradable fiber [23]. Actually, this fiber can exhibit not only numerous aesthetic qualities in association with natural fibers, but also physical features which are more akin to those of the synthetic fibers [5]. Soybean fiber is soft, smooth, light and has natural luster like silk fiber, which contributes a luxurious appearance to its fabric [17, 25]. Soybean fiber exhibits perfect draping ability leading to elegant appearance and feeling with comfortable wearing conditions [17]. Moreover, soybean fiber displays excellent moisture absorption performances like those of cotton fiber but superior ventilation and moisture transmission properties leading to perfect moisture management ability [12, 17, 25, 26]. Soybean fiber fabrics are warm and comfortable with high heat of wetting [17].
\nSoybean fibers possess good mechanical properties such as single soybean fiber tenacity of 3.0 cN/dtex that is higher than that of silk, wool and cotton fibers [17, 25]. Nonetheless, the wet strength of soybean fiber is 35–50% of its dry strength [17]. What is more, this fiber also displays splendid easy wash, fast-dry and crease-resistance performance [25, 27, 28]. Soybean protein fiber exhibits antibacterial resistance for Styphalococcus aureuses, Coli bacillus and Candica albicans [1, 25]. They also have beneficial effect on human skin and human health due to their amino acid content [15]. The amino acids of soybean protein fiber could activate the collagen protein in the human skin, resist tickling and evaporate the skin [25]. Moreover, ultraviolet radiation absorption performance is better than that of cotton, viscose and silk fibers and can reach up to 99.7% [1, 22, 25].
\nAfter all, soybean protein fiber can satisfy the performance, comfort and functional demands of conventional and technical textile goods [22]. Therefore, soybean protein fiber has many various end-use application areas in the textile industry such as nonwovens, infant clothes, apparel, t-shirt, skirt, bed linen, undergarments, sleepwear, sportswear, bed sheets, towels, blankets, etc. [18, 25]. In addition, soybean fiber can be used alone and/or in blends with cashmere, wool, cotton, silk, elastic and synthetic fibers.
\nThere are quite few studies about the coloration, limited to dyeing process, of soybean fibers in the literature, which are dyeing with 1:2 metal-complex, acid, direct, reactive dyes and natural dyes [22, 29–34]. Choi et al. [29] investigated the performance of three acid dyes and some reactive dyes containing different reactive groups on soybean protein fiber in terms of exhaustion, fixation and build-up. In this study, monochlorotriazine (MCT), monofluorotriazine (MFT), difluorochloropyrimidine (DFCP) and vinyl sulfone (VS) reactive groups-based dyes were studied. Soybean protein fiber exhibits good dyeing brilliance and good color fastness to light and perspiration [15].
\nMoreover, Chongling and Zan-min [35] studied the dyeability of soybean fibers with reactive disperse dyes in the supercritical carbon dioxide environment. However, coloration is not only limited to dyeing process for textile surfaces, textile printing is also an important coloration process of applying color to the textile substrate in certain patterns and/or designs in the textile industry in order to decorate the fabric. Textile printing enables creating patterns, which could be impossible to compose with any other techniques, such as weaving and/or dyeing. It is also right spot to mention that printing is not only an important way of coloration but also a way of self-expressing styles and an important fashion tool. Therefore, it is also important to colorize this sustainable, renewable ecologic natural-based soybean protein fiber via the printing process using available commercial dyes.
\nIn this study, coloration via printing of soybean fiber with commercial chemical dyes [acid dyes, metal-complex dyes and reactive dyes (for polyamide and wool fibers)] and the effect of different steaming durations on colorimetric and color fastness (wash, rub, light fastness, etc.) properties of printed soybean fiber were examined and discussed. The optimum conditions for printing soybean protein fiber have not been studied within the literature reviewed. Therefore, the most appropriate dye class for soybean printing and the optimum fixation durations for soybean fiber printed with each dye type were examined and determined. Printed soybean fabric samples were fixed with different steaming times (such as 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 45 minutes) at 102°C. Color fastness (wash, rub and light fastness) and colorimetric (K/S, CIE L*, a*, b*, C* and ho co-ordinates, reflectance spectra and CIE Chromaticity Diagram) properties were investigated and compared.
\nIn this study, 100% soybean fiber single-jersey knitted fabric (fabric weight of 110 g/m2 and yarn count of 30/1) was utilized for coloration via printing. In order to determine the most suitable dye type for soybean printing, commercial acid dyes, 1:2 metal-complex dyes and reactive dyes (for polyamide and for wool fibers) were applied to soybean fiber via the printing process. It is known that acid, metal complex, reactive and chrome dyes can be used for protein fiber (wool and silk) printing processes. However, 1:1 metal complex dyes and chrome dyes have recently lost their significance in textile printing. Therefore, acid dyes, 1:2 metal complex dyes and reactive dyes have generally been preferred for textile printing purposes. Indeed, printing of wool and silk fibers is carried out using acid, 1:2 metal complex and reactive dyes in the textile industry. Silk fibers can be printed under similar conditions to wool fibers using acid and 1:2 metal-complex dyes. In the case of the printing process with reactive dyes, wool-fiber printing can be carried out under acidic conditions; however, silk fibers can be printed under alkaline conditions due to their higher stability under alkaline conditions in comparison with wool fibers. In this study, soybean fibers were printed with different dye classes, which are recommended for silk, wool and polyamide fibers. Both blue and red dyes were used for each dye class and all dyes were supplied from Huntsman (Huntsman Corporation, USA). Dyestuff information and fixation periods (steaming at 102°C) are shown in Table 1. Printing processes on soybean fabrics were carried out using printing paste recipes shown in Table 2.
\n\nCommercial names of selected dyes | \nDye types | \nFixation (steaming at 102°C) time (min) |
---|---|---|
Acid dyes Erionyl® Blue A-4G Erionyl® Red A-3G | \nMonosulfonic/disulfonic acid dyes | \n15, 30, 40, 45 |
1:2 Metal-complex dyes Lanacron Blue 3GL Lanacron Red 5B | \nMonosulfonated asymmetric 1:2 metal complex dyes | \n15, 25, 30, 40, 45 |
Reactive dyes for wool Lanasol Blue 3R Lanasol Red 5B | \nBromo acrylamide reactive group reactive dyes | \n10, 15, 20, 25, 30 |
Reactive dyes for polyamide Eriofast Blue 3R Eriofast Red B | \nNovel sulfo group containing reactive dyes | \n10, 15, 20, 25, 30 |
Dye types and fixation (steaming) time after printing.
Printing paste ingredients | \nAcid dyes (Erionyl)a | \nMetal-complex dyes (Lanacron)a | \nReactive dyes (Lanasol) | \nReactive dyes (Eriofast) | \n|
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dye | \n20 | \n20 | \n20 | \n20 | \ng |
Thickener (8%, sodium alginate, low viscosity) | \n– | \n– | \n500 | \n500 | \ng |
Thickener (guar-based thickener) | \n500 | \n500 | \n– | \n– | \ng |
Urea | \n50 | \n50 | \n50 | \n50 | \ng |
Hot water | \ny | \ny | \n– | \n– | \ng |
Butyldiglycol | \n40 | \n40 | \n– | \n40 | \n|
Sodium chlorate | \n5 | \n5 | \n10 | \n10 | \ng |
Sodium acetate | \n– | \n– | \n50 | \n– | \ng |
Citric acid | \n\n | \n | 10 | \n10 | \ng |
Ammonium sulfate 1:2b | \n60 | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n|
Water or thickener | \n~ | \n~ | \n~ | \n~ | \n|
Total | \n1000 | \n1000 | \n1000 | \n1000 | \ng |
Print paste recipes of each dye classes for soybean fiber.
ᵃ y: Water solubility of neutral dyeing acid dyes and metal complex dyes for printing is generally low, therefore necessary amount of hot water is carefully added to the printing pastes in order to ease the solubility of these dyes
ᵇ 1:2 (ammonium sulfate solution in water; 1 part of ammonium sulfate and 2 parts of water)
Viscosity degree of printing paste (Table 2) was measured with a No. 5 spindle using a Brookfield DV-I Prime Viscometer (20 Rpm) (DV-I PRIME, Brookfield Engineering Laboratories, USA) and measuring viscosity degree 40 poise as a base. Soybean fiber fabrics were printed at 8 m/minutes at press 6 on using Atac laboratory-type printing machine (RGK 40, Atac, Turkey) with 70 Nr PES gauze and a doctor blade 8 mm in diameter under the laboratory conditions.
\nPrinted soybean fiber fabrics were dried in a laboratory-type Atac drying machine (FT-200, Atac, Turkey) at 100°C for 3 minutes. Then, printed soybean fiber fabrics were steamed at 102°C for various fixation steaming durations (Table 1) with a laboratory-type steamer (ATC-HB350G, Atac, Turkey) for the dye fixation. It was earlier reported that optimum yields would only be acquired under humid steaming conditions when steaming prints on wool-protein-fiber fabric [36]. Moreover, it is also stated that the most brilliant and color-fast prints can only be acquired in saturated steam fixation at 100–102°C [37]. Therefore, fixation of soybean regenerated protein fiber fabrics following the printing process was carried out with steaming method at 102°C. Various steaming times (Table 1) were applied to printed soybean fiber fabrics in order to investigate optimum fixation conditions for soybean fiber printed with each dye class. After the fixation, printed soybean fiber fabrics were washed and dried at room temperature. After printing, the effects of different printing dye types and different steaming fixation times on colorimetric and color fastness properties of printed soybean fiber fabrics were evaluated and compared.
\nThe CIE L*, a*, b*, C* and ho color coordinates were measured and the K/S (color strength) values calculated from the reflectance values at the appropriate wavelength of maximum absorbance (λmax) for each fabrics using a DataColor SpectraFlash 600 (DataColor SpectraFlash 600, Datacolor International, USA) spectrophotometer (D65 day light, 10° standard observer). CIE color space is a color assessment technique, which compares the sample to be tested to a standard (white). Numerical data were acquired and recorded using a reflectance spectrophotometer (DataColor SpectraFlash 600, Datacolor International, USA) to obtain CIE L*a*b* values as follows:
\nOn the a* axis (red to green), positive values specify amounts of red while negative values specify amounts of green [a*; Red = Positive Value (+a*) and Green = Negative Value (−a*)]. In the case of b* axis (yellow to blue), positive numbers demonstrating increased yellowness and negative numbers demonstrating blueness [b*; Yellow = Positive Value (+b*) and Blue = Negative Value (−b*)].
\nThe K/ S values of the fibers were determined through Kubelka-Munk equation as given below:
\nwhere R is the reflectance at complete opacity, K is the absorption coefficient and S is the scattering coefficient. Moreover, reflectance spectra, CIE chromaticity diagrams (CIE chromaticity diagram exhibits the mapping of human perception with regard to x and y values. Here, color is stated in regard to these two CIE parameter color coordinates; x and y.), K/S-C*, a*-b* and L*-C* colorimetric graphs of printed soybean fabrics were measured and presented. h° (hue angle) is expressed in degrees. The starting point of the hue angle is at the +a* axis (redness) where the hue angle is 0°. The hue angle is 90° for the +b* axis (yellowness), 180° for the −a* axis (greenness) and 270° for the −b* axis (blueness). Saturation (C*: Chroma) and h° can be calculated according to below equations:
\nWash, rub (dry and wet) and light fastness properties were determined according to ISO 105:C06 A2S (40°C in a M228 Rotawash machine, SDL ATLAS, UK), ISO 105: X12 and ISO 105: B02 (color fastness to artificial light: Xenon arc lamp) standards, respectively. ISO grey scale was used for the estimation of color fastness of the printed soybean fiber fabrics to washing and to dry and wet rubbing. Color fastness to light was determined using the blue-wool scale.
\nData obtained from the assessments of printed soybean fabric colorimetric properties appear in Tables 3–6 and Figures 3–26, while the results of the color fastness properties of printed soybean fabrics appear in Tables 7 and 8.
\nSoybean fiber fabrics were printed with the acid dyes that are generally used for wool and silk printing. Colorimetric data of soybean fiber fabrics after printing with acid dyes and following fixation via steaming are shown in Table 3 and Figures 3–8. It can be easily seen that the reflectance spectra of soybean fabrics printed with Erionyl Blue A4G and Erionyl Red A3G dyes (acid dyes) and then fixed via steaming at various steaming periods were very close to each other and even overlapped for some cases (Figure 3). Therefore, soybean fabrics printed with studied acid dyes and then fixed with steaming at different periods exhibited close colorimetric values without drastic changes (Table 3 and Figures 5, 7). Moreover, the shade differences of the visual appearances of fabrics printed with red (Erionyl Red A3G) and blue (Erionyl Blue A4G) acid dyes were also detected on reflectance spectra, a*, b* and ho values [Figures 3, 5 (CIE chromaticity diagram), 7 (a*-b* plot) and Table 3]. Especially, CIE chromaticity diagram shows the exact shades of printed soybean fabric samples with their measured chromaticity coordinates on two-dimensional (x-y) color diagram (Figure 5).
\n\nPrinted soybean fabrics [dye, fixation (steaming) time] | \nL* | \na* | \nb* | \nC* | \nh0 | \nK/S |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Erionyl Blue A-4G, 15 min | \n36.93 | \n−21.88 | \n−21.19 | \n30.46 | \n224.07 | \n15.25 |
Erionyl Blue A-4G, 30 min | \n36.36 | \n−21.96 | \n−20.84 | \n30.27 | \n223.50 | \n15.74 |
Erionyl Blue A-4G, 40 min | \n34.32 | \n−21.38 | \n−20.75 | \n29.79 | \n224.15 | \n17.33 |
Erionyl Blue A-4G, 45 min | \n36.39 | \n−22.05 | \n−20.87 | \n30.36 | \n223.42 | \n15.85 |
Erionyl Red A-3G, 15 min | \n39.44 | \n54.54 | \n29.08 | \n61.81 | \n28.07 | \n21.23 |
Erionyl Red A-3G, 30 min | \n38.03 | \n54.05 | \n29.09 | \n61.38 | \n28.29 | \n23.16 |
Erionyl Red A-3G, 40 min | \n38.40 | \n55.32 | \n30.84 | \n63.33 | \n29.14 | \n24.26 |
Erionyl Red A-3G 45 min | \n38.15 | \n53.85 | \n29.03 | \n61.18 | \n28.33 | \n23.05 |
Color coordinates of soybean fabrics printed with acid dyes (Erionyl dyes).
Reflectance (%)-wavelength (nm) spectra of soybean fabrics printed with acid dyes (Erionyl dyes).
There was no big difference between the color strength values (K/S) of soybean fabrics printed and steamed for 15 and 30 minutes (Table 3 and Figure 4). Increasing steaming time to 40 minutes on soybean fabrics led to a slight increase on color strength. However, it seems that longer steaming period such as 45 minutes was not necessary since such prolonged steaming application resulted in a slight decrease in color strength (Table 3 and Figure 4). The highest color strength values for both Erionyl Blue A 4G (K/S with 17.33) and Erionyl Red A 3G (K/S with 24.26) dyes were attained after 40 minutes of steaming for fixation. It is in parallel with the literature which states that relatively long steaming times of 30–60 minutes are generally required to fix acid dyes on other protein fibers; wool or silk [37].
\nColor strength degrees of soybean fabrics printed with Erionyl acid dyes according to various fixation steaming duration.
CIE chromaticity diagram showing the chromaticity coordinates of soybean samples printed with the Erionyl acid dyes.
As it can be observed from Figure 6, chroma values (C*) of soybean fabrics printed with Erionyl Blue A-4G and fixed with varying times exhibited close values. As earlier mentioned, 40-minute steaming resulted in the highest color strength (K/S of 17.33) for fabrics printed with Erionyl Blue A-4G. On the other hand, in the case of Erionyl Red A-3G, 40 minutes of steaming led to the highest color strength (24.26) and the highest chroma (63.33) on printed soybean fabrics (Figure 6). It is clear that both color strength and chroma values of soybean protein fiber fabrics printed with Erionyl Red A-3G were significantly higher than those of soybean printed with Erionyl Blue A-4G (Figure 6).
\nK/S-C* (color strength versus chroma) diagram of soybean fabrics printed with Erionyl acid dyes and fixed with different steaming periods.
a* and b* values of soybean samples printed with Erionyl Blue A-4G and fixed with varied steaming periods were very close to each other (Figure 7). On the other hand, in the case of Erionyl Red A-3G, 40-minute steaming resulted in redder and yellower appearance with a slightly higher a* value and a slightly higher b* value in comparison to other steamed samples (Table 3 and Figure 7). Lightness (L*) and chroma (C*) degrees of soybean fabrics printed with Erionyl Blue A-4G and fixed with varying times exhibited close values (Figure 8). The 40-minute steamed sample exhibited the lowest lightness value of 34.82 leading to the highest color strength of 17.33, as expected (Figure 8 and Table 3). The higher color strength (K/S) led to the lower lightness values (L*). In the case of Erionyl Red A-3G dye, as earlier mentioned, the 40-minute steamed sample displayed the highest chroma value (Figure 8).
\na*-b* (redness-greenness versus yellowness-blueness) diagram of soybean samples printed with Erionyl acid dyes.
L*-C* (Lightness versus chroma) diagram of soybean fabrics printed with Erionyl acid dyes and fixed with different steaming periods.
Colorimetric data of soybean fiber fabrics after printing with acid dyes followed by fixation via steaming are shown in Table 4 and Figure 9–14.
\n\nPrinted soybean fabrics [dye, fixation (steaming) time] | \nL* | \na* | \nb* | \nC* | \nh0 | \nK/S |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lanacron Blue 3 GL, 15 min | \n21,50 | \n−1,77 | \n−11,04 | \n11,19 | \n260,89 | \n22.05 |
Lanacron Blue 3GL, 25 min | \n20.85 | \n−1.66 | \n−10.31 | \n10.94 | \n261.27 | \n22.93 |
Lanacron Blue 3GL, 30 min | \n20.32 | \n−1.57 | \n−10.74 | \n1086 | \n261.68 | \n24.01 |
Lanacron Blue 3GL, 40 min | \n19.64 | \n−1.22 | \n−10.20 | \n10.27 | \n263.20 | \n24.26 |
Lanacron Blue 3GL, 45 min | \n1965 | \n−1.50 | \n−10.22 | \n10.33 | \n261.66 | \n24.65 |
Lanacron Red 2GL, 15 min | \n32.23 | \n43.37 | \n17.61 | \n46.81 | \n22.10 | \n20.11 |
Lanacron Red 2GL, 25 min | \n32.37 | \n44.57 | \n18.57 | \n4823 | \n22.62 | \n20.94 |
Lanacron Red 2GL, 30 min | \n3231 | \n44.35 | \n18.32 | \n47.93 | \n22.44 | \n21.14 |
Lanacron Red 2GL, 40 min | \n3198 | \n44.11 | \n18.36 | \n47.73 | \n22.60 | \n21.64 |
Lanacron Red 2GL, 45 min | \n30.81 | \n43.40 | \n18.58 | \n47.21 | \n23.18 | \n23.05 |
Color coordinates of soybean fabrics printed with 1:2 metal complex dyes (Lanacron).
It is clear that the reflectance spectra of soybean fabrics printed with Lanacron Blue 3GL and Lanacron Red 2GL dyes (1:2 metal complex dyes) and then fixed via steaming at various steaming periods were very close to each other (Figure 9). Prolonged steaming time on soybean fabrics printed with 1:2 metal complex dyes (Lanacron Blue 3GL and Lanacron Red 2GL dyes) resulted in an increase in color strength for both dyes (Table 4 and Figure 10). The highest color strength values were observed for 45-minute steamed soybean samples printed with both Lanacron Blue 3GL (K/S of 24.65) and Lanacron Red 2GL (K/S of 23.05) dyes (Table 4). It is known that the steam, used after printing, provides the moisture and rapid heating, which gives rise to the transfer of dye molecules from the thickener film (guar-based thickener in our case) to the fiber within a reasonable time [37]. It seems that prolonged steaming time resulted in better fixation and higher attachment rates of the 1:2 metal complex dyes on the soybean fiber leading to higher color strength in general.
\nReflectance (%)-wavelength (nm) spectra of soybean fabrics printed with 1:2 metal complex dyes (Lanacron dyes).
Color strength degrees of soybean fabrics printed with 1:2 metal complex dyes (Lanacron dyes) according to various fixation steaming durations.
The color shade differences of the visual appearances of soybean protein fiber fabrics printed with Lanacron Blue 3GL and Lanacron Red 2GL dyes (1:2 metal complex dyes) were also detected on reflectance spectra, CIE chromaticity diagram, a*-b* plot and hue angle (ho) values (Figures 9, 11, 12 and Table 4). Particularly CIE chromaticity diagram displayed the exact shades (red and blue colors) of printed soybean fabric samples with their measured chromaticity coordinates on two-dimensional (x-y) color diagram (Figure 11). Soybean samples printed with 1:2 metal complex dyes and fixed with varied steaming periods (15, 25, 30, 40, 45 minutes) exhibited very close a* and b* values (Figure 12).
\nCIE chromaticity diagram showing the chromaticity coordinates of soybean samples printed with 1:2 metal complex dyes (Lanacron dyes).
a*-b* (redness-greenness versus yellowness-blueness) diagram of soybean samples printed with 1:2 metal complex dyes (Lanacron dyes).
Lightness (L*) and chroma (C*) degrees of soybean fabrics printed with 1:2 metal complex dyes (Lanacron dyes) and fixed with varying times exhibited close values (Figure 13). Printing with metal complex dyes generally results in duller color prints with less brightness [37]. For instance, soybean fabrics printed with Lanacron Red 2GL were brighter than samples printed with Lanacron Blue 3GL (Figure 13). It is known that color brightness increases while C* and L* values are both rising at the same time [38]. Acid dyes (Erionyl dyes) led to brighter appearance on soybean fabric in comparison with 1:2 metal complex dyes (Lanacron dyes). Indeed, higher lightness (L*) and higher chroma (C*) values were measured in the case of acid dyes (Erionyl Blue A 4G and Erionyl Red A 3G) when compared to 1:2 metal complex dyes (Lanacron Blue 3GL and Lanacron Red 2GL) (Tables 3, 4 and Figures 8 and 13). Chroma values (C*) of soybean fabrics printed with Lanacron Blue 3GL and Lanacron Red 2GL and fixed with varying times displayed close values (Figure 14). As aforementioned, color yield (K/S) of printed soybean samples increased with increased fixation periods. It seems that the proper diffusion of large 1:2 metal complex dye molecules into the soybean fiber needs time and the diffusion increases with the increased steaming fixation times leading to a high color yield.
\nL*-C* (Lightness versus chroma) diagram of soybean fabrics printed with 1:2 metal complex dyes (Lanacron dyes) and fixed with different steaming periods.
K/S-C* (color strength versus chroma) diagram of soybean fabrics printed with 1:2 metal complex dyes (Lanacron dyes) and fixed with different steaming periods.
Colorimetric data of soybean fiber fabrics after printing with reactive dyes (for wool) followed by fixation via steaming are shown in Table 5 and Figure 15–20. It is clearly observable that the reflectance spectra of soybean fabrics printed with Lanasol Blue 3R reactive dye and then fixed via steaming at various steaming periods were very close to each other and even overlapped for some cases (Figure 15). Soybean fabrics printed with Lanasol Blue 3R and then fixed with steaming at different periods exhibited close colorimetric values without drastic changes (Table 5 and Figure 16, 18–20). On the other hand, the reflectance spectra of soybean fabrics printed with Lanasol Red 5B reactive dye and then fixed via steaming at various steaming periods were slightly different leading to slightly different color properties (Table 5 and Figure 16, 18–20).
\n\nPrinted soybean fabrics [dye, fixation (steaming) time] | \nL* | \na* | \nb* | \nC* | \nh0 | \nK/S |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lanasol Blue 3R, 10 min | \n3570 | \n−2.31 | \n−23.46 | \n23.57 | \n264.39 | \n9.09 |
Lanasol Blue 3R, 15 min | \n34.63 | \n−2.05 | \n−23.69 | \n23.78 | \n265.05 | \n9.85 |
Lanasol Blue 3R, 20 min | \n34.50 | \n−2.20 | \n−23.31 | \n23.41 | \n264.60 | \n9.89 |
Lanasol Blue 3R, 25 min | \n35.54 | \n−2.23 | \n−24.23 | \n24.33 | \n264.75 | \n9.35 |
Lanasol Blue 3R, 30 min | \n35.08 | \n−2.26 | \n−23.61 | \n23.72 | \n264.53 | \n9.55 |
Lanasol Red 5B, 10 min | \n28.66 | \n40.15 | \n−7.87 | \n40.91 | \n348.91 | \n20.29 |
Lanasol Red 5B, 15 min | \n23.13 | \n40.33 | \n−7.94 | \n41.10 | \n348.86 | \n21.43 |
Lanasol Red 5B, 20 min | \n25.87 | \n38.83 | \n−5.57 | \n39.23 | \n351.83 | \n24.78 |
Lanasol Red 5B, 25 min | \n23.09 | \n39.77 | \n−7.69 | \n40.51 | \n349.06 | \n21.04 |
Lanasol Red 5B, 30 min | \n23.43 | \n39.54 | \n−7.43 | \n40.23 | \n349.36 | \n20.02 |
Color coordinates of soybean fabrics printed with reactive dyes for wool (Lanasol dyes).
Reflectance (%)-wavelength (nm) spectra of soybean fabrics printed with reactive dyes for wool (Lanasol dyes).
Color strength degrees of soybean fabrics printed with reactive dyes for wool (Lanasol dyes) according to various fixation steaming durations.
There was no big difference between the color strength values (K/S) of soybean fabrics printed with Lanasol Blue 3R dye and then fixed via steaming at various steaming periods (Figure 16 and Table 5). There were differences between the color strength values (K/S) of printed with Lanasol Red 5B dye and steamed soybean fabrics (Figure 16 and Table 5). The highest color strength values for both Lanasol Red 5B (K/S with 24.78) and Lanasol Blue 3R (K/S with 9.89) dyes were obtained after 20 minutes steaming for fixation. Longer steaming periods such as 25 or 30 minutes slightly decreased color strength (Figure 16 and Table 5).
\nThe color shade differences of the visual appearances of soybean protein fiber fabrics printed with Lanasol Blue 3R and Lanasol Red 5B dyes (reactive dyes for wool) were also detected on CIE chromaticity diagram, a*-b* plot and hue angle (ho) values (Figure 17, 18 and Table 5). It is known that reactive dyes constitute true chemical bonds with the SH, NH, or NH2 groups in the polypeptide chains in acid media (pH 3–5) at 80–100°C and these dyes can provide brilliant color in prints [37]. Particularly CIE chromaticity diagram displayed the exact shades (maroon and dark blue colors) of printed soybean fabric samples with their measured chromaticity coordinates on two-dimensional (x-y) color diagram (Figure 11). Soybean samples printed with Lanasol Blue 3R and fixed with varied steaming periods (10, 15, 20, 25, 30 minutes) exhibited very close a* and b* values (Figure 18). In the case of Lanasol Red 5B dye, 10-, 15-, 25- and 30-minute steamed soybean samples were slightly redder and bluer in comparison with 20-minute steamed soybean sample according to a* and b* values (Figure 18).
\nCIE chromaticity diagram showing the chromaticity coordinates of soybean samples printed with reactive dyes for wool (Lanasol dyes).
a*-b* (redness-greenness versus yellowness-blueness) diagram of soybean samples printed with reactive dyes for wool (Lanasol dyes).
Lightness (L*) and chroma (C*) degrees of soybean fabrics printed with Lanasol Blue 3R and fixed with varying times exhibited close values (Figure 19). In the case of Lanasol Red 5B dye, 10-, 15-, 25- and 30- minute steamed soybean samples, when compared to 20-minute steamed soybean sample, exhibited slightly higher chroma and higher lightness leading to slightly brighter appearance (Figure 19). As aforementioned chroma values (C*) and color yields (K/S) of soybean fabrics printed with Lanacron Blue 3GL and fixed with varying times displayed very close values (Figure 14). Overall, the highest color strength values (K/S) for both Lanasol reactive dyes were obtained after 20 minutes of steaming. It is known that reactive dyes for printing wool possess better solubility than acid dyes and can be usually sprinkled directly into the print paste as solids without the use of dye solvents and that they need shorter steaming times which are a clear benefit in continuous steaming [39]. This is clearly in line with the results of soybean fabrics printed with reactive dyes for wool (Lanasol dyes), since, in this case, short steaming time as 20 minutes was enough for satisfying print quality from the color point of view. However, one should be careful while working with reactive dyes in printing, since unlevelness problem in large blotches can occur in some shade areas [39].
\nL*-C* (lightness versus chroma) diagram of soybean fabrics printed with reactive dyes for wool (Lanasol dyes) and fixed with different steaming periods.
K/S-C* (color strength versus chroma) diagram of soybean fabrics printed with reactive dyes for wool (Lanasol dyes) and fixed with different steaming periods.
Soybean fiber fabrics were printed with the reactive dyes (Eriofast dyes), which are generally recommended for polyamide printing. Colorimetric data of soybean fiber fabrics after printing with reactive dyes (Eriofast dyes) followed by fixation via steaming are shown in Table 6 and Figures 21–26. It can be easily seen that the reflectance spectra of soybean fabrics printed with Eriofast Red B reactive dyes and then fixed via steaming at various steaming periods were slightly different leading to slightly different color properties (Table 6 and Figures 21, 23–26).
\n\nPrinted soybean fabrics [dye, fixation (steaming) time] | \nL* | \na* | \nb* | \nC* | \nh0 | \nK/S |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Eriofast Blue 3R, 10 min | \n36.55 | \n4.43 | \n−39.01 | \n39.26 | \n276.48 | \n10.52 |
Eriofast Blue 3R, 15 min | \n35.27 | \n5.49 | \n−39.57 | \n39.95 | \n277.90 | \n11.52 |
Eriofast Blue 3R, 20 min | \n34.70 | \n5.24 | \n−39.00 | \n39.36 | \n277.65 | \n11.97 |
Eriofast Blue 3R, 25 min | \n34.99 | \n5.12 | \n−38.83 | \n39.16 | \n277.51 | \n11.61 |
Eriofast Blue 3R, 30 min | \n32.47 | \n6.76 | \n−39.83 | \n40.40 | \n279.63 | \n14.35 |
Eriofast Red B, 10 min | \n43.59 | \n55.63 | \n5.64 | \n55.91 | \n5.79 | \n13.10 |
Eriofast Red B, 15 min | \n41.86 | \n55.76 | \n6.46 | \n56.13 | \n6.61 | \n15.41 |
Eriofast Red B, 20 min | \n42.37 | \n58.65 | \n8.78 | \n59.30 | \n8.51 | \n16.81 |
Eriofast Red B, 25 min | \n41.06 | \n56.19 | \n7.51 | \n56.69 | \n7.61 | \n16.81 |
Eriofast Red B, 30 min | \n40.73 | \n56.42 | \n8.05 | \n57.00 | \n8.12 | \n17.20 |
Color coordinates of soybean fabrics printed with reactive dyes for polyamide (Eriofast dyes).
Reflectance (%)-wavelength (nm) spectra of soybean fabrics printed with reactive dyes for polyamide (Eriofast dyes).
On the other hand, Eriofast Blue 3R printed and fixed with various steaming periods soybean samples exhibited closer reflectance spectra leading to close color properties (Table 6 and Figures 21, 23–26). Prolonged steaming time in soybean fabrics printed with Eriofast dyes (reactive dyes for polyamide) led to an increase in color strength for both dyes (Table 6 and Figure 22). A similar case was also observed for 1:2 metal complex dyes. The highest color strength values were observed for 30-minute steamed soybean samples printed with both Eriofast Blue 3R (K/S of 14.35) and Eriofast Red B (K/S of 17.20) dyes (Table 6). It could be said that prolonged steaming time caused better fixation and higher attachment rates of Eriofast reactive dyes in the soybean fiber leading to higher color strength.
\nColor strength degrees of soybean fabrics printed with reactive dyes for polyamide (Eriofast dyes) according to various fixation steaming durations.
The color shade differences of the visual appearances of soybean protein fiber fabrics printed with Eriofast Blue 3R and Eriofast Red B dyes (reactive dyes for polyamide) were also detected on reflectance spectra, CIE chromaticity diagram, a*-b* plot and hue angle (ho) values (Figures 21, 23, 24 and Table 6). Particularly CIE chromaticity diagram displayed the exact shades (red and blue colors) of printed soybean fabric samples with their measured chromaticity coordinates (Figure 23). Soybean samples printed with Eriofast Blue 3R reactive dye and fixed with varied steaming periods (10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 minutes) displayed close a* and b* values (Figure 24). A similar observation could be made for Eriofast Red B reactive dye with one exception. Only 20-minute steamed soybean fabric printed with Eriofast Red B dye was slightly redder and yellower due to higher a* and b* values (Figure 24 and Table 6).
\nCIE chromaticity diagram showing the chromaticity coordinates of soybean samples printed with reactive dyes for polyamide (Eriofast dyes).
a*-b* (redness-greenness versus yellowness-blueness) diagram of soybean samples printed with reactive dyes for polyamide (Eriofast dyes).
Soybean fabrics which are printed with Eriofast reactive dyes and fixed with varying times exhibited close lightness (L*) and chroma (C*) values with slight differences (Figure 25). 20-minute and 30-minute steamed samples exhibited the highest chroma values for Eriofast Red B (59.3) and Eriofast Blue 3R (40.4), respectively (Figure 25). 30-minute steamed samples exhibited the lowest lightness values leading to the highest color strength, as expected (Figure 25 and Table 6). Soybean fabrics printed with Eriofast Red B were brighter than soybean fabrics printed with Eriofast Blue 3R with higher lightness and chroma levels (Figure 25). Soybean fabric printed with Eriofast Red B and fixed with 30-minute steaming displayed the highest color strength and chroma value (Figure 26). For Eriofast Red B, 30 minutes of steaming resulted in the highest color strength value.
\nL*-C* (lightness versus chroma) diagram of soybean fabrics printed with reactive dyes for polyamide (Eriofast dyes) and fixed with different steaming periods.
K/S-C* (color strength versus chroma) diagram of soybean fabrics printed with reactive dyes for polyamide (Eriofast dyes) and fixed with different steaming periods.
Color fastness of colored material is a very important factor for buyers’ demand [40, 41]. Color fastness is the resistance of color to fade or bleed of colored textile substrates occurring due to various types of influences such as water, light, rubbing, washing, perspiration, etc., which normally occur in textile manufacturing and in our daily use [41, 42]. Washing and light fastness properties are the most important parameters to evaluate the performance of the textile material and to decide its end-use application type [43]. In addition, dry and wet rub fastness properties are also an important for apparel applications [17]. The effects of dye-class type and fixation time by steaming on the color fastness properties of soybean fiber fabrics printed with commercial dyes are discussed below. Wash, rub (dry and wet) and light fastness properties of printed soybean samples are shown in Tables 7 and 8.
\n\nPrinted soybean fabrics | \nK/S | \nLight fastness | \nRub fastness (X12) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
[dye class, dye name, fixation (steaming) time] | \n\n | (Xenon) (1–8) | \nDry | \nWet | |
Acid dyes | \nErionyl Blue A-4G, 15 min | \n15.25 | \n4 | \n3–4 | \n2–3 |
\n | Erionyl Blue A-4G, 30 min | \n15.74 | \n4–5 | \n3–4 | \n2–3 |
\n | Erionyl Blue A-4G, 40 min | \n17.33 | \n4–5 | \n3–4 | \n2–3 |
\n | Erionyl Blue A-4G, 45 min | \n15.85 | \n4–5 | \n3–4 | \n2–3 |
\n | Erionyl Red A-3G, 15 min | \n21.23 | \n3 | \n4–5 | \n3–4 |
\n | Erionyl Red A-3G, 30 min | \n23.16 | \n3–4 | \n4–5 | \n3–4 |
\n | Erionyl Red A-3G, 40 min | \n24.26 | \n3–4 | \n4–5 | \n3–4 |
\n | Erionyl Red A-3G, 45 min | \n23.05 | \n3–4 | \n4–5 | \n3–4 |
1:2 Metal complex dyes | \nLanacron Blue 3GL, 15 min | \n22.05 | \n7 | \n4–5 | \n3–4 |
\n | Lanacron Blue 3GL, 25 min | \n22.93 | \n7 | \n4–5 | \n3–4 |
\n | Lanacron Blue 3GL, 30 min | \n24.01 | \n7 | \n4–5 | \n3–4 |
\n | Lanacron Blue 3GL, 40 min | \n24.26 | \n7 | \n4–5 | \n3–4 |
\n | Lanacron Blue 3GL, 45 min | \n2.65 | \n7 | \n4–5 | \n3–4 |
\n | Lanacron Red 2GL, 15 min | \n20.11 | \n7 | \n4 | \n3–4 |
\n | Lanacron Red 2GL, 25 min | \n20.94 | \n7 | \n4 | \n3–4 |
\n | Lanacron Red 2GL, 30 min | \n21.14 | \n7 | \n4 | \n3–4 |
\n | Lanacron Red 2GL, 40 min | \n21.64 | \n7 | \n4–5 | \n3–4 |
\n | Lanacron Red 2GL, 45 min | \n23.05 | \n7 | \n4–5 | \n3–4 |
Reactive dyes for wool | \nLanasol Blue 3R, 10 min | \n9.09 | \n4–5 | \n4–5 | \n3–4 |
\n | Lanasol Blue 3R, 15 min | \n9.85 | \n4–5 | \n4–5 | \n3–4 |
\n | Lanasol Blue 3R, 20 min | \n9.89 | \n4–5 | \n4–5 | \n3–4 |
\n | Lanasol Blue 3R, 25 min | \n9.35 | \n4–5 | \n4–5 | \n3–4 |
\n | Lanasol Blue 3R, 30 min | \n9.55 | \n4–5 | \n4–5 | \n4 |
\n | Lanasol Red 5B, 10 min | \n20.29 | \n5 | \n4–5 | \n3–4 |
\n | Lanasol Red 5B, 15 min | \n21.43 | \n5 | \n4–5 | \n3–4 |
\n | Lanasol Red 5B, 20 min | \n24.78 | \n5–6 | \n4–5 | \n3–4 |
\n | Lanasol Red 5B, 25 min | \n21.04 | \n5 | \n4–5 | \n3–4 |
\n | Lanasol Red 5B, 30 min | \n20.02 | \n5 | \n4–5 | \n3–4 |
Reactive dyes for polyamide | \nEriofast Blue 3R, 10 min | \n10.52 | \n5 | \n4–5 | \n3–4 |
\n | Eriofast Blue 3R, 15 min | \n11.52 | \n5–6 | \n4–5 | \n3–4 |
\n | Eriofast Blue 3R, 20 min | \n11.97 | \n5–6 | \n4–5 | \n3–4 |
\n | Eriofast Blue 3R, 25 min | \n11.61 | \n5–6 | \n4–5 | \n3–4 |
\n | Eriofast Blue 3R, 30 min | \n14.35 | \n5–6 | \n4–5 | \n4 |
\n | Eriofast Red B, 10 min | \n13.10 | \n5 | \n4–5 | \n3–4 |
\n | Eriofast Red B, 15 min | \n15.41 | \n5–6 | \n4–5 | \n3–4 |
\n | Eriofast Red B, 20 min | \n16.81 | \n5–6 | \n4–5 | \n3–4 |
\n | Eriofast Red B, 25 min | \n16.81 | \n5–6 | \n4–5 | \n3–4 |
\n | Eriofast Red B, 30 min | \n17.20 | \n5–6 | \n4–5 | \n4 |
Light and rub fastness properties of printed soybean fabrics.
Printed soybean fabrics | \nK/S | \nWash fastness staining (C06-A2S) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[dye, fixation (steaming) time] | \n\n | Diacetate | \nCotton | \nPolyamide | \nPolyester | \nAcrylic | \nWool |
Erionyl Blue A-4G, 15 min | \n15.25 | \n5 | \n4–5 | \n4 | \n4–5 | \n5 | \n4–5 |
Erionyl Blue A-4G, 30 min | \n15.74 | \n5 | \n4–5 | \n4 | \n4–5 | \n5 | \n4–5 |
Erionyl Blue A-4G, 40 min | \n17.33 | \n5 | \n4–5 | \n4 | \n4–5 | \n5 | \n4–5 |
Erionyl Blue A-4G, 45 min | \n15.85 | \n5 | \n4–5 | \n4 | \n4–5 | \n5 | \n4–5 |
Erionyl Red A-3G, 15 min | \n21.23 | \n4–5 | \n4 | \n4–5 | \n4–5 | \n4–5 | \n4–5 |
Erionyl Red A-3G, 30 min | \n23.16 | \n4–5 | \n4 | \n4–5 | \n4–5 | \n4–5 | \n4–5 |
Erionyl Red A-3G, 40 min | \n24.26 | \n4–5 | \n4 | \n4–5 | \n4–5 | \n4–5 | \n4–5 |
Erionyl Red A-3G, 45 min | \n23.05 | \n4–5 | \n4 | \n4–5 | \n4–5 | \n4–5 | \n4–5 |
Lanacron Blue 3GL, 15 min | \n22.05 | \n5 | \n5 | \n4–5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 |
Lanacron Blue 3GL, 25 min | \n22.93 | \n5 | \n5 | \n4–5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 |
Lanacron Blue 3GL, 30 min | \n24.01 | \n5 | \n5 | \n4–5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 |
Lanacron Blue 3GL, 40 min | \n24.26 | \n5 | \n5 | \n4–5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 |
Lanacron Blue 3GL, 45 min | \n24.65 | \n5 | \n5 | \n4–5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 |
Lanacron Red 2GL, 15 min | \n20.11 | \n5 | \n5 | \n4–5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 |
Lanacron Red 2GL, 25 min | \n20.94 | \n5 | \n5 | \n4–5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 |
Lanacron Red 2GL, 30 min | \n21.14 | \n5 | \n5 | \n4–5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 |
Lanacron Red 2GL, 40 min | \n21.64 | \n5 | \n5 | \n4–5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 |
Lanacron Red 2GL, 45 min | \n23.05 | \n5 | \n5 | \n4–5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 |
Lanasol Blue 3R, 10 min | \n9.09 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 |
Lanasol Blue 3R, 15 min | \n9.85 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 |
Lanasol Blue 3R, 20 min | \n9.89 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 |
Lanasol Blue 3R, 25 min | \n9.35 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 |
Lanasol Blue 3R, 30 min | \n9.55 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 |
Lanasol Red 5B, 10 min | \n20.29 | \n5 | \n4–5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 |
Lanasol Red 5B, 15 min | \n21.43 | \n5 | \n4–5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 |
Lanasol Red 5B, 20 min | \n24.78 | \n5 | \n4–5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 |
Lanasol Red 5B, 25 min | \n21.04 | \n5 | \n4–5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 |
Lanasol Red 5B, 30 min | \n20.02 | \n5 | \n4–5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 |
Eriofast Blue 3R, 10 min | \n10.52 | \n5 | \n5 | \n4–5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 |
Eriofast Blue 3R, 15 min | \n11.52 | \n5 | \n5 | \n4–5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 |
Eriofast Blue 3R, 20 min | \n11.97 | \n5 | \n5 | \n4–5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 |
Eriofast Blue 3R, 25 min | \n11.61 | \n5 | \n5 | \n4–5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 |
Eriofast Blue 3R, 30 min | \n14.35 | \n5 | \n5 | \n4–5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 |
Eriofast Red B, 10 min | \n13.10 | \n5 | \n5 | \n4–5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 |
Eriofast Red B, 15 min | \n15.41 | \n5 | \n5 | \n4–5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 |
Eriofast Red B, 20 min | \n16.81 | \n5 | \n5 | \n4–5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 |
Eriofast Red B, 25 min | \n16.81 | \n5 | \n5 | \n4–5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 |
Eriofast Red B, 30 min | \n17.20 | \n5 | \n5 | \n4–5 | \n5 | \n5 | \n5 |
Wash fastness properties of printed soybean fabrics.
It seems that increase in steaming time resulted in very slight light fastness performance improvement in some cases (Table 7). This observation is quite visible in the case of Eriofast dyes (reactive dyes for polyamide). In this case, prolonged steaming fixation times resulted in up to three quarter point improvement on light fastness values. This is most probably due to their higher color strength leading to higher dye content in the fiber. Although acid dyes resulted in vibrant colors on soybean fibers, their related light fastness values were not so high and in the range of 4–4/5 and 3–3/4 for Erionyl Blue A-4G and Erionyl Red A-3G dyes, respectively (Table 7). A 1:2 metal complex dyes (Lanacron dyes) led to the highest light fastness performance of seven rating with only very slight fading on soybean fabrics according to the blue-wool scale (Table 7). These quite high light fastness levels are not surprising, since metal complex dyes are known to impart higher fastness properties in comparison with acid dyes [37]. However, on the other hand, metal complex dyes may result in duller colors [37]. Indeed, both measured brightness and light fastness differences between soybean fabrics printed with acid and 1:2 metal complex dyes were in line with this previous experience. Reactive dyes which are recommended for wool fibers (Lanasol dyes) resulted in moderate to good light fastness values on soybean fibers with 4/5–5/6 which are higher than the light fastness levels of acid dyes (Eriofast dyes). Other studied reactive dyes which are recommended for polyamide fibers (Eriofast dyes) caused slightly higher light fastness levels on soybean fibers with 5–5/6 in comparison with reactive dyes for wool fibers (Lanasol dyes) (Table 7). These good light fastness results were not surprising since reactive dyes generate true chemical bonds with the SH, NH, or NH2 groups in the polypeptide chains of the protein fiber leading to good fastness levels and brilliant colors [37]. Optimum steam fixation durations, which were reported and discussed in the color properties section for each dye class led to the highest light fastness levels. This is most probably owing to the higher color strength (K/S) with higher dye content in the fiber.
\nIn analogy with the light fastness performance, the lowest rub fastness levels were obtained for acid dyes, as expected (Table 7). The dry and wet rub fastness levels of soybean printed with Erionyl Blue A-4G acid dyes were in the range of 3–4 and 2–3, respectively. Erionyl Red A-3G dyes resulted in up to 1 point improvement for both dry (4/5–4/5) and wet (3–4) rub fastness when compared to Erionyl Blue A-4G (Table 7). It is known that wool and silk protein fibers printed with acid dyes exhibit very vivid print colors with moderate fastness levels. Therefore, acid dyes must be selected to achieve acceptable light and wet fastness for each end-use, along with the preferred brilliance of hue [37].
\nSoybean fabrics printed with 1:2 metal complex dyes (Lanacron dyes) exhibited 3–4 gray scale rating for wet rub fastness. In the case of dry rub fastness, blue dye (Lanacron Blue 3GL) resulted in commercially acceptable fastness levels of 4–5 gray scale rating which was about half point higher than those of red dye (Lanacron Red 2GL) (Table 7). Reactive dyes, which are recommended for wool fibers (Lanasol dyes), led to moderate to good rub fastness levels on soybean fibers with 3/4–4 for dry rub and 4–5 for wet rub fastness (Table 7). Other studied reactive dyes, which are recommended for polyamide fibers (Eriofast dyes) resulted in similar rub fastness levels on soybean fibers with 3/4–4 for dry rub and 4–5 for wet rub fastness (Table 7). It is expected that reactive dyes for printing wool protein fiber exhibit good wet fastness properties [39]. A 1:2 metal complex dyes and reactive dyes (for both wool and polyamide) resulted in quite good and commercially acceptable dry rub fastness and moderate to good wet rub fastness levels. The different steaming times did not result in significant differences on rub fastness level. Prolonged steaming fixation times sometimes resulted in only up to a quarter point improvement on wet rub fastness value.
\nPrinted soybean samples for all dye classes and all steaming times exhibited commercially acceptable wash fastness levels, which are equal to or above 4 gray scale rating (Table 8). Most of them were gray scale rating of 5 with no staining at all. The rests exhibited only one point lower wash fastness levels than the maximum available (Table 8). Although acid dyes resulted in slightly lower wash fastness levels than other three dye classes, wash fastness levels of soybean fabrics printed with acid dyes are still good and in the commercially acceptable range. A 1:2 metal complex dyes and reactive dyes (for both wool and polyamide) led to quite good and commercially acceptable wash fastness levels. As mentioned earlier, reactive dyes can form covalent bonds with –NH, –NH2, –SH and –OH groups of protein fibers leading to high fastness levels. There were no significant differences between the wash fastness levels due to different dye class, different dye and different fixation steaming time. The different steaming times did not result in significant differences on wash fastness level. Prolonged steaming fixation times sometimes resulted in only up to a quarter point difference on wash fastness value.
\nIt is important to colorize sustainable, renewable ecologic natural-based soybean fiber properly via printing for the textile and fashion industry. Dye selection and fixation conditions after printing affect the color yield and quality of the print. Optimum fixation conditions in respect of colorimetric values and color fastness properties should be determined for dye class in order to obtain the best possible print quality on soybean fiber fabric. In the case of soybean protein fabrics printed with acid dyes (Erionyl dyes), the highest color strength values for Erionyl Blue A 4G (K/S = 17.33) and Erionyl Red A 3G (K/S = 24.26) dyes were obtained after 40 minutes of steaming for fixation. In the case of 1:2 metal complex dyes (Lanacron dyes), the highest color strength values were observed for 45-minute steamed soybean samples with both Lanacron Blue 3GL (K/S = 24.65) and Lanacron Red 2GL (K/S = 23.05) dyes. These two observations are in parallel with the literature where it was stated that relatively long steaming times of 30–60 minutes are generally required to fix acid and metal complex dyes on wool and silk protein fibers. It is known that the steam used after printing provides the moisture and rapid heating which gives rise to the transfer of dye molecules from the thickener film to the fiber within a reasonable time. It seems that the proper diffusion of the large 1:2 metal complex dye molecules into the soybean fiber needs a little more time and the diffusion increases with increasing steaming fixation time leading to a high color yield. Acid dyes (Erionyl dyes) led to brighter appearance on soybean fabric in comparison with 1:2 metal complex dyes (Lanacron dyes). The highest color strength values for Lanasol Red 5B (K/S = 24.78) and Lanasol Blue 3R (K/S = 9.89) dyes (Bromo acrylamide reactive group reactive dyes which are generally recommended for wool printing) on soybean were obtained after 20-minute steaming fixation. In the case of novel sulfo group containing Eriofast reactive dyes which are generally recommended for polyamide printing, the highest color strength values were observed for 30-minute steamed soybean samples with Eriofast Blue 3R (K/S = 14.35) and Eriofast Red B (K/S = 17.20) dyes. It is known for printing wool protein fiber that reactive dyes possess better solubility than acid dyes and can be usually sprinkled directly into the print paste as solids without the use of dye solvents and that they need shorter steaming times which is a clear benefit in continuous steaming.
\nLight fastness values of soybean printed with acid dyes were not so high and in the range of 4–4/5 and 3–3/4 for Erionyl Blue A-4G and Erionyl Red A-3G dyes, respectively. A 1:2 metal complex dyes (Lanacron dyes) led to the highest light fastness performance of 7 rating with only very slight fading on soybean fabrics. Reactive dyes which are recommended for wool and polyamide fibers (Lanasol and Eriofast dyes) resulted in moderate to good light fastness values on soybean fibers with 4/5–5/6 and 5–5/6, respectively, which were higher than the light fastness levels of acid dyes (Eriofast dyes). In analogy with the light fastness performance, the lowest rub fastness levels were obtained for acid dyes. A 1:2 metal complex dyes and reactive dyes (for both wool and polyamide) on soybean printing resulted in quite good and commercially acceptable dry rub fastness and moderate to good wet rub fastness levels. The different steaming times did not result in significant differences on rub fastness level. Prolonged steaming fixation times sometimes resulted in only up to a quarter point improvement on wet rub fastness value. Printed soybean samples for all dye classes and all steaming times exhibited commercially acceptable wash fastness levels, which are equal to or above 4 gray scale rating. Acid dyes resulted in slightly lower wash fastness levels than other three dye classes. A 1:2 metal complex dyes and reactive dyes (for both wool and polyamide) on soybean printing led to quite good and commercially acceptable wash fastness levels. Reactive dyes can form covalent bonds with –NH, –NH2, –SH and –OH groups in the polypeptide chains of protein fibers leading to high fastness levels. The different steaming times did not result in significant differences on wash fastness level. Prolonged steaming fixation times sometimes resulted in only up to a quarter point difference on wash fastness value.
\nThis study exhibits that acid and 1:2 metal-complex dyes (originally used for printing of natural protein fibers such as wool and silk fibers) and special reactive dyes (used for printing of wool and polyamide fibers) can be used for the printing process of regenerated soybean fiber leading to high color strength with adequate color fastness performance. Steaming at 102°C for 40 and 45 minutes are the optimum fixation conditions for acid and 1:2 metal-complex dyes on soybean fiber fabrics, respectively. On the other hand, steamings at 102°C for 20 minutes and 30 minutes are the optimum fixation conditions for wool-type reactive dyes and polyamide-type reactive dyes on soybean fiber fabrics, respectively. These optimum steam-fixation durations for each dye class led to the highest light fastness levels. This is most probably owing to their higher color strengths (K/S) with higher dye content in the fiber. Overall, optimum steam fixation durations for 1:2 metal complex and reactive dye classes (for both wool and polyamide) on printed soybean fibers displayed quite high and commercially acceptable wash fastness and good and commercially acceptable dry rub fastness and moderate to good wet rub fastness levels performance.
\nThe history of food additives goes back to ancient times. As great civilisations developed, populations grew and so did the demand for food. In ancient Egypt, where the climate was not conducive to food storage, especially due to the heat, people started looking for ways to extend the usability life of products. Common practices included the addition of salt, drying in the sun, curing/corning, meat and fish smoking, pickling, and burning sulphur during vegetable preservation. The earliest preservatives included sulphur dioxide (E220), acetic acid (E260), and sodium nitrite (E250), while turmeric (E100) and carmine (E120) were among the first colours. Food preservation was also of immense importance during numerous armed conflicts. Both during the Napoleonic wars in Europe and during the American Civil War, seafarers and soldiers needed food. Limited access to fresh food at the front motivated the armed forces to transport their food with them. This is when cans were introduced for food preservation purposes. In the subsequent centuries, ammonium bicarbonate (E503ii), also known as salt of hartshorn, used as a rising agent for baked goods, and sodium hydroxide solution (E524), used in the production of salty sticks, rose to prominence [1, 2].
\nThe nineteenth century saw considerable advancements in the fields of chemistry, biology, and medicine. A name that needs to be mentioned here is Louis Pasteur, a French scientist, who studied microbiology, among other things. He was the first to prove that microorganisms were responsible for food spoilage. At the same time, new chemical compounds were discovered that were able to inhibit the growth of microbes. Some substances, such as picric acid, hydrofluoric acid, and their salts, often had disastrous consequences when added to food. Insufficient knowledge of toxicology resulted in consumer poisonings and even deaths [1, 3]. At that time, food preservation was the number one priority, which was achieved, for instance, by using salicylic acid, formic acid (E236), benzoic acid (E210), boric acid (E284), propionic acid (E280), sorbic acid (E200) and its potassium salt (E202), and esters of p-hydroxybenzoic acid. Later, food concerns also focused on improving the organoleptic properties of their products and started to enhance food with colours, flavours, and sweeteners, without first researching their effects on human health. For example, such practices involved the use of synthetic colours used in fabric dyeing. This desire to make money on beautiful-looking products led to adulterating food with copper and iron salts, which have a negative impact on the human body. It was as late as in 1907 that the United States studied 90 of the synthetic colours used at that time for food dyeing and found only 7 to be acceptable for further use. Detailed studies and strict regulations on the use of food additives were created almost a century later [1, 4].
\nGlobally, food safety is ensured by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). In 1962, these organisations established a special agenda—the Codex Alimentarius Commission. The Commission has prepared and updated the Codex Alimentarius, which is not a legal Act per se, but provides a reference for standards on raw materials and food products, acceptable contamination levels, hygienic processing, research methods, and food additives for almost all countries worldwide [5]. In the European Union, the body responsible for improving human health protection and food safety risk mitigation, as well as for taking care of purchaser interests, is the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). It is a scientific agency established in 2002 pursuant to the Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council of 28 January 2002. European legislation is based on the Codex Alimentarius but conducts its own complementary research. Therefore, the list of food additives permitted by the European Union is different from the American one [5].
\nThe primary legal Act governing food in Poland is the Food and Nutrition Safety Act of 25 August 2006 (as amended). It specifies the requirements applicable to food and nutrition, concerning product labelling, hygienic conditions throughout the production process, and product replacement rules, as well as requirements concerning the use of food additives. The key document that pertains specifically to food additives is the Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2008 on food additives. The EU-approved list of food additives is presented in the Commission Regulation (EU) of 11 November 2011 [4, 5].
\nA food additive (additional substance) is any substance that is not a food in itself or an ingredient in food, but when added to a product for processing purposes, it becomes part of the food [5]. The following are not considered to be food additives: ingredients in food or chemicals to be used in other products, i.e. in particular sweeteners, such as monosaccharides, disaccharides, and oligosaccharides; substances with flavouring, dyeing, and sapid properties (such as dried fruit); glazing and coating substances, which are not intended to be consumed; and chewing gum bases, dextrin, modified starch, ammonium chloride, edible gelatine, milk protein and gluten, blood plasma, casein, and inulin. The law forbids the use of food additives in unprocessed food, honey, non-emulsified oils and fats of an animal or vegetable origin, butter, milk, fermented milk products (unflavoured, with living bacteria cultures), natural mineral and spring water, unflavoured leaf tea, coffee, sugar, dry pasta, and unflavoured buttermilk [5]. Any marketed additive must comply with the requirements of the European Food Safety Authority, i.e. it has to be technologically justified. It must not put consumers’ life or health at risk; its use should not mislead the purchaser; its acceptable daily intake (ADI), or quantum satis, the smallest amount which is needed to achieve a specific processing objective for the substance, must be calculable; and, last but not least, such an additive must not adulterate the product it is to be added to. Producers are also required to include information on any food additives on product labelling [6, 7].
\nEU legislation has approved approximately 330 food additives for use. The primary objectives behind the use of additives are to extend the shelf life and freshness of products, prevent product quality impairment, make the product more attractive to customers, achieve the desired texture, ensure specific product functionality, facilitate production processes, reduce production costs, and enrich the nutritional value of products. In order to harmonise, effectively identify any additives, and ensure smooth exchange of goods, each food additive has its own, standardised, code. This code is consistent with the International Numbering System (INS) and comprises the letter “E” and three or four digits. There are several food additive classifications. One is based on the regulation and differentiates between colours (approx. 40), sweeteners (approx. 16), and other additives (approx. 277) [8, 9].
\nAdditional substances can also be categorised on the basis of code numbers:
Colours—E100–E199
Preservatives and acidity regulators—E200–E299
Antioxidants and synergists—E300–E399
Stabilising, thickening, emulsifying, coating, and bulking substances—E400–E499
Other substances—E500 and above
Food additives can also be divided into four major groups, based on their processing purpose. These are substances that prevent food spoilage, those which improve sensory features, firming additives and excipients. The most numerous group among additives that slow down food spoilage are preservatives. These are either natural or synthetic chemical compounds added to food to restrict as much as possible the biological processes that take place in the product, e.g. the development of microflora and pathogenic microbes, and the effects of enzymes that affect food freshness and quality. In food products, preservatives change the permeability of cytoplasmic membranes or cell walls, damage the genetic system, and deactivate some enzymes. Food is preserved using antiseptics or antibiotics. The former are synthetically produced simple compounds that often have natural correlates, and they make up no more than 0.2% of the product. Antibiotics, or substances produced by microorganisms, are used in very small, yet effective, doses. The effectiveness of preservatives depends primarily on their effect on a specific type of microorganism, which is why it is vital to select the appropriate preservative based on the microbes found in the product (bacteria, mould, or yeast). Other factors that determine the effectiveness of preservatives include the pH value (a low pH is desirable), temperature, the addition of other substances, and the chemical composition of the product. Preservatives constitute an alternative to physical and biological product freshness stabilisation methods, such as drying, pickling, sterilising, freezing, cooling, and thickening. Consumer objections concerning the widespread use of chemical preservatives and their effects on human health have motivated producers to develop new food preservation procedures. These include radiation, packaging, and storing products in a modified atmosphere, using aseptic technology. Products that are most commonly preserved include ready-made dishes and sauces, meat and fish products, fizzy drinks, and ready-made deserts [9, 10].
\nOther substances used as preservatives are acids and acidity regulators. These substances lower the pH level and slow down the growth of enzymes, which hampers the development of microbes. They are used mainly in the production of marinades. For a specific acid or acidity regulator to fulfil its role as a preservative, it needs to be added in highly concentrated form, but acetic acid, for instance, can irritate mucous membranes when its concentration exceeds 3%. Acids and acidity regulators are also used to enhance flavour (usually in fruit or vegetable products, or beverages, to bring out their sour taste) or to facilitate gelatinisation and frothing during food processing [11, 12].
\nNot only microorganisms but also oxygen is responsible for food spoilage. Products such as oils, fats, and dry goods (flour, semolina) oxidise when they come into contact with atmospheric oxygen. Fat oxidisation (rancidification) occurs in oils, lard, flour, and milk powder. The browning of fruit, vegetables, and meat, on the other hand, is the result of non-fat substance oxidisation. These oxidisation processes can be slowed down or eliminated completely using antioxidants. There are natural and synthetic antioxidants and synergists. Synthetic antioxidants are primarily esters (BHA, BHT, propyl gallate). These are used to stabilise fats used to fry, e.g. crisps and chips. The most common natural antioxidants are tocopherols, i.e. vitamin E. Other antioxidants include phenolic compounds, such as flavonoids and phenolic acids. Synthetic antioxidants are more potent and resistant to processing. Synergists are substances that support and extend the functioning of antioxidants. They can form complexes with heavy metal ions, which retard the oxidisation process. The most frequently used synergists are EDTA, citric acid, and ascorbic acid. Antioxidants do not pose a risk to human health. In fact, they can be beneficial. Antioxidants prevent unfavourable interactions between free radicals and tissue and slow down ageing processes and the development of some diseases [12, 13].
\nIn order to extend the freshness of consumer goods, products are also packaged in a modified atmosphere. As part of this process, the oxygen content inside the packaging is reduced and replaced with other gases, such as nitrogen, argon, helium, and hydrogen. Furthermore, products in the form of aerosol sprays, such as whipped cream, have nitrous oxide, butane, or propane added to them. All these gases are also food additives with their own E codes [5, 11].
\nThe organoleptic properties of consumer goods are very important to consumers. Visual appeal is considered to be as important as taste or smell. This is where food colours come into play. These are used to add colour to transparent products (e.g. some beverages), intensify or bring out product colour (beverages, sweets), preserve or reproduce colours that have faded as a result of processing, ensure that all product batches have a specific colour, and provide the products that are diluted after purchase with strong colour. In order to add colour to a product, manufacturers use natural, nature-identical, synthetic, and inorganic colours. Natural colours are produced from edible plant parts (fruits, flowers, roots, leaves) and from animal raw materials, such as blood, chitinous exoskeletons of insects, and muscle tissue. New technologies have also made it possible to obtain colours from algae, fungi, and mould. Natural colouring substances include carotenoids that provide a spectrum of yellow and orange colours (carrot, citrus fruit skin), flavonoids that give products blue and navy-blue colours (grapes, currants, chokeberry, elder), betalains that give products a red colour (beetroot, capsicum), and chlorophyll that lends green colours (salad, parsley), as well as riboflavin (vitamin B2), curcumin, and caramel. Natural colours are desirable for consumers, as they do not show any negative effects on health. However, a significant drawback to using natural colours is that they are very sensitive to environmental factors, such as pH, ambient temperature, oxygen content, or sun exposure, which is why they are not durable when it comes to processing and storage. Moreover, the cost of obtaining such colouring substances is rather high. The list of additives contains 17 natural colours, and their market share in 2012 was approx. 31% and was subject to an upward trend [6, 8].
\nSynthetic food colours are very competitive compared to natural ones. They offer a wide spectrum of colours, including those that are not available in nature, provide strong colouring, and are resistant to environmental factors, so they do not fade during processing. Furthermore, they are not expensive to produce, which contributes to low end-product prices. Synthetic colours can be divided into organic and inorganic, with organic constituting the considerable majority in terms of food colouring. In the past, chemical colours were made of coal, while now crude oil is used for this purpose. EU law approves 15 synthetic colours, including the so-called Southampton colours. A study conducted in 2007 in the United Kingdom (in Southampton, hence the name) showed the particularly negative effects of six colours on children’s health [10]. Specifically, tartrazine (E102), quinoline yellow (E104), sunset yellow (E110), azorubine (E122), cochineal red (E124), and Allura red AC (E129) were found to cause hyperactivity. As a result, since 2010, manufacturers which add at least one of their products have been required to provide label information about their negative effects on concentration and brain functioning in children. Acceptable daily doses of these colours have also been reassessed and updated. Moreover, research conducted on lab animals has shown that the long-term use of synthetic colours, and especially the three that account for 90% of the use of all synthetic colours (Allura red, tartrazine, and sunset yellow), can cause cancer, allergies, and chromosome mutations. Products that are most often synthetically coloured include candy, wine gums, ready-made desserts, and refreshing beverages [8, 10].
\nDuring consumption, one can experience product taste, smell, and consistency. These three sensations are referred to as palatability and are caused by flavours. Taste is experienced by taste buds located in the tongue. Adult individuals have approximately 10,000 such receptors. There are four primary tastes, namely, salty, sweet, bitter, and sour. There is also an additional type, referred to as umami, which is Japanese for “savoury, meaty”. This taste experience is provided by monosodium glutamate. Smell is experienced through volatile compounds that go directly through the nasal or oral cavity and throat to smell receptors. Taste and smell provide a ready source of information on whether the product is fresh, whether it has specific characteristics, and whether it has been adulterated. Flavours are mixtures of many compounds, in which the specific characteristic smell is produced by a single compound or several indispensable compounds. These are added to enhance the taste or smell of the product or to give something the flavour or aroma that has been lost during product processing [6, 7, 11]. There are natural, nature-identical, and synthetic flavours. Natural flavours are obtained from parts of fruits and vegetables, spices, and their flavouring compounds, such as lactones (found in fruits and nuts), terpenes (in essential oils, found in almost every plant), and carbonyl compounds (fermented dairy products). Nature-identical flavours are compounds originally found in a given raw material that can be recreated in the lab. Synthetic flavours are compounds that have been chemically created and produced and do not have their equivalent in nature. Similarly to natural colours, natural flavours are easily degraded during processing, and their extraction is costly, which is why the food industry generally uses synthetic substances to provide products with specific taste and odour. Moreover, synthetic compounds are capable of giving products much stronger flavours than natural ones [6, 7, 13].
\nA separate group that enhances the sensory properties of food are sweeteners. Formerly, in order to make products sweet, manufacturers used sucrose, commonly known just as sugar, obtained from sugar beet or sugarcane. Now large-scale methods are commonly used, such as chemical production and the extraction of intensively sweetening substances, known as sweeteners, from specific plants. What is characteristic about such substances is that they are much more potent as sweeteners compared to sucrose, and, at the same time, their calorific value is close to zero. Natural sweeteners include glucose-fructose syrup (or syrup based on one of those sugars), thaumatin, neohesperidin DC, stevia, and xylitol. Synthetic sweeteners include acesulfame K, aspartame (and the salts of these two compounds), sucralose, cyclamates, saccharin, and neotame. Sweeteners are used in the production of beverages, juices, dairy products, spirits, sweets, marmalade, and chewing gum [14, 15]. In contrast to sucrose, the majority of synthetic sweeteners do not increase blood sugar level and do not cause tooth decay. These substances are attractive for producers because the cost of their production is low, and even small amounts of such compounds are able to ensure the desired sweetness of the product, so these are economical to use. In addition, most sweetener additives remain functional during processing, although some compounds are not resistant to high temperatures. A study conducted in 2010 on lab animals raises some concerns when it comes to sweetener safety in relation to human health [20]. Its findings showed that regular consumption of sweeteners in large quantities caused obesity and neoplasms in animals. Sweetener additives in consumer goods have been considered safe for humans [10]. Each such additive has a specific ADI value and amount (in milligrammes) that can be added to 1 kg (or 1 dm3) of product [13, 14, 15].
\nThe additives that are vital in terms of processing are firming additives. They create or stabilise the desirable product structure and consistency. Firming agents include gelling, thickening, emulsifying, bulking, binding, and rising agents, humectants, and modified starches. The highest status among these substances is enjoyed by hydrocolloids. Hydrocolloids, known as gums, are polysaccharides of plant, animal, or microbiological origin. There are natural (guar gum, agar, curdlan), chemically and physically modified (modified starches), and synthetic gums. With their macromolecular structure, they are able to bind water, improve solution viscosity, and create gels and spongiform masses. Hydrocolloids are used as gelling (e.g. in the production of jelly, desserts, pudding, and fruit-flavoured starch jelly), thickening (ready-made sauces, vegetable products), water-binding (powdered products to be consumed with water, frozen food), and emulsifying agents (to create oil-in-water-type emulsions). They also act as emulsion stabilisers. Hydrocolloids are considered safe for human health, although some of them can cause allergies. Consumed in large quantities, they can have laxative effects [12].
\nWhat is also important in creating product structure are emulsifiers and the emulsification method. Emulsifiers are compounds which facilitate emulsification. There are water-in-oil (margarine) and oil-in-water (mayonnaise) type of emulsions. Emulsifiers position themselves at the interface between two different phases to stabilise the emulsion. There are natural emulgents, with lecithin as the most common, and synthetic emulgents (glycerol and its esters) [1]. Product consistency and texture are also adjusted using modified starches. Such starches are usually obtained from potatoes or corn (also genetically modified one) with chemically altered composition. Similarly to hydrocolloids, such substances can bind water and produce gels and are also resistant to high temperatures [11, 12]. Modified starches are added to ready-made sauces and dishes (such as frozen pizza), frozen goods, bread, and desserts (also powdered) to thicken and maintain product consistency after thermal processing. In order to enhance starch properties, phosphates are often added during starch modification. The human body needs phosphorus, but its excess can negatively affect the bones, kidneys, and the circulatory system [7, 11, 12].
\nNowadays, consumer goods are widely available, and consumers are provided with a broad range of products to choose from. The continuously growing number of world population (approximately 7 billion in 2011) has made supply on the food market exceed demand. This situation is characteristic of countries with a high GDP. Food producers examine consumer behaviour patterns to see what encourages them to make a purchase, and also the purchase itself and its consequences, and then analyse these processes to launch a new product or a substitute for an already existing one. To sum up, the market has provided more food products than consumers are able to purchase, which results in unimaginable food wastage. Each year, approximately 100 million tonnes of food goes to waste in Europe. This quantity does not include agricultural and food waste or fish discards [13].
\nThe methodology of this study was based on the information contained on the labels. The chemical composition of the investigated food products was presented. Interview with the store’s seller concerned the popularity and frequency of sales listed in the product tables. It should be noted that the examined store is representative when it comes to this type of stores in the majority of small towns in south-eastern Poland.
\nThis study was based on data on the most frequently chosen consumer goods in a store in a small town in Poland. The town is located in a commune that has 5300 residents. Data were obtained by monitoring the sales over the course of 12 months. These products are presented in Tables 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and classified into the following categories: (i) meat and fish; (ii) beverages; (iii) condiments; (iv) ready-made sauces, soups, and dishes; and (v) sweets and desserts. The main classification criterion was segregation into primary food groups. The chemical composition of each product, as listed on the packaging, was included in a table and then assessed against the presence of any food additives. Sixteen most common additives were selected in all the investigated products; only chemical compounds that were found in at least four food products were taken into consideration. The most common food additives were highlighted in Holt in the “product composition” column and presented in Table 1, together with their E codes. Then, based on the literature, the study described the most common additional substances.
\nName | \nSymbol | \nNumber of products | \n
---|---|---|
Citric acid | \nE330 | \n15 | \n
Monosodium glutamate | \nE621 | \n10 | \n
Guar gum | \nE412 | \n8 | \n
Sodium nitrite | \nE250 | \n7 | \n
Disodium 5′-ribonucleotides | \nE635 | \n6 | \n
Sodium erythorbate | \nE316 | \n5 | \n
Glucose-fructose syrup | \nNot considered an additive | \n5 | \n
Soy lecithin | \nNot considered an additive | \n5 | \n
Maltodextrin | \nNot considered an additive | \n5 | \n
Triphosphates | \nE451 | \n4 | \n
Xanthan gum | \nE415 | \n4 | \n
Carrageenan | \nE407 | \n4 | \n
Tocopherols | \nE306 | \n4 | \n
Glucose syrup | \nNot considered an additive | \n4 | \n
Sodium benzoate | \nE211 | \n4 | \n
Ammonia caramel | \nE150c | \n4 | \n
The most common food additives and ingredients.
Table 1 shows 16 of the most popular substances found in food. The majority of these substances are food additives; four other substances are not considered in the European Union as food additives. The additives that are the most frequently found in the food products examined in this study are citric acid (E330), monosodium glutamate (E621), and guar gum (E412). In Ref. [16] it is reported that the most popular preservatives found in food are the mixture of sodium benzoate and potassium sorbate, or potassium sorbate (E202) and sodium benzoate (E211) used separately, and also ulphur dioxide (E220). Data presented in Table 1 shows that, compared to citric acid, another preservative, sodium benzoate, is used rarer. No potassium sorbate was found in any of the products examined in this study. In Ref. [13] it can be concluded that the most commonly used preservatives and antioxidants are sorbic acid and its salts (E200-203), benzoic acid and its salts (E210-213), sulfur dioxide (E220), sodium nitrite (E250), lactic acid (E270), citric acid (E330) and tocopherols (E306). The majority of the additives listed in Ref. [13] can be found in Table 1.
\nTable 2 shows 10 meat and fish products and their composition, as specified on the label. Each of the investigated items contained at least 1 of the 16 most common food additives (Table 1). As much as 50% of meat and fish products contained four or more of such additives. The highest number of additives (seven) was found in “Z doliny Karol” mortadella. “Masarnia u Józefa” crispy ham and “Lipsko” Śląska sausage contained six different food additives. Seventy percent of the examined products had had sodium nitrite (E250) added. This means that this preservative is frequently added to meat products, as confirmed in Ref. [9]. Other widespread preservatives mentioned in Ref. [9] include lactic acid (E270), sodium benzoate (E211), sorbic acid (E200), and sulphur dioxide (E220). In Ref. [9] it also mentions other additives frequently added to meat and fish products; these include carrageenan, gum arabic, and xanthan gum. In this study, 50% of the examined items contain one or two gums, and carrageenan is present in only three in ten products. A study in Ref. [17] demonstrates that fish products are the second leading food (after edible fats) in terms of preservative content.
\nProduct | \nIngredients | \nProduct | \nIngredients | \n
---|---|---|---|
Szynka krucha (ham) Masarnia u Józefa | \nPork ham, salt, pork protein, carrageenan, potassium acetate, potassium lactate, smoke flavouring, monosodium glutamate, diphosphates, triphosphates, flavourings, sodium erythorbate, tocopherols, sodium nitrite | \nPasztet podlaski (pâté) 155 g Drosed | \nWater, mechanically separated chicken meat, rapeseed oil, chicken liver and skin, cream of wheat, salt, soy protein, potato starch, dried vegetables, spices, powdered milk, (milk) whey, sugar, maltodextrin, plant protein hydrolysate, yeast extract | \n
Kiełbasa śląska (sausage) Lipsko | \nPork 60%, pig fat 17%, water, mechanically deboned chicken meat, fibre, pork skin emulsion, potato starch, milk proteins, triphosphates, tara gum, xanthan gum, sodium erythorbate, aluminium ammonium sulphate, salt, glucose, flavourings, carmine, spice extracts, maltodextrin, monosodium glutamate, soy protein, sodium nitrite | \nŁuków przysmak kanapkowy (tinned meat) 300 g | \nPork meat 30%, water, beef meat 18%, pig fat, soy protein, salt, beef fat, triphosphates, spices, pork gelatine, flavouring, sodium nitrite, tinned high-yield luncheon meat | \n
Mortadela doliny (mortadella) Karol | \nWater, pork 20%, mechanically separated chicken meat 15%, pig fat, pork connective tissue, cream of wheat, acetylated starch, polyphosphates, triphosphates, diphosphates, sodium citrate, calcium lactate, sodium lactate, salt, soy protein concentrate, pork protein, wheat fibre, spices (including mustard seeds, corn, and legumes), spice extracts, yeast extract, flavourings, glucose syrup, glucose, vinegar, sodium erythorbate, ascorbic acid, guar gum, disodium 5′-ribonucleotides, monosodium glutamate, sodium nitrite | \nAgrovit duże porcje konserwa tyrolska (tinned meat) 400 g | \nWater, mechanically separated chicken meat 23%, pork raw materials 23%, modified (corn) starch, wheat fibre, pea fibre, salt, carrageenan, processed Eucheuma seaweed, spices, spice extracts, monosodium glutamate, sodium erythorbate, sodium nitrite | \n
Mięso mielone wieprzowe (ground pork) Adrian | \nPork meat 65%, pig fat 34%, salt, xanthan gum, carrageenan, konjac, starch, sodium nitrite | \nEuro Fish szprot w sosie pomidorowym (sprat in tomato sauce) 170 g | \nFish—sprat without heads—tomato sauce, water, tomato concentrate, sugar, rapeseed oil, salt, modified starch, dried onion, guar gum, xanthan gum, spice extracts, acetic acid | \n
Parówki (frankfurters) Indykpol | \nChicken meat 25.9%, mechanically separated turkey meat 17%, mechanically separated chicken meat 17.3%, water, poultry fat, pork, corn flour, chicken skins, pig fat, pork skins, potato starch, soy protein, salt, spices, spice extracts, flavourings, monosodium glutamate, acetylated distarch adipate, guar gum, potassium acetate, potassium lactate, diphosphates, ascorbic acid, sodium erythorbate, sodium nitrite | \nGraal Flet z makreli w sosie pomidorowym (mackerel fillet in tomato sauce) 170 g | \nMackerel fillets 60%, tomato sauce, water, tomato concentrate, sugar, rapeseed oil, modified starch, spirit vinegar, salt, powdered tomatoes, dried onion, spice extract, spices, guar gum, xanthan gum, pepper extract, maltodextrin | \n
Food additives and ingredients in the studied meat and fish products.
Table 3 shows ten non-alcoholic beverages, six of which contain at least one common food additive (Table 1). Foreign substances that are most frequently found in this food group are citric acid (E330), sodium benzoate (E211), and glucose-fructose syrup. A study in Refs. [18, 19] shows that the most popular sweeteners in non-alcoholic beverages are glucose, fructose, and glucose-fructose syrups. As shown on product label, 100% juice by brands such as “Hortex” and “Tymbark”, as well as “Cisowianka” and “Kubuś” mineral waters, is additive free. Pursuant to the Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council (EC) of 16 December 2008, no food additives may be used in mineral and spring bottled water. The beverage to contain the largest number of additive substances was white orangeade by “Hellena”.
\nProduct | \nIngredients | \nProduct | \nIngredients | \n
---|---|---|---|
Woda mineralna gazowana (carbonated mineral water) Cisownianka 1.5 L | \nNatural mineral water, unsaturated with carbon dioxide, moderately mineralised | \nWoda mineralna niegazowana (non-carbonated mineral water) Kubuś water 0.5 L | \nWater, cane sugar, apple juice from concentrated apple juice, lemon juice from concentrated lemon juice, flavouring | \n
Sok jabłko (apple juice) 100% 1 L Hortex | \n100% apple juice from concentrated apple juice | \nCoca cola 1.5 L | \nWater, sugar, carbon dioxide, sulphite ammonia caramel, phosphoric acid, natural flavourings, including caffeine | \n
Sok multiwitamina (multivitamin juice) 100% 1 L Tymbark | \nJuices from concentrated apple juice 60% and orange juice 22%, carrot juice from concentrated juice 12%, purées from banana 3%, peach, guava, papaya, juices from concentrated pineapple juice 2%, mango juice 0.5%, passion fruit juice 0.1%, lychee juice 0.05%, cactus fig juice, kiwi fruit juice and lime juice, vitamins A, C, E, B6, and B12, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, biotin, folic acid, pantothenic acid | \nTymbark 2 L jabłko-pomarańcza (apple-orange) | \nWater, orange juice from concentrated juice 19%, glucose-fructose syrup, sugar, peach juice from concentrated juice 1%, lemon concentrate, flavourings, ascorbic acid, carotenes | \n
Volcano 2 L cola | \nSpring water, carbon dioxide, sulphite ammonia caramel, phosphoric acid, citric acid, sodium citrates, flavourings (including caffeine), gum arabic, aspartame, saccharin, sodium benzoate, potassium sorbate | \nVolcano 2 L pomarańcza (orange) | \nSpring water, carbon dioxide, orange juice 0.3% from concentrated orange juice, citric acid, gum arabic, glycerol and plant resin esters, flavouring, cyclamates, saccharin, aspartame, acesulfame K, sodium benzoate, potassium sorbate, ascorbic acid, carotenes, beta-apo-8′-carotenal | \n
Hellena 1.25 L oranżada biała (white orangeade) | \nSugar, water, glucose-fructose syrup, carbon dioxide, citric acid, flavouring, sodium benzoate | \nKubuś marchew, jabłko, pomarańcza, sok (carrot, apple, and orange juice) 330 mL | \nPurées and juices (59%), water, glucose-fructose syrup, citric acid, vitamin C, flavouring | \n
Food ingredients in the studied non-alcoholic beverages.
Table 4 shows 12 food items, such as ketchup, mustard, herbs and spices, and tomato concentrates, together with their composition. Only four products in this group contain a food additive, of which three are preserved using citric acid (E330). In this group of products, the products to contain the most common additive substances were the ketchup and the Kucharek seasoning by “Prymat”. Pursuant to the Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council (EC) of 16 December 2008, tomato products (such as concentrates) must not contain food colours. They may, however, contain other additives. The ketchup has no colours, but contains other food additives. Studies in Ref. [17] demonstrate that mayonnaises and mustards are the fourth most often preserved product group, with ready-made concentrates ranking seventh. One of the two mustards examined in this paper contained a preservative, and two of the presented tomato concentrates had not had any food additives added to them.
\nProduct | \nIngredients | \nProduct | \nIngredients | \n
---|---|---|---|
Koncentrat pomidorowy (tomato concentrate) Aro 190 g | \n30% tomato concentrate | \nKoncentrat pomidorowy (tomato concentrate) Pudliszki | \n30% tomato concentrate | \n
Ketchup łagodny (mild ketchup) 470 g | \n37% tomato concentrate, water, sugar, vinegar, modified starch, salt, citric acid, sodium benzoate, thyme, oregano, savoury, sage, coriander, flavouring | \nKetchup Pudliszki łgodny (mild ketchup) 480 g | \nTomatoes, sugar, vinegar, salt, modified starch, natural flavouring | \n
Musztarda Parczew kremska (Krems mustard) 180 g | \nWater, mustard seeds, vinegar, sugar, salt, spices | \nMusztarda Roleski stołowa (table mustard) | \nWater, mustard seeds, sugar, spirit vinegar, salt, spices, turmeric extract, citric acid, natural flavouring | \n
Zioła prowansalskie (Herbes de Provence) Prymat | \nBasil, marjoram, rosemary, savoury, sage, thyme, oregano, mint | \nPrzyprawa do kurczaka (chicken seasoning) Goleo | \nSalt, garlic, white mustard seeds, sweet pepper, carrot, coriander, fenugreek, caraway, chilli, turmeric, cinnamon | \n
Przyprawa Tzatziki (tzatziki seasoning) Prymat | \nGarlic, salt, sugar, onion, citric acid, onion extract, dill extract, dill leaves, pepper extract, black pepper | \nKucharek Prymat 250 g | \nSalt, died vegetables, monosodium glutamate, disodium 5′-ribonucleotides, sugar, starch, black pepper, riboflavin | \n
Food ingredients in the studied condiments.
Table 5 shows 12 products categorised into ready-made dishes, soups and sauces, and their chemical composition. Each of these products contains at least one common additive. Citric acid (E330) was added to nearly 67% of the products in this category. Only five in twelve items (including four instant soups and stock cubes) contain the three most popular food additive substances (Table 1). A study in Ref. [13] shows that the most common additives in ready-made dishes are citric acid (E330), sunset yellow (E110), guar gum (E412), disodium guanylate (E627), disodium inosinate (E631), and monosodium glutamate (E621).
\nProduct | \nIngredients | \nProduct | \nIngredients | \n
---|---|---|---|
Rosół drobiowy kucharek (chicken soup) 60 g | \nSalt, palm fat, partially hydrogenated, starch, monosodium glutamate, disodium 5′-ribonucleotides, rapeseed oil, dried vegetables, sugar, flavourings, chicken fat, turmeric, citric acid, dried chicken meat | \nRosół drobiowy Winiary (chicken soup) 60 g | \nSalt, monosodium glutamate, disodium 5′-ribonucleotides, starch, fully hydrogenated palm fat, flavourings, sugar, chicken fat, spices, dried vegetables, citric acid, dried chicken meat | \n
Vifon kurczak Carry (curry chicken) | \nNoodles (92.1%), wheat flour, plant fat, tapioca, modified starch, acetylated starch, sugar, stabilisers (pentasodium triphosphate, guar gum, rising substances: sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate, turmeric), flavouring additives (7.9%) (refined palm oil, salt, sugar), flavour enhancers (monosodium glutamate, disodium guanylate, disodium inosinate, dried vegetables (carrot, green onion, coriander), powdered curry (flavour additive content 6%), turmeric, aniseed, clove, coriander seed, cinnamon, pepper, garlic, chilli, lemongrass, flavouring), colour (beta-carotene, antioxidant tocopherols) | \nAmino zupa błyskawiczna gulaszowa (instant goulash soup) | \nNoodles (85%), wheat flour, palm fat, modified starch, salt, rapeseed oil, tocopherols, fatty acid and ascorbic acid esters; flavouring mix: salt, starch, paprika, monosodium glutamate, disodium guanylate and disodium inosinate, tomato concentrate, onion, flavourings, palm fat, Cayenne pepper, garlic, caraway, hydrolysed plant protein, dried pork, parsley, ammonia caramel | \n
Sos Winiary Italia boloński (Bolognese sauce) | \nDried vegetables, modified starch, sugar, salt, spices, flavourings, sunflower oil, citric acid, spices, beetroot juice concentrate, olive oil | \nSos Winiary pieczeniowy ciemny (dark roasting sauce) | \nPotato starch, modified starch, salt, dried vegetables, flavourings, sugar, yeast extracts, fully hydrogenated palm fat, palm oil, rice flour, ammonia caramel, wheat protein hydrolysate, spices, citric acid | \n
Sos Winiary borowikowy (bolete sauce) | \nCorn starch, wheat flour, powdered cream, palm oil, sunflower oil, maltodextrin, dried mushroom, salt, flavourings, lactose, yeast extract, sugar, dried fried onion, dried onion, milk proteins, spices, wheat protein hydrolysate, ammonia caramel, bolete extract | \nZupa Winiary barszcz biały (white borscht) | \nWheat flour, skimmed powdered milk, salt, potato starch, sugar, smoked pig fat, citric acid, dried vegetables, yeast extract, herbs, spices, smoke flavour | \n
Zupa Winiary jak u mamy pieczarkowa (champignon soup) | \nCorn starch, skimmed powdered milk, wheat flour, powdered cream, dried champignons, yeast extracts, salt, potato starch, dried vegetables, flavourings, sunflower oil, wheat protein hydrolysate, parsley, black pepper, citric acid | \nŁowicz sos boloński (Bolognese sauce) 350 g | \nTomatoes, water, vegetables, glucose-fructose syrup, apple purée, modified corn starch, salt, sugar, guar gum, citric acid, rapeseed oil, spices, herbs, flavourings, ground dried parsley, garlic and paprika, leek and carrot extracts | \n
Danie gotowe Flaczki (ready-made tripe) Pamapol | \nWater, beef rumen 305, wheat flour, carrot, parsley, celeriac, tomato concentrate, onion, salt, pork gelatine, sugar, soy protein hydrolysate, dried vegetables, yeast extract, spices, disodium 5′-ribonucleotides, ammonia caramel, flavourings, partially hydrogenated palm and rapeseed fats | \nPomysł na soczystą karkówkę z ziemniakami (pork shoulder with potatoes seasoning) Winiary | \nWheat flour, vegetables, salt, modified starch, yeast extract, herbs, maltodextrin, plant oil, spices, flavourings, wheat protein hydrolysate, citric acid | \n
Food ingredients and additives in the studied ready-made dishes, soups, and sauces.
Table 6 shows 10 food items classified as sweets and desserts. As many as nine products in this group contained at least one of the most common food additives (Table 1). Glucose-fructose or glucose syrups were found in six of the examined items. A study in Ref. [19] shows that sweets often include the so-called Southampton colours, such as quinoline yellow and tartrazine. However, the study reports that the amounts of these substances added to sweets are much lower than the maximum values allowed by the applicable law.
\nProduct | \nIngredients | \nProduct | \nIngredients | \n
---|---|---|---|
Lód Top milker (ice cream) Koral | \nSkimmed reconstituted milk, sugar, cocoa oil, glucose syrup, skimmed powdered milk, mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids, locust bean flour, guar gum, powdered cream, natural vanilla, flavourings | \nBaton 3bit (candy bar) | \nSugar, biscuit 14% [wheat flour, sugar, plant fat, powdered whey, glucose-fructose syrup, whole powdered milk, salt, rising agents (sodium bicarbonate, ammonium bicarbonate), acidity regulator (citric acid), skimmed powdered milk (13. 5% in filling), plant fat, cocoa fat, cocoa paste, powdered whey, plant oil, milk fat, emulsifiers (soy lecithin, polyglycerol polyricinoleate), flavourings, salt. Cocoa mass in chocolate—minimum 30% | \n
7 days | \nWheat flour, cocoa filling 25% [(sugar, partially hydrogenated plant fats, water, low-fat powdered cocoa 7%, skimmed powdered milk, ethyl alcohol, emulsifier (lactic acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids), vanilla flavouring, gelling agent (sodium alginate), preservative (potassium sorbate 0.1%)], margarine [partially hydrogenated plant fats, water, salt, emulsifier (mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids), acidity regulator, flavouring, preservative (potassium sorbate 0.1%)], sugar, stabiliser (mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids), glucose-fructose syrup, yeast, skimmed powdered milk, salt, vanilla flavouring, preservative (calcium propionate 0.1%), soy flour, emulsifier (soy lecithin) | \nLód rożek truskawkowy (ice cream cone) Koral | \nSkimmed reconstituted milk, cornet 14% [wheat flour, sugar, palm fat, potato starch, emulsifier (soy lecithin, wheat fibre, salt), colour (sulphite ammonia caramel], sugar, coconut oil, strawberry sauce 7% [strawberries 42%, sugar, glucose syrup, water, thickening agent (hydroxypropyl distarch glycerol), acidity regulator (citric acid, flavouring], coating for cornet waterproofing [sugar, coconut and palm fats, reduced-fat powdered cocoa (10–12%), emulsifier (soy lecithin)], water, glucose syrup, strawberry purée 1%, emulsifier (mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids), stabilisers (Guar gum, cellulose gum, carrageenan, locust bean flour), acidity regulator (citric acid), colours (betanin, annatto, flavourings) | \n
Baton Milky way (candy bar) | \nSugar, glucose syrup, skimmed powdered milk, cocoa fat, palm fat, cocoa mass, milk fat, lactose, powdered (milk) whey, barley malt extract, salt, emulsifier (soy lecithin), powdered egg white, hydrolysed milk protein, natural vanilla extract | \nMlekołaki Lubella muszelki (cereal) 250 g | \nWholemeal wheat, wheat, and corn flours, sugar, glucose, reduced-fat cocoa, cocoa, barley malt extract, milk chocolate, palm fat, salt, soy lecithin, flavourings, vitamin C, niacin, pantothenic acid, vitamin B, riboflavin, thiamine, folic acid, vitamin B12, calcium, iron | \n
Nestlé Corn Flakes 600 g | \nCorn grits, sugar, salt, glucose, brown sugar, invert sugar syrup, cane sugar molasses, sodium phosphates, niacin, pantothenic acid, riboflavin, vitamin B6, folic acid | \nNestlé Frutina 250 g | \nWheat flakes (wholemeal wheat, sugar, wheat bran, barley malt extract, invert sugar syrup, salt, cane sugar molasses, glucose syrup, sodium phosphates, tocopherols), raisins, cut dried apples, sodium metabisulphite, niacin, pantothenic acid, vitamin B6, riboflavin, folic acid, calcium, iron | \n
Lays zielona cebulka (crisps) 150 g | \nPotatoes, palm oil, sunflower oil, flavouring, powdered onion, powdered milk whey, powdered milk lactose, sugar, powdered milk, monosodium glutamate, disodium 5′-ribonucleotides, flavourings, powdered milk cheese, citric acid, malic acid, annatto, pepper extract, powdered garlic, maltodextrin, salt | \nStar chips paprika (crisps) 170 g | \nPotatoes, palm fat, flavourings, wheat breadcrumbs, glucose, sugar, monosodium glutamate, pepper extract, citric acid, salt | \n
Food additives and ingredients in the studied sweets.
Citric acid (E330) is a natural compound found in citrus fruits. It is also the by-product of digestive processes in the human body. However, on the industrial scale, the substance is produced using the Aspergillus niger mould. Citric acid is used in food as an acidity regulator, preservative, and flavour enhancer. Outside the food industry, the acid is added to cleaning agents and acts as a decalcifying agent. Citric acid in food is a safe additive and is added to food on the quantum satis basis; nevertheless its widespread use constitutes a risk. This substance is found in many food products, such as beverages, juices, lemonades, sweets, ice creams, canned goods, and even bread, so customers consume it in large quantities everyday [20]. When consumed frequently in excess, citric acid can lead to enamel degradation and teeth deterioration. This additive also supports the absorption of heavy metals, which, in turn, might lead to brain impairment. It can also affect the kidneys and liver [13, 15].
\nMonosodium glutamate (E621) is the most widespread flavour enhancer. It is even considered to be one of the five basic tastes (umami). Glutamic acid and its (magnesium, potassium, and calcium) salts lend a meaty flavour to products. The substance was first extracted from algae by a Japanese scientist, but now it is generally produced by biotechnological means using microorganisms that can be genetically modified [6]. Another commonly used flavour enhancer is chemically produced disodium 5′-ribonucleotides (E635). These additives can be found in ready-made dishes, sauces, meat and fish products, instant soups, crisps, and cakes. These flavour enhancers are the not inert in relation to the neurological system [16]. This can affect brain cells and lead to headaches, heart palpitations, excessive sweating, listlessness, nausea, and skin lesions. Such anomalies, which could have been caused by the excessive consumption of products rich in glutamates, are referred to as the Chinese restaurant syndrome [20]. Flavour enhancers can also serve a positive function by increasing appetite in the sick or the elderly [20]. Other additional substances commonly found in foodstuffs are polysaccharides:
\nGuar gum (E412) and xanthan gum (E415). These are referred to as hydrocolloids, i.e. substances that bind water, are easily soluble in both cold and warm water, and improve mixture viscosity. Guar gum is a polysaccharide obtained from guar, a leguminous plant grown in India and Pakistan [14]. Xanthan gum is a polysaccharide of microbiological origin. On the industrial scale, it is obtained as a result of Xanthomonas campestris bacteria fermenting the sugar contained in corn (often genetically modified). Both these additives are approved for use in all food products as thickening, firming, and stabilising agents, on the quantum satis basis. Guar gum and xanthan gum can be found mainly in bread, cakes, ready-made sauces and dishes, and powdered food, where they ensure the appropriate consistency. Moreover, they prevent the crystallisation of water in ice cream and frozen food and the separation of fluids in dairy products and juices. The human body is not capable of digesting, breaking down, or absorbing these gums. These substances swell in the intestines, which can cause flatulence and stomach ache. In addition, guar gum can cause allergies [13, 14, 15].
\nA commonly found preservative is sodium nitrite (E250). It is a salty and white or yellowish crystalline powder, obtained by the chemical processing of nitric acid or some lyes and gases [9]. This additive is generally used in the meat industry to inhibit botulinum toxin and Staphylococcus aureus bacteria, slow down fat rancidification, maintain the pink red colour of meat, and provide meat with a specific flavour. It does not, however, prevent the growth of yeast or mould. Sodium nitrite is toxic, oxidising, and dangerous to the environment, so it must not be added to food in its pure form. This additive is used in very small doses (0.5–0.6%) in the form of a mixture with domestic salt [9] in amounts up to 150 mL per L or mg kg−1. When consumed in large quantities, nitrites can cause cyanosis, whose symptoms include blue coloration of the skin, lips, and mucous membranes. During digestion, nitrites are transformed into carcinogenic nitrosamines. Moreover, they are particularly dangerous for children, since they stop erythrocytes from binding oxygen, which can lead to death by suffocation [11].
\nA common ingredient in food is maltodextrin, which in the European Union is not considered as a food additive, but as an ingredient. Therefore, within the community, maltodextrin has no E code, while in Sweden it is considered an additive and identified as E1400 [18]. Maltodextrin is a disaccharide obtained from corn starch, but it is not sweet in taste. Nevertheless, it provides greater sweetness than normal sugar or grape sugar (the glycaemic index of maltodextrin is 120, that of normal sugar is 70, and that of grape sugar is 100). It is used as a thickening agent, stabiliser, bulking agent, and even as a fat substitute in low-calorie products. It is added to products for athletes and children, to instant soups, sweets, and meat products [10]. Maltodextrin does not affect the natural product taste or flavour, while it provides human body with carbohydrates and energy. Due to the fact that glucose particles in maltodextrin are broken down only in the intestines, it can also support metabolism. A negative aspect of its use is tooth decay [10, 18].
\nWhat frequently occurs in consumer goods is glucose-fructose syrup. Similarly to maltodextrin, it is not considered to be a food additive, but, due to its widespread application, it is important to mention it here. Glucose-fructose syrup, also known as high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS), replaces traditional sugar in many products, such as beverages, sweets, jams, fruit products, and liqueurs, and in the United States and Canada is the dominant sweetener [19]. Sucrose is a disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose, which are joined with alpha-1,4-glycosidic bond, and HFCS contains free fructose and free glucose in specific proportions. The name of this substance depends on the proportion of its ingredients. When the syrup contains more fructose, it is referred to as fructose-glucose syrup [12]. It is obtained mainly from corn starch as a result of acid or enzymatic hydrolysis. Glucose-fructose syrup is much sweeter and cheaper than traditional sugar, it does not crystallise, and it has a liquid form, which makes it functional during processing. Nevertheless, there are some disturbing aspects of using this substance. During the consumption of products with glucose-fructose syrup, the body receives unnatural amounts of fructose, which is broken down in the liver in a manner similar to alcohol. Therefore, its excessive amounts can cause fatty liver and overburden this organ. This has even been named “non-alcoholic fatty liver disease”. In addition, heavy consumption of monosaccharides has been found to contribute to obesity, which, in turn, can cause high blood pressure and diabetes. Fructose affects the lipid metabolism and disrupts the perception of hunger and satiety. Labels do not provide the exact HFCS content, but it is estimated that the consumption of a single product with this substance satisfies the acceptable daily monosaccharide intake [5, 6, 11, 13].
\nAnother frequently added substance is sodium erythorbate (E316). This synthetic compound is used as an antioxidant and stabiliser in meat and fish products and is useful for ham and sausage pickling [13]. It has similar properties to ascorbic acid, but it is not effective as vitamin C. Sodium erythorbate is considered to be noninvasive in the human body [12, 13].
\nThe most widespread natural emulsifier is soy lecithin. Etymologically, the word “lecithin” can be traced back to lekythos, Greek for egg yolk, but this compound is actually found in any plant or animal cell. Lecithin is produced from eggs, sunflower and rapeseed oils, and soybeans [11, 12, 13]. This additive is identified as E322 and is used for the production of mayonnaise, ice creams, margarine, ready-made desserts, sauces, and instant soups. Products with added lecithin dissolve in water more easily. EU law does not impose any limits on the use of E322. Only in products for children, lecithin content must not exceed 1 g per L.
\nTriphosphates (E451), as well as diphosphates and polyphosphates, are used as preservatives, flavour enhancers, stabilisers, and rising and water-binding agents. Triphosphates are produced chemically and have a broad application. They are added to sauces, meats and meat products, desserts, bread, pâtés, fish products, ice creams, and non-alcoholic beverages [21]. The human body needs phosphorus in specific amounts, but the widespread use of phosphoric acids and phosphates in food makes people likely to consume this element in excess. When consumed regularly, increased doses of phosphates can lead to osteoporosis or contribute to kidney dysfunction and affect the circulatory system [13, 21]. A popular hydrocolloid found in food is carrageenan (E407). This substance is extracted from Eucheuma, a tribe of red algae. Carrageenan is highly soluble in water and is used as a bulking agent in dietary products, and it is also added to beverages, ice creams, sauces, marmalades, and powdered milk [6, 7]. Carrageenan can be used on the quantum satis basis. Usually, it is combined with other hydrocolloids. This additive is not digestible by the human body. There are certain objections concerning the consumption of carrageenan, e.g. it can cause intestinal cancer and stomach ulcers [11, 12, 13].
\nTocopherols (E306) are commonly known as vitamin E, insoluble in water and soluble in fats. It is used as a preservative, stabiliser, and potent antioxidant in such products as oils, margarines, desserts, meat products, and alcoholic beverages. Tocopherols are produced synthetically or obtained from plant oils, but natural vitamin E is twice as easily absorbed by the human body [21].
\nCommon preservatives include benzoic acid and its salts, of which the most frequently used is sodium benzoate (E211). Negligible amounts of these substances are naturally found in berries, mushrooms, and fermented milk-based drinks. On an industrial scale, it is produced synthetically from toluene obtained from crude oil [3, 12]. What is characteristic of sodium benzoate is that it slows down the growth of mould and yeast, but does not prevent the growth of bacteria, which is why it is often used with other preservatives, such as sulphur dioxide (E220). It is commonly used in products with acidic pH, such as marinades, fruit juices, and products with mayonnaise, such as vegetable salads. Sodium benzoate can cause allergies [6, 13]. Our own study (see “Results and discussion”) showed that ammonia caramel (E150c) and sulphite ammonia caramel (E150d) are fairly common colours. It adds brown to black colours to products. Under natural conditions, this substance is created when sugar is heated. As a food additive, it is produced chemically using ammonia, as well as phosphates, sulphates, and sulphites (sulphite ammonia caramel is produced) [19]. This substance is approved for use under EU law [5]; however, there are studies that have confirmed that it negatively affects human health. It has been proven that this colour can cause hyperactivity and liver, thyroid, and lung neoplasms and also impair immunity. Ammonia caramel is used to dye non-alcoholic beverages, such as cola and marmalades [10, 11].
\nThe external aspect that is most crucial for buyers when it comes to food selection is its freshness. Buyers assess the best before date against the possibility of consuming the food quickly or storing it for future use. Another determinant is the value of the item. Any consumer will pay attention to the price of the product they buy. Another factor is the product ingredients specified on the packaging. Buyers have been observed to have developed a habit of reading labels before buying anything. Some customers also pay attention to the country of origin or brand [22]. Men and women who are determined to stay fit will also consider nutritional value. The factors that are not considered that are relevant include net product weight, information about any genetically modified raw material content, and notices about any implemented quality management systems. Moreover, consumers are likely to be affected by marketing devices, such as advertisements or special offers, used by producers. A temporary reduction in price, or the opportunity to buy two items for the price of one, encourages customers to make a purchase [3, 4]. What is also vital is whether the food is functional. Many people live at a fast pace, work a lot, or get stuck in traffic jams, and the lack of free time pushes them to buy ready-made dishes to be heated up at home or food that can be prepared in an instant [4, 13, 22].
\nNowadays, food additives are very widespread in the everyday human diet, but not all of them are synthetic and invasive to human health. Products which must not contain foreign substances do not contain food additives. The explorations undertaken by this and other studies confirm the widespread use of the investigated additives, except for citric acid, which is less popular an additive than sodium benzoate and potassium sorbate. This study shows that when adopting a healthy lifestyle, consumers can choose from a range of food and pharmaceutical products that either contain a limited amount of unconventional substances or do not contain such substances at all.
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