Common values of band that predicted existence in CNTs.
\r\n\tThe application of these complex statistical models provides a greater understanding of the complex processes and mechanisms. Complex statistical models are a powerful tool that enables researchers in the health and medical sciences to increase their knowledge and understanding of complex systems and thus advance knowledge.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book is devoted to applying complex models to health and medical sciences, both the classical and Bayesian approaches, and this book contain documentation of the contributions with the codes or script of the data analysis, that is relevant because it will help readers apply the models to new contexts.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-078-6",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-077-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-079-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"c5034363e1754265689dea0988fd89f8",bookSignature:"Prof. Cruz Vargas-De-León",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10678.jpg",keywords:"Generalized Estimating Equation, Longitudinal Model, Path Analysis, Structural Equation Models, Modelling Recurrent Events, Multiple Survival Outcomes, Spatial Models, Temporal Models, Meta-Regressions, Clinical Trials, Structural Equation Modelling, Bayesian Statistics",numberOfDownloads:85,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"December 3rd 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 24th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 1st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 20th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 19th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"8 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:'Cruz Vargas-De-León received a certificate for highly cited research in "Mathematical Biosciences". He has been biographed by Marquis Who\'s Who in the World. Two of his articles have been awarded "Excellent papers" by National Program for Research Evaluation in Italy.',coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"421022",title:"Prof.",name:"Cruz",middleName:null,surname:"Vargas-De-León",slug:"cruz-vargas-de-leon",fullName:"Cruz Vargas-De-León",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/421022/images/system/421022.png",biography:'Cruz Vargas-De-León is a Professor of Biostatistics and Applied Mathematics. He has a bachelor\'s degree in mathematics (Statistics), a master\'s degree in health sciences, a master\'s degree in complexity sciences, and is currently a Student Ph.D. in Health Sciences. He is interested in Biostatistical and Biomathematical Modelling for Health. He has published more than 50 scientific articles, 35 of them in high-impact journals and indexed in JCR. He is also an Academic Editor of “International Journal of Hypertension”. \nHe has participated in the validation of surveys, randomized controlled trials, systematic reviews and meta-analyses, the construction of indices in medicine, and the identification of immunological biomarkers in cancer and epidemiological studies (Syphilis, Dengue, SARS-CoV-2, among others), and estimation of parameters of differential equation models.\nHe has received a certificate for the highly cited research in "Mathematical Biosciences" (2016, Elsevier), and the Guerrero State Award for Merit in Science and Technology "Guillermo Soberón" (2016). He has been biographed by Marquis Who\'s Who in the World in Issue 30 (2013). Two of his articles have been awarded "Excellent papers" by National Program for Research Evaluation (2011-2014) in Italy. Since 2015 he is a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI, in Spanish) from the National Council of Science and Technology (CONACYT, in Spanish).',institutionString:"Universidad Autónoma de Guerrero",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Guerrero",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"15",title:"Mathematics",slug:"mathematics"}],chapters:[{id:"83034",title:"Optimal N-of-1 Clinical Trials for Individualized Patient Care and Aggregated N-of-1 Designs",slug:"optimal-n-of-1-clinical-trials-for-individualized-patient-care-and-aggregated-n-of-1-designs",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"81784",title:"Practical and Optimal Crossover Designs for Clinical Trials",slug:"practical-and-optimal-crossover-designs-for-clinical-trials",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"82499",title:"Modelling Agitation-Sedation (A-S) in ICU: An Empirical Transition and Time to Event Analysis of Poor and Good Tracking between Nurses Scores and Automated A-S Measures",slug:"modelling-agitation-sedation-a-s-in-icu-an-empirical-transition-and-time-to-event-analysis-of-poor-a",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"39457",title:"Prof.",name:"Irene",surname:"Hudson",slug:"irene-hudson",fullName:"Irene Hudson"}]},{id:"82011",title:"Spatial Statistics in Vector-Borne Diseases",slug:"spatial-statistics-in-vector-borne-diseases",totalDownloads:14,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"81944",title:"The Basics of Structural Equations in Medicine and Health Sciences",slug:"the-basics-of-structural-equations-in-medicine-and-health-sciences",totalDownloads:20,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"81710",title:"Spatial Modeling in Epidemiology",slug:"spatial-modeling-in-epidemiology",totalDownloads:28,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"444315",firstName:"Karla",lastName:"Skuliber",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/444315/images/20013_n.jpg",email:"karla@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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By this way, they are inserted to human by contaminated indwelling devices. When microorganisms exposed to stress conditions, gene expression of biofilm is induced as a stress response. The biofilm that is a slime-like glycocalyx causes bacteria to survive in the stress conditions. Staphylococci adhere, colonize, and infect biotic surfaces such as tissue or abiotic surfaces such as prosthetic surfaces that may act as a substrate for microbial adhesion and causes bacterial spread to whole body by forming biofilm that is a slime-like glycocalyx [1, 4, 5]. The virulence and the role of biofilm of
The biofilm has an important role in the pathogenesis of staphylococcal infections. The biofilm causes bacteria to survive in the stress conditions such as UV damage, metal toxicity, anaerobic conditions, acid exposure, salinity, pH gradients, desiccation, bacteriophages, and amoebae and to resist antibiotics, antimicrobials, and host immune defense [5–8]. The main pathogen of implant infections is staphylococci that cause 80% of all prosthetic infections [9]. The biofilm of bacteria causes chronic infections such as indwelling device–related infections, chronic wound infections, chronic urinary tract infections (UTI), cystic fibrosis pneumonia, chronic otitis media (OM), chronic rhinosinusitis, periodontitis, and recurrent tonsillitis [10]. The biofilm infections are the main important problems in hospitalized and immunocompressed patients in worldwide due to their tough and irresponsive treatment by antibiotics. In biofilm, bacteria are not distrupted completely by antibiotics even high doses of antibiotics used
The biofilm that anchored to abiotic or biotic surfaces is a slime-like glycocalyx in which sessile community of microorganisms embedded. This extracellular polymeric substance that is constituted by matrix of polysaccharide, teichoic acids, extracellular DNA (eDNA), and staphylococcal proteins is produced by biofilm producing microorganisms [4, 17, 18]. Polysaccharide intracellular adhesin (PIA) is a specific polysaccharide in glycocalyx composed of β-1,6–linked N-acetylglucosamine residues (80–85%) and non-N-acetylated D-glucosaminyl residues that are an anionic fraction and contain phosphate and ester-linked succinate (15–20%) [18]. Although PIA is a main mechanism of biofilm formation in
Bacterial biofilm formation is a complex and multifactorial process. The biofilm formation process consists of adherence/adhesion/attachment, aggregation/maturation/accumulation, and detachment/dispersal phase. The last step is the dispersal of mature biofilm-embedded bacteria out of the biofilm [21] (Figure 1).
\nWhen conditions favor biofilm formation, biofilm formation that begins with the adherence of the bacteria to a surface that act as a substrate for microbial adhesion continues with the aggregation formed by cell–cell adhesion [22] (Figure 1).
\nThe stages of biofilm formation.
Staphylococcal adherence to an abiotic surface of indwelling prosthetic device depends on physico-chemical structure of medical device and surface components of Staphylococci such as wall teichoic acid (WTA) [23], lipoteichoic acid (LTA) [23], accumulation-associated protein (Aap) [24], autolysins AtlA [25] and AtlE [26]. The staphylococcal adherence to a biotic surfaces such as host cells and plasma protein-coated prosthetic surface is mediated by cell wall-anchored (CWA) proteins such as the fibrinogen-binding protein SdrG/Fbe of
Several microbial surface components recognizing adhesive matrix molecules (MSCRAMMs) that are able to bind to human matrix proteins such as fibronectin and fibrinogen and colonize are expressed in
After adherence of staphylococcus to biotic and abiotic surfaces, exopolysaccharide (EPS) such as PIA or PNAG that are produced by
In the initial cell-surface interaction of motile bacteria, adherence of motile cell to surface is facilitated by flagella of motile cell. After adherence motile species that undergo cellular differentiation in biofilm lose their motility by paralyzing their flagella and become nonmotile [34]. Klausen et al. [35] revealed that wild-type strain and isogenic flagellar mutant of
In the detachment stage, sessile cells turn into planktonic state that can spread and colonize other surfaces and form biofilm on these infected regions [2] (Figure 1). Detachment of microorganisms from biofilm can be caused by bacteria themselves, such as enzymatic degradation of the biofilm matrix such as dissolution of adhesins by proteases, nucleases, and a group of small amphiphilic α-helical peptides, known as phenol-soluble modulins (PSMs) functioning as surfactants [27], and quorum sensing or by external forces such as fluid shear forces, corrosion, and human intervention [36] (Figure 2). During detachment of motile microorganism rather than staphylococcus, cells express genes that are for motility such as transcription of pilus and ribosomal proteins and are almost seen in planktonic cells [37].
\nPositively charged PIA provides intercellular attachment via binding to bacteria of which surface is negatively charged [27]. All
Biofilms not only can be constructed by
PIA-independent biofilms were constructed by accumulation-associated proteins (Aap) of
Scientists determined that medical MRSA isolates produce protein-dependent biofilm such as FnBP- and Aap-dependent biofilms in animal models that have indwelling device–associated infection. O’Neill et al. [30] and McCourt et al. [39] revealed that biofilms of certain isolates of HA-MRSA from CC8 and CC22 and CA-MRSA from USA300 lineage (CC8) were FnBPs-dependent.
\nAutolysin Atl that is a wall-anchored protein of
In biofilm production of
Biofilm production is provided by the equilibrium between the productions of amyloid fibrils and phenol soluble modulins (PSMs) that are extracellular polymeric substances and their catabolism by enzymes such as nucleases and proteases that are expressed by agr-QS regulator system that use two-component system signal transduction system (TCS). The control of planktonic and sessile bacteria and the biofilm expression is regulated by coordinated mechanisms [41] (Figure 2).
\nThe regulation of biofilm formation by agr-quorum-sensing system.
The biofilm formation of staphylococci is fully expressed
Staphylococcus use quorum-sensing systems (QS) for intercellular communication and biofilm formation. Accessory gene regulator (Agr) system regulates cell density-dependent gene expression using two-component signal transduction system [42]. Agr and LuxS systems that are required for autoinducer peptide (AIP) production as a pheromone are quorum-sensing systems in staphylococci [43]. Bacteria sense pheromones as stimuli that are released by the density of bacteria belonging to the same group and express biofilm formation [9]. AIP production starts in exponential phase of bacterial growth [44]. There are four proteins that are sensor histidine protein kinase AgrC, DNA-binding response regulator AgrA, AgrD that is a prepheromone, and AgrB that exports and modifies AgrD, present in this system. The signal is transported to bacteria by binding of AIP to AgrC. When AIP binds to AgrC, DNA-binding regulator AgrA is activated by His-dependent phosphorylation of AgrC [42]. By the binding of activated DNA-binding regulator AgrA to P2 and P3 promoters in
The biofilm-embedded bacteria. (a) The heterogeneous sessile community of biofilm. (b) Antibiotic resistance mechanisms of biofilm-embedded bacteria.
The regulation mechanisms of RNAIII for target genes can be at transcriptional and translational level, and its regulation can be direct or indirect. Fourteen stem-loop and two long helices construct structure of RNAIII. Each domain regulates the expression of each target gene. Translation of α-hemolysin (
The structure of RNAIII [
Staphylococcal virulence factors are expressed with accessory gene regulator (agr) system in response to cell density [9]. During the beginning of the biofilm-related staphylococcal infection, adhesion factors (surface proteins) such as MSCRAMMs are upregulated. After initial attachment and colonization had been happened, during early stationary growth phase of bacteria, toxins and other acute virulence factors such as degradative exoenzymes (such as δ-hemolysin, lipases and proteases that disperse bacteria) are upregulated and non-aggressive colonization surface proteins such as MSCRAMMs are downregulated by
The production of PIA/PNAG, PIA/PNAG-degrading enzymes, and matrix components of staphylococcal biofilm is not regulated by QS [44, 46].
\nPhenol-soluble modulins (PSMs) are surfactant-like staphylococcal peptides and are controlled by
Agr (AIPs) of each strain belongs to different
To control biofilm-associated staphylococcal infections, production of virulence factors and antibiotic resistance, QS can be disrupted by inhibition of signal production, degrading signals, and suppressing synthase and receptors [9].
\nTwo-component regulator gene locus encoded by arlRS is regulated by
The
The biofilm formation of
Although
To provide protection against
Kaplan et al. [68] and Whitchurch et al. [69] concluded that DNase I in human serum can degrade eDNA in biofilm matrix, by the way bacterial biofilms are degreased.
\nNitric oxide (NO) that is a product of anaerobic respiration can cause dispersal of microorganism from mature biofilm by stimulation of c-di-GMP phosphodiesterases activity [70]. c-di-GMP biosynthesis inhibitors can be an alternative treatment for preventing biofilm formation and mature biofilm dispersal. The combinations of dispersin B (EPS-degrading enzymes) and disinfectants such as triclosan with antibiotics that are used in the treatment of wound and skin infections provides synergistic removal of biofilms [71].
\nBiofilm-embedded bacteria are more resistant to antimicrobial agents than planktonic bacteria. It is difficult to eradicate biofilm, and this causes serious clinical problem [72].
\nAntibiotic resistance (tolerance) that is caused by biofilm and permit bacteria to survive is a physiological state by which mutational changes not caused [73]. Impermeability of peptidoglycan by efflux pumps, antibiotic-degrading enzymes, the charge of polymers [73], and certain gene products that are produced in biofilms [3] are the other antibiotic resistance mechanisms of bacteria rather than the biofilm [3]. Biofilm can gain higher antibiotic tolerance by antibiotic degrading enzymes such as beta-lactamases, efflux pumps, and certain gene products of which expression are changed by the quorum sensing as a stress response [3, 74]. Biofilms resist to beta-lactam antibiotics by beta-lactamases. Beta-lactamases that are produced by bacteria play a key factor in the biofilm caused resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics [3].
\nBiofilm-embedded sessile community has heterogeneous cells that are in the different growth states. Bacterial growth rate is reduced by stress conditions such as nutrient and oxygen limitation at the lower parts of the biofilm, and low metabolic activity. Low metabolically active cells (slow growing cells) are seen at the deeper parts of the biofilm, whereas high metabolically active cells (rapid growing cells) are seen at the surfaces of the biofilm. These heterogeneous cells that consist of low and high metabolically active cells have wide range of different responds to each antimicrobial. Antibiotic penetration through the biofilm is reduced by reduced bacterial growth rate. The biofilm-related resistance mechanisms such as oxygen limitation and low metabolic activity, reduced antibiotic penetration through the biofilm, and gaining genetic adaptations such as increased changes in the genes of the DNA repair systems play a key factor in the biofilm tolerance to antibiotics [3]. But some antibiotics such as colistin are just effective against slow-growing cells seen at the deeper parts of the biofilm not against rapid growing cells that acquired adaptive resistance by upregulation of the LPS-modification (arn) operon [75]. Persister cell population that is present in the biofilms of
Some researchers demonstrated that nutrient limitation-related antibiotic resistance is not due to the reduced growth rate of microorganism, but rather to the activation of regulated stress responses. Nutrient limitation-related antibiotic resistance is controlled by complex regulatory pathways [77]. During starvation, the activation of the stringent response participates in antibiotic resistance such as fluoroquinolone resistance in
Usually, the decreased antibiotic penetration through the biofilm is caused by antibiotics that may bind to the structural contents of biofilm matrix [3] rather than reduced diffusion of antibiotics through the biofilm matrix [10] (Figure 3).
\nAntibiotic susceptibility of biofilm-embedded bacteria decreases according to the planktonic state. The virulence of
Agr expression of biofilm producer staphylococcus has also been associated with the drug resistance of some antibiotics. It has been also revealed that the effect of rifampin against
The behavior of light after many years of studies and experiments opens a new orientation for science and scientists taking advantage of these features. The binary behavior of light which is represented by wave nature and particle nature enabled to appear with a variety of behaviors such diffraction, interference, and refraction. Figure 1 shows spectrum of electromagnetic radiation which includes all the radiation types.
The spectrum of the electromagnetic radiation with different kinds of oscillators and frequencies.
Every type in spectroscopy has specific properties which urge to use it in many applications. X-rays that are mentioned in this part with the highest-energy electromagnetic waves were commonly used in hospital and engineering applications. X-rays move in a straight line without any influence with magnetic and electric field due to the negative charge on it. In this chapter, we concern toward using X-ray behavior with materials in qualitative and quantitative applications of carbon nanotubes (CNTs).
The term carbon nanotubes (CNTs) refers to nanomaterials with a tubular structure consisting of carbon atoms only bonded with each other by sp2 hybridization. The talks about CNTs were increasing 27 years ago after Lijima reported the first clear research [1], which represents the starting point of the huge attention on CNTs. The attentions appeared as reported literature deals with synthesis, purification, characterization, and studding physiochemical properties [2, 3]. Many results were paving the way for many successful attempts to use CNTs practically in many fields of science. The applications such as energy, construction, treatment, and environmental protection fields [4] were enhancing to increase the attention to make more clear images for CNTs. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) were synthesized by chemical vapor deposition CVD, arc-discharge ADs, laser ablation LAs [4], and flame method FM [5]. Many types of apparatus were used to identify CNTs such scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), helium ion microscopy (HIM), Raman microscopy, and X-ray family. In this chapter, we focus on the characterization of carbon nanotubes by using a specific technique that is used for this purpose, which depends on X-ray as a source to show the carbonic composition. The orientation of atoms within the lattice determines the peak intensity. Therefore, the X-ray behavior with materials is the fingerprint for periodic atomic arrangements in a known material. The start point with these aims to classify CNTs into two types depending on the number of sheets as shown in Figure 2.
Figure shows the classification of CNTs by the number of sheets.
The graphite nanotubes refer to graphite materials that show a tubular structure with nanometer dimensions, which are commonly known as multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs).
The second type refers to graphite structure which forms nanotubes and that includes three types:
There is one sheet of carbon atoms that forms SWCNTs, characterized by diameter 0.5–1.5 nm [6].
Two sheets of carbon atoms are flopped with each ether to form DWCNTs, with 2.4–3.2 nm diameter [7].
When the number of sheets is 2–6, the type is known as few walled carbon nanotubes FWCNTs. The diameter as we mentioned before was decided by the number of sheets that forms it, which ranges between 4 and 9 nm [8].
X-rays are generated in an X-ray tube responsible to generate X-rays when an electron beam is passed between a cathode part and an anode. Figure 3 includes the essential components for an X-ray system when a stream of fast-moving accelerated electrons is transferred from the cathode to the anode. The interaction of electrons with atoms produces a great amount of energy [9] equal to 1% of the total energy while 99% appear as heat when removed from the anode. When current is passed through a conductive material, the material will heat due to the resistance in the wire causing excitation of the electrons and energy expansion. When the energy of the electron expands, it will return to the wire to become heat again and becomes a source of electrons [10]. The positive charge and negative charge will form a strong, attractive force to accelerate the electrons, which could increase the forces of X-ray by increasing the voltage applied to the anode.
Figure for essential components of X-ray generator.
The X-rays are commonly generated by a cathode ray tube, occupied with a specific filter to form monochromatic radiation, which concentrates toward the sample. Figure 4 represents Bragg’s law (nλ= 2d sin Ѳ) referring to the specific case of diffraction, which depends on the angles of scattering (Ѳ) coherent and incoherent monochromatic light (λ) from a crystal lattice consisting of n sheets. This equation (d = (K*λ)/(β*cos θ) is commonly used to find partial size (d) for materials [11] when the benefit from the behavior of incident and monochromatic light (λ) with specific angle (Ѳ) is decided from the nature of the construction material. The value of (d) was calculated for the line broadening at half the maximum intensity (β = FWHM), while the shape factor (K) was typically equal to about 0.9, which changes with shape of the crystallite. When X-rays are incident on an atom, they make the electronic cloud move, as does any electromagnetic wave. The movement of these charges radiate wave with the same frequency, blurred slightly due to [10] a variety of effects, and this phenomenon is known as Rayleigh scattering (or elastic scattering). The scattered waves can themselves be scattered, but this secondary scattering is negligible.
The typical equation to characterize the structure of the crystal.
XRD analysis is a unique method to find qualitative properties such as crystallinity, types, fingerprints, and quantitative material [11]. Graphite and graphene show great similarity in XRD with GNTs and joints, respectively, for the main peaks [12, 13, 14] at ≈24 and 43°. Most references shows these two peaks high degree of similarity, especially at the first strong peak. Figure 5 shows the two peaks: the first on the left is of very high intensity with less width compared with the second peak at the right. The length and width of the peaks were commonly used to recognize the nature of crystal size. Generally, for carbon nanotubes, the first peak at the right refers to crystalline or amorphous nature; thus, the width increases with reducing intensity or length, which refers to exist in amorphous crystal form [15].
Typical XRD analysis for CNTs.
Typically, the impurities influence Directly on the position of two peaks due to low intensity of the peaks compared with the impurities. For example, MWCNTs were prepared by chemical vapor deposition using 1-propanol as a source of carbon at 700°C on the surface of silica as support for precipitation as shown in Figure 6. The XRD analysis of synthesized MWCNTs is reported in Figure 6, showing the effect of amorphous carbon and Si, Na, Fe, and Mg in the diagram of XRD which removed or at least limited the appearance of the two characterized peaks of CNTs. The elements which were mentioned causing a disappearance [16] for the carbon tubular structure had spread between these components. Thus, XRD for the sample was disappearing due to the higher intensity of many crystal structures [17] of the element when reached 8000 units compared with low intensity of carbon with less than 120 units.
XRD patterns for synthesized MWCNTs with high and low ratios of SiO2.
Figure 7 shows two notes to be taken care of when using XRD to predict the existence of CNTs: the first, the impurities inevitably caused shift for the two peaks due to real connection between tubular structure and impurities. The second refers to influence of interference, which causes removal of the second peak or complete disappearance due to the high difference between importers and carbon material. The last two points look like a photograph; picture was taken for wood including very high Trees compared to grass and few small herbs, the result or the image should be favored the trees.
XRD patterns for synthesized MWCNTs with high and low ratios of SiO2 from 20 to 50°.
The typical peak at ≈26.0° represents the characteristic graphitic peak [18] arising due to the tubular structure of the carbon atoms in the sample with (002) planes. This peak shifted to more than 28.8 ͦ, which affects [19] the ratios of impurities in the sample. The typical peaks near 43.2 and 53.74° disappeared due to existing Si and Fe [19], which show strong peaks at ≈42 and 52°, respectively, when interfering with the weak peaks of CNTs.
This part represents one of the most important section for the science of nanomaterials generally and nanotubes particularly, which could be dependent on to identification and discrimination between SWCNTs, DWCNTs, FWCNTs, and MWCNTs. The interest in this part refers to direct application for the two roles of diffraction and the number of sheets that form the skeleton of tubular structures. This fact we referred to in the International Conference on Chemistry and Applied Research in October 29–30, 2018 Prague, Czech Republic. The fact was that there were many noises for SWCNTs as compared with MWCNTs with the two peaks, which enhance forming the noises to reduce the number of graphene sheets, as following arrangement for CNT types. Thus, the ratios of noise can be arranged as follows:
Figure 8 explains the behavior of CNTs when an increase in the number of inner shells causes more intensity for the peaks with MWCNTs than SWCNTs which show in pure and with mixture of composite. This fact was in agreement with a good deal of experimental research, such as studies by Mhamane et al., Tang et al., and Chang et al. [20, 21, 22] for graphite and graphene, showing noise with graphene and graphene oxide while reduced noise with graphite.
Figure shows the influence of number of layers with X-ray diffraction.
The principles of this technique depend on removing the electron from lower energy level, causing an unstable state for atoms; therefore, the electron in the higher energy shell moves inside the atom. The value of the difference between higher and lower levels was emitting as specific energy to identify the fluorescing element and is proportional to the amount of element. Generally, the characteristic peaks are labeled X-rays as K, L, M, and N refer to the shells they activated or (α), (β), and (γ) depend on the transitions of electrons from higher shells. However, Kα2 means the transition of an electron from the L to the K shell, while Kβ1 represents the transition of an electron from the M to the K shell of multiple orbits.
Figure 9 refers to the behavior of elementary information that makes possibilities to quantify identification of metals, which are commonly used as a catalyst for precipitation of carbon on the support of the catalyst to form CNTs. The advantage of this technique is that it is rapid and it is easy to treat the sample without any complications and without being affected by chemical bonding. The disadvantages include limited abilities to identify trace contents in addition to the high radiation that may cause damage for tubular structure CNTs. Singhal et al. [23] reported the qualitative analysis when analyzing CNT-coated Al. The analysis showed three peaks at 2Ѳ which are 32.5, 50.8, and 144.7° corresponding to C Kα, O Kα, and Al Kα spectral lines, respectively, related to the presence of C, O, and Al elements in the composite. The quantitative analysis for synthesized composite confirms that the percentage weight of C, which corresponds to CNTs, was 3.95%. XRF can be used for studded catalyst content in CNTs during the steps of purification, but in the same time, it cannot be used to determine amorphous carbon content. [24]. Figures 10–12 show aluminum, magnesium, silicon, iron, molybdenum, and nickel that are commonly used for synthesized carbon nanotubes as a catalyst or support for precipitation.
A supposed mechanism for forming X-ray radiation.
XRF spectrum for aluminum and magnesium that are mostly used as a catalyst for growth of CNTs.
XRF spectrum for silicon and iron that are mostly used as a support for catalyst CNTs.
XRF spectrum for nickel and molybdenum used as a catalyst for growth of CNTs.
The energy dispersive X-ray analysis EDX and EDA sometimes EDS or energy dispersive X-ray Microanalysis EDXMA. This technical method depends on the interaction of X-ray radiation with a sample when convert to single that refers to the material in the chemical area and thus is used for elemental characterization. The efficiency for characterization can be related to the fundamental principle that each element has a unique atomic structure allowing a unique set of peaks in its electromagnetic emission spectrum [10]. Mostly, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) supplied with EDX is used to qualitatively and quantitatively analyze the elements present in the selected area of the SEM image to estimate of CNTs’ metal contents and impurities. Together, the SEM and EDX capabilities allow irradiation by a focused electron beam, imaging secondary or back-scattered electrons and an energy analysis of X-rays. Typical SEM applications include plan view and cross-sectional imaging for process development and failure analysis. EDX applications include specific defect analysis or composition analysis. Figures 13 and 14 refer to EDX analysis for SWCNTs and MWCNTs made from Aldrich by chemical vapor deposition with high purities. When using this technique should, analysis of large-scale CNTs should be avoided since it may cause error in identification due to overlap of peaks for CNTs with many elements such as Ti Kβ, Mn Kβ, and Fe Kα [25].
EDX spectrum for Aldrich SWCNTs which were synthesized by the CVD method.
EDX spectrum for Aldrich MWCNTs which were synthesized by the CVD method.
Figure 15 shows an EDX spectrum of MWCNTs synthesized by the CVD technique from decomposition date palm seeds at 700°C on the boat of silicon as supported for Mo, which was used to grow MWCNTs. The spectrum shows four strong peaks, which represent carbon, silicon, Al, and Mo. The C refers to carbon materials, which mostly refer to the growth of CNTs on Mo that covers the surface of the silica boat. The O refers to the groups of oxide which are produced by a purification process by using nitric acid (5 M). Figure 16: EDX spectrum for MWCNTs synthesized by CVDs from decomposition date palm seeds at 700°C on the boat of silica as supported for Mo, which used to growth CNTs Shows an EDX spectrum of us received MWCNTs when synthesized from propanol at 700°C by CVDs with used silica as support and iron oxide as catalyst for growth CNTs. The EDXs in Figure 16, with three strong peaks, represent silicon, and two for Fe. This indicates that the growth of CNTs originated from Fe or Fe carbide particles on the silicon substrate. The peak of C is short, which refers to low precipitation on the surfaces of the boat.
EDX spectrum for Aldrich MWCNTs which were synthesized by the CVD method.
EDX spectrum for MWCNTs prepared from propanol at 700°C by CVD with silica used as a support and iron oxide as a catalyst.
The most important thing when used EDX represented by the area which needs to make quantitative and qualitative analysis due to heterogeneous distribution of the elements in analyzing samples. We mention before the aims from analysis whom responsible to decide the area of analysis. 9. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) is a quantitative technique that deals with measures, empirical formula, and chemical and electronic state with elemental composition in high sensitivity that exists within a material [10]. The most important nature of XPS is that it shows not only qualities of elements starting from lithium and above but also the nature of local bonds for all the components in a mixture. XPS spectra are obtained by irradiating thickness of analyzing material, arranges between 0 and 10 mm with a beam of X-rays to measure the number and energy of escaped electrons in high vacuum ambience. It mostly requires large amounts of sample to reach 5 mg to produce ideal analysis that commonly produces ambiguous and interpreted peaks, which are simplified by a specific computerized system. The XPS spectrum is represented by plotting the binding energy (eV) between different atoms with intensity of energy in the chemical environment of materials. The ideal detection limits for most of the elements are in the parts per thousand range while parts per million (ppm) could be made when special needs were provided such as concentration on the top surface and very long collection time. The oxidation state represents the main criterion for identifying [26, 27, 28, 29] the elements due to influence with the local bonding environment for the atoms in molecules. In the case of carbon nanotubes, the binding energy of C1s electron is 284.6 eV; when binding with other atoms, it will be chemically shifted, which depends on the chemical state of neighboring atoms. For example, the carbon in the polymer structure shows increasing binding energy as follows [26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31]:
The characterization peak of carbon nanotubes corresponding to C=C for graphene layer for spectra at about 284 e V.
For example, the synthesized carbon nanotubes from natural petroleum gas were tested with X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The nature of different groups that were covalently linked to the nanotube surface is reported in Table 1, where existence of C=C refers to nanotubes or graphene sheets. To have a more clear and more specific explanation, we review different groups that are covalently linked to the nanotube surface to improve C=C which refers to nanotubes by XPS analysis. The carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) were synthesized by the chemical flame deposition method by using liquefied petroleum gas as a source of carbon on the surface of iron as supported for precipitation at 180°C. Figure 17 shows the photoemission C1s peaks that were studies between 282 and 292 eV. A dominant peak is observed at 284 or 285 eV of the sp2 hybridized C=C bonds in extensive conjugated systems [26, 27], which mostly refers to graphene sheets in carbon nanotubes. The same figure includes a peak at 285.0 eV, which is characteristic of sp3 hybridized C–C bonds present at defective locations [28] and tubular structure asymmetry related to C–H and C–C [29]. Two other photoemission peaks are observed at 286.3 and 288.8 eV. The first peak at 286.3 eV is attributed to carbon atoms bonded to oxygen atoms C–O which bonded with C–N. The second peak at 288.8 eV is characteristic of carbon atoms of carbonyl groups (C=O) [30]. Figure 18 shows N 1s 400.1 eV spectra, which refer to N–H related to N–C=C groups [31].
Common values of band that predicted existence in CNTs.
XPS C 1s spectra of synthesized MWCNT between 282 and 292 eV. Arrows show possible positions of carbon peaks.
XPS of N–H spectra between 396 and 404 eV. Arrows show possible position of the N–H peak.
Figure 19 shows the XPS spectra of the second sample with different peaks at 284.5, 285.0, 286.3, and 288.8 eV. The first peak at 284.5 eV corresponds to C=C for graphene sheets [32] while the neighboring peak at 285.0 eV corresponds to C–C and C–H. The second peak at 286.3 eV is related to C–O/C–N [33]. The third peak at 288.8 eV corresponds to C=O [30]. Figure 20 shows the N 1 s spectra at 400.1 eV, which refers to N–H related to N–C=C groups [31].
XPS C 1s spectra of synthesized MWNT between 282 and 292 eV. Arrows show possible positions of carbon peaks.
XPS of N–H spectra between 396 and 404 eV.
Figure 21 refers to two overlapping peaks together at 167.5 and 168.2 eV, which correspond to S–H and S–O, respectively, while the strong peak at 164.7 eV sp2 indicates the S–C bond [34]. The second sample shows an existence of sulfur which can be related to the oil that was used to prepare this sample only.
XPS of S spectra between 155 and 175 eV.
Many techniques and methods are commonly used for characterizing and analyzing nanomaterials such as SEM, TEM, HIM, Raman microscopy, UV-visible reflection, and X-ray family. All of the techniques mentioned before and others depend on reactant materials with electrons. X-ray led to many ways of getting huge information about the composition of materials and the nature of construction. X-ray family is supplied mostly, nondestructively and fast, with the ability to provide the basic structural information that is essential for identification. In our chapter, X-ray families were used for quantification and qualification of carbon nanotubes. XRD, XRF, EDX, and XPS were used in this chapter with many synthesized CNTs to show the abilities for evaluating the purifies which are very important in applications. We anticipate that the results of this study will help to offer guidelines for understand CNTs structures by X-ray family to increase the probabilities for benefit from CNTs.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. 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In recent years, data mining techniques have gained importance in addressing security issues in network. Intrusion detection systems (IDS) aim to identify intrusions with a low false alarm rate and a high detection rate. Although classification-based data mining techniques are popular, they are not effective to detect unknown attacks. Unsupervised learning methods have been given a closer look for network IDS, which are insignificant to detect dynamic intrusion activities. The recent contributions in literature focus on machine learning techniques to build anomaly-based intrusion detection systems, which extract the knowledge from training phase. Though existing intrusion detection techniques address the latest types of attacks like DoS, Probe, U2R, and R2L, reducing false alarm rate is a challenging issue. Most network IDS depend on the deployed environment. Hence, developing a system which is independent of the deployed environment with fast and appropriate feature selection method is a challenging issue. The exponential growth of zero-day attacks emphasizing the need of security mechanisms which can accurately detect previously unknown attacks is another challenging task. In this work, an attempt is made to develop generic meta-heuristic scale for both known and unknown attacks with a high detection rate and low false alarm rate by adopting efficient feature optimization techniques.",book:{id:"8368",slug:"computer-and-network-security",title:"Computer and Network Security",fullTitle:"Computer and Network Security"},signatures:"Veeramreddy Jyothsna and Koneti Munivara Prasad",authors:[{id:"269941",title:"Mrs.",name:"Jyothsna",middleName:null,surname:"Veeramreddy",slug:"jyothsna-veeramreddy",fullName:"Jyothsna Veeramreddy"},{id:"321710",title:"Dr.",name:"Koneti Munivara",middleName:null,surname:"Prasad",slug:"koneti-munivara-prasad",fullName:"Koneti Munivara Prasad"}]},{id:"67181",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86303",title:"Efficient Depth Estimation Using Sparse Stereo-Vision with Other Perception Techniques",slug:"efficient-depth-estimation-using-sparse-stereo-vision-with-other-perception-techniques",totalDownloads:1786,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"The stereo vision system is one of the popular computer vision techniques. The idea here is to use the parallax error to our advantage. A single scene is recorded from two different viewing angles, and depth is estimated from the measure of parallax error. This technique is more than a century old and has proven useful in many applications. This field has made a lot of researchers and mathematicians to devise novel algorithms for the accurate output of the stereo systems. This system is particularly useful in the field of robotics. It provides them with the 3D understanding of the scene by giving them estimated object depths. This chapter, along with a complete overview of the stereo system, talks about the efficient estimation of the depth of the object. It stresses on the fact that if coupled with other perception techniques, stereo depth estimation can be made a lot more efficient than the current techniques. The idea revolves around the fact that stereo depth estimation is not necessary for all the pixels of the image. This fact opens room for more complex and accurate depth estimation techniques for the fewer regions of interest in the image scene. Further details about this idea are discussed in the subtopics that follow.",book:{id:"7623",slug:"coding-theory",title:"Coding Theory",fullTitle:"Coding Theory"},signatures:"Satyarth Praveen",authors:[{id:"277334",title:"Mr.",name:"Satyarth",middleName:null,surname:"Praveen",slug:"satyarth-praveen",fullName:"Satyarth Praveen"}]},{id:"69897",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86160",title:"Polynomials in Error Detection and Correction in Data Communication System",slug:"polynomials-in-error-detection-and-correction-in-data-communication-system",totalDownloads:1091,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The chapter gives an overview of the various types of errors encountered in a communication system. It discusses the various error detection and error correction codes. The role of polynomials in error detection and error correction is discussed in detail with the architecture for practical implementation of the codes in a communication channel.",book:{id:"7623",slug:"coding-theory",title:"Coding Theory",fullTitle:"Coding Theory"},signatures:"Charanarur Panem, Vinaya Gad and Rajendra S. 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Some papers about of the wavelet transform-based coding show this field as an emerging option for image compression with high coding efficiency. It is well known that the new wavelet-based image compression scheme JPEG-2000 has been standardized. This chapter shows the developed novel algorithm executed in parallel using the embedded Zerotree wavelet coding scheme, in which the programs integrate parallelism techniques to be implemented and executed in the many-core system Epiphany III.",book:{id:"7623",slug:"coding-theory",title:"Coding Theory",fullTitle:"Coding Theory"},signatures:"Jesús Antonio Alvarez-Cedillo, Teodoro Alvarez-Sanchez, Mario Aguilar-Fernandez and Jacobo Sandoval-Gutierrez",authors:[{id:"118717",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jesús Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Álvarez-Cedillo",slug:"jesus-antonio-alvarez-cedillo",fullName:"Jesús Antonio Álvarez-Cedillo"},{id:"305584",title:"Dr.",name:"Teodoro",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sanchez",slug:"teodoro-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Teodoro Alvarez-Sanchez"},{id:"305586",title:"Dr.",name:"Jacobo",middleName:null,surname:"Sandoval-Gutierrez",slug:"jacobo-sandoval-gutierrez",fullName:"Jacobo Sandoval-Gutierrez"},{id:"305587",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Aguilar-Fernandez",slug:"mario-aguilar-fernandez",fullName:"Mario Aguilar-Fernandez"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"67618",title:"Anomaly-Based Intrusion Detection System",slug:"anomaly-based-intrusion-detection-system",totalDownloads:1744,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Anomaly-based network intrusion detection plays a vital role in protecting networks against malicious activities. In recent years, data mining techniques have gained importance in addressing security issues in network. Intrusion detection systems (IDS) aim to identify intrusions with a low false alarm rate and a high detection rate. Although classification-based data mining techniques are popular, they are not effective to detect unknown attacks. Unsupervised learning methods have been given a closer look for network IDS, which are insignificant to detect dynamic intrusion activities. The recent contributions in literature focus on machine learning techniques to build anomaly-based intrusion detection systems, which extract the knowledge from training phase. Though existing intrusion detection techniques address the latest types of attacks like DoS, Probe, U2R, and R2L, reducing false alarm rate is a challenging issue. Most network IDS depend on the deployed environment. Hence, developing a system which is independent of the deployed environment with fast and appropriate feature selection method is a challenging issue. The exponential growth of zero-day attacks emphasizing the need of security mechanisms which can accurately detect previously unknown attacks is another challenging task. In this work, an attempt is made to develop generic meta-heuristic scale for both known and unknown attacks with a high detection rate and low false alarm rate by adopting efficient feature optimization techniques.",book:{id:"8368",slug:"computer-and-network-security",title:"Computer and Network Security",fullTitle:"Computer and Network Security"},signatures:"Veeramreddy Jyothsna and Koneti Munivara Prasad",authors:[{id:"269941",title:"Mrs.",name:"Jyothsna",middleName:null,surname:"Veeramreddy",slug:"jyothsna-veeramreddy",fullName:"Jyothsna Veeramreddy"},{id:"321710",title:"Dr.",name:"Koneti Munivara",middleName:null,surname:"Prasad",slug:"koneti-munivara-prasad",fullName:"Koneti Munivara Prasad"}]},{id:"69737",title:"The DICOM Image Compression and Patient Data Integration using Run Length and Huffman Encoder",slug:"the-dicom-image-compression-and-patient-data-integration-using-run-length-and-huffman-encoder",totalDownloads:880,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Maintaining human healthcare is one of the biggest challenges that most of the increasing population in Asian countries are facing today. There is an unrelenting need in our medical community to develop applications that are low on cost, with high compression, as huge number of patient’s data and images need to be transmitted over the network to be reviewed by the physicians for diagnostic purpose. This implemented work represents discrete wavelet-based threshold approach. Using this approach by applying N-level decomposition on 2D wavelet types like Biorthogonal, Haar, Daubechies, Coiflets, Symlets, Reverse Biorthogonal, and Discrete Meyer, various levels of wavelet coefficients are obtained. The lossless hybrid encoding algorithm, which combines run-length encoder and Huffman encoder, has been used for compression and decompression purpose. This work is proposed to examine the efficiency of different wavelet types and to determine the best. The objective of this research work is to improve compression ratio and compression gain.",book:{id:"7623",slug:"coding-theory",title:"Coding Theory",fullTitle:"Coding Theory"},signatures:"Trupti N. Baraskar and Vijay R. Mankar",authors:[{id:"53698",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Mankar",slug:"vijay-mankar",fullName:"Vijay Mankar"},{id:"308592",title:"Prof.",name:"Trupti",middleName:null,surname:"Baraskar",slug:"trupti-baraskar",fullName:"Trupti Baraskar"}]},{id:"69755",title:"Security in Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs)",slug:"security-in-wireless-local-area-networks-wlans-",totalDownloads:1047,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Major research domains in the WLAN security include: access control & data frame protection, lightweight authentication and secure handoff. Access control standard like IEEE 802.11i provides flexibility in user authentication but on the other hand fell prey to Denial of Service (DoS) attacks. For Protecting the data communication between two communicating devices—three standard protocols i.e., WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy), TKIP (Temporal Key Integrity Protocol) and AES-CCMP (Advanced Encryption Standard—Counter mode with CBC-MAC protocol) are used. Out of these, AES-CCMP protocol is secure enough and mostly used in enterprises. In WLAN environment lightweight authentication is an asset, provided it also satisfies other security properties like protecting the authentication stream or token along with securing the transmitted message. CAPWAP (Control and Provisioning of Wireless Access Points), HOKEY (Hand Over Keying) and IEEE 802.11r are major protocols for executing the secure handoff. In WLANs, handoff should not only be performed within time limits as required by the real time applications but should also be used to transfer safely the keying material for further communication. In this chapter, a comparative study of the security mechanisms under the above-mentioned research domains is provided.",book:{id:"8368",slug:"computer-and-network-security",title:"Computer and Network Security",fullTitle:"Computer and Network Security"},signatures:"Rajeev Singh and Teek Parval Sharma",authors:[{id:"267784",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajeev",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"rajeev-singh",fullName:"Rajeev Singh"},{id:"268313",title:"Dr.",name:"Teek Parval",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"teek-parval-sharma",fullName:"Teek Parval Sharma"}]},{id:"64915",title:"Secure Communication Using Cryptography and Covert Channel",slug:"secure-communication-using-cryptography-and-covert-channel",totalDownloads:804,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The keys which are generated by cryptography algorithms have still been compromised by attackers. So, they extra efforts to enhance security, time consumption and communication overheads. Encryption can achieve confidentiality but cannot achieve integrity. Authentication is needed beside encryption technique to achieve integrity. The client can send data indirectly to the server through a covert channel. The covert channel needs pre-shared information between parties before using the channel. The main challenges of covert channel are security of pre-agreement information and detectability. In this chapter, merging between encryption, authentication, and covert channel leads to a new covert channel satisfying integrity and confidentiality of sending data. This channel is used for secure communication that enables parties to agree on keys that are used for future communication.",book:{id:"8368",slug:"computer-and-network-security",title:"Computer and Network Security",fullTitle:"Computer and Network Security"},signatures:"Tamer S.A. 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It provides them with the 3D understanding of the scene by giving them estimated object depths. This chapter, along with a complete overview of the stereo system, talks about the efficient estimation of the depth of the object. It stresses on the fact that if coupled with other perception techniques, stereo depth estimation can be made a lot more efficient than the current techniques. The idea revolves around the fact that stereo depth estimation is not necessary for all the pixels of the image. This fact opens room for more complex and accurate depth estimation techniques for the fewer regions of interest in the image scene. 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While a daunting task, learning is facilitated by identifying common and effective signaling pathways mediated by a variety of factors employed by nature to preserve and sustain homeostatic life. \r\nAs a leading example, the cellular interaction between intracellular concentration of Ca+2 increases, and changes in plasma membrane potential is integral for coordinating blood flow, governing the exocytosis of neurotransmitters, and modulating gene expression and cell effector secretory functions. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. 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In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},subseries:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Antibiotics, Biofilm, Antibiotic Resistance, Host-microbiota Relationship, Treatment, Diagnostic Tools",scope:"