Calculated thermodynamic efficiencies for various fuels under different thermodynamic cycles [26].
\r\n\tUsually, the most popular alternative to RWG is the printed circuit technology: microstrip or coplanar lines, for instance. Despite the benefits of reduced cost, volume, and manufacturing easiness, these technologies present quite high power losses.
\r\n\r\n\t
\r\n\tNew planar and substrate integrated waveguides are being developed since 2001 to achieve the desired performance of an RWG but synthesized on one or more printed circuit boards. The first one of its kind was the substrate-integrated waveguide (SIW), which emulates a dielectric-filled RWG in a single circuit board where side walls are made of metallic via holes. Although SIW is a good alternative to classic planar technologies, the presence of lossy dielectric makes it impossible to get a performance similar to an RWG. In 2014 the empty substrate-integrated waveguide (ESIW) was introduced as a composite of three soldered metalized circuit board layers where the middle layer had been emptied to emulate an RWG. By now, ESIW is the best approach to an RWG in terms of performance but retains the characteristics of planar circuits: easiness, compactness, mass production, low volume, low weight, and low cost. Newer hybrid planar – 3D waveguiding structures have also arisen since then, both implementing waveguides of just one conductor (no TEM mode) or two conductors (pure TEM mode).
\r\n\t
\r\n\tThese novel hybrid technologies are receiving much research efforts and continuous advances are being published. The maturity of these technologies and their use by the communication industry may come with an increase in the performance of the communication devices and a major economic impact on the high-frequency communication sectors.
\r\n\tThe goals of this book are to present the basis of these new hybrid structures and to show the advances in the design of devices and systems, manufacturing processes and tests, as well as applications where these technologies can be used.
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Amorim",authors:[{id:"16970",title:"Prof.",name:"Zenilda",middleName:"L.",surname:"Cardeal",fullName:"Zenilda Cardeal",slug:"zenilda-cardeal"},{id:"16984",title:"Dr.",name:"Leiliane",middleName:"C.A.",surname:"Amorim",fullName:"Leiliane Amorim",slug:"leiliane-amorim"},{id:"16985",title:"Prof.",name:"Amauri",middleName:null,surname:"Souza",fullName:"Amauri Souza",slug:"amauri-souza"}]},{id:"13029",title:"Micropollutant Degradation Mechanism",slug:"micropollutant-degradation-mechanism",signatures:"Brigita Tepuš, Irena Petrinić and Marjana Simonič",authors:[{id:"15110",title:"Dr.",name:"Irena",middleName:null,surname:"Petrinic",fullName:"Irena Petrinic",slug:"irena-petrinic"},{id:"15704",title:"Dr.",name:"Brigita",middleName:null,surname:"Tepuš",fullName:"Brigita Tepuš",slug:"brigita-tepus"},{id:"16583",title:"Dr.",name:"Marjana",middleName:null,surname:"Simonič",fullName:"Marjana Simonič",slug:"marjana-simonic"}]},{id:"13030",title:"Bacterial-Degradation of Pesticides Residue in Vegetables during Fermentation",slug:"bacterial-degradation-of-pesticides-residue-in-vegetables-during-fermentation",signatures:"Aslan Azizi",authors:[{id:"15701",title:"Dr.",name:"Aslan",middleName:null,surname:"Azizi",fullName:"Aslan Azizi",slug:"aslan-azizi"}]},{id:"13107",title:"Interpretation and Modelling of Environmental Behaviour of Diverse Pesticides by Revealing Photodecomposition Mechanisms",slug:"interpretation-and-modelling-of-environmental-behaviour-of-diverse-pesticides-by-revealing-photodeco",signatures:"Attila Kiss and Diána Virág",authors:[{id:"14950",title:"Dr.",name:"Attila",middleName:null,surname:"Kiss",fullName:"Attila Kiss",slug:"attila-kiss"},{id:"14973",title:"Dr.",name:"Diána",middleName:null,surname:"Virág",fullName:"Diána Virág",slug:"diana-virag"}]},{id:"13031",title:"Degradation of Organochlorine and Organophosphorus Pesticides by Photocatalysis: Chlorpiryfos and Endosulfan Case Study",slug:"degradation-of-organochlorine-and-organophosphorus-pesticides-by-photocatalysis-chlorpiryfos-and-end",signatures:"Rosalina González Forero",authors:[{id:"14241",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosalina",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Forero",fullName:"Rosalina Gonzalez Forero",slug:"rosalina-gonzalez-forero"}]},{id:"13032",title:"Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) for Removal of Pesticides from Aqueous Media",slug:"advanced-oxidation-processes-aops-for-removal-of-pesticides-from-aqueous-media",signatures:"Marco A. Quiroz, Erick R. Bandala and Carlos A. Martínez-Huitle",authors:[{id:"15324",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Quiroz Alfaro",fullName:"Marco Antonio Quiroz Alfaro",slug:"marco-antonio-quiroz-alfaro"},{id:"16897",title:"Dr.",name:"Erick Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Bandala González",fullName:"Erick Roberto Bandala González",slug:"erick-roberto-bandala-gonzalez"},{id:"16898",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez Huitle",fullName:"Carlos Alberto Martínez Huitle",slug:"carlos-alberto-martinez-huitle"}]},{id:"13033",title:"Low-Cost Sorbent for Removing Pesticides during Water Treatment",slug:"low-cost-sorbent-for-removing-pesticides-during-water-treatment",signatures:"Katarzyna Ignatowicz",authors:[{id:"15053",title:"Prof.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Ignatowicz",fullName:"Katarzyna Ignatowicz",slug:"katarzyna-ignatowicz"}]},{id:"13034",title:"Influence of the Activated Carbon Nature and the Aqueous Matrix on the Pesticides Adsorption",slug:"influence-of-the-activated-carbon-nature-and-the-aqueous-matrix-on-the-pesticides-adsorption",signatures:"Natividad Miguel, María P. Ormad, Rosa Mosteo, Jorge Rodríguez and José L. Ovelleiro",authors:[{id:"14648",title:"Dr.",name:"Natividad",middleName:null,surname:"Miguel",fullName:"Natividad Miguel",slug:"natividad-miguel"},{id:"14649",title:"Prof.",name:"María P.",middleName:null,surname:"Ormad",fullName:"María P. Ormad",slug:"maria-p.-ormad"},{id:"14650",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa",middleName:null,surname:"Mosteo",fullName:"Rosa Mosteo",slug:"rosa-mosteo"},{id:"14651",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Rodríguez",fullName:"Jorge Rodríguez",slug:"jorge-rodriguez"},{id:"14652",title:"Dr.",name:"José L.",middleName:null,surname:"Ovelleiro",fullName:"José L. Ovelleiro",slug:"jose-l.-ovelleiro"}]},{id:"13035",title:"Adsorption Properties of Sediments for Pesticides: Investigation with Supercritical Fluid Extraction and Gas Chromatograph Mass Spectrometry",slug:"adsorption-properties-of-sediments-for-pesticides-investigation-with-supercritical-fluid-extraction-",signatures:"Hiroaki Chikushi, Natsuko Yoshida and Kei Toda",authors:[{id:"14786",title:"Dr.",name:"Kei",middleName:null,surname:"Toda",fullName:"Kei Toda",slug:"kei-toda"},{id:"16534",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Chikushi",fullName:"Hiroaki Chikushi",slug:"hiroaki-chikushi"}]},{id:"13036",title:"Sorption of Pesticides on Natural Geosorbents",slug:"sorption-of-pesticides-on-natural-geosorbents",signatures:"Jean-Pierre Gagné, Bruno Gouteux, Youssouf Djibril Soubaneh, and Jean-Rock Brindle",authors:[{id:"14741",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-Pierre",middleName:null,surname:"Gagné",fullName:"Jean-Pierre Gagné",slug:"jean-pierre-gagne"},{id:"14761",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-Rock",middleName:null,surname:"Brindle",fullName:"Jean-Rock Brindle",slug:"jean-rock-brindle"},{id:"16683",title:"Dr.",name:"Youssouf Djibril",middleName:null,surname:"Soubaneh",fullName:"Youssouf Djibril Soubaneh",slug:"youssouf-djibril-soubaneh"},{id:"16684",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruno",middleName:null,surname:"Gouteux",fullName:"Bruno Gouteux",slug:"bruno-gouteux"}]},{id:"13037",title:"Pesticides as a Waste Problem with Examples from Norway",slug:"pesticides-as-a-waste-problem-with-examples-from-norway",signatures:"Ketil Haarstad",authors:[{id:"16783",title:"Dr.",name:"Ketil",middleName:null,surname:"Haarstad",fullName:"Ketil Haarstad",slug:"ketil-haarstad"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"32",title:"Pesticides",subtitle:"Strategies for Pesticides Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"pesticides-strategies-for-pesticides-analysis",bookSignature:"Margarita Stoytcheva",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/32.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6375",title:"Prof.",name:"Margarita",surname:"Stoytcheva",slug:"margarita-stoytcheva",fullName:"Margarita Stoytcheva"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6670",title:"Secondary Metabolites",subtitle:"Sources and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"05d354e4a05e7df7d08ea65f76e0b268",slug:"secondary-metabolites-sources-and-applications",bookSignature:"Ramasamy Vijayakumar and Suresh S.S. Raja",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6670.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"176044",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramasamy",surname:"Vijayakumar",slug:"ramasamy-vijayakumar",fullName:"Ramasamy Vijayakumar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[{type:"book",id:"32",title:"Pesticides",subtitle:"Strategies for Pesticides Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"pesticides-strategies-for-pesticides-analysis",bookSignature:"Margarita Stoytcheva",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/32.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6375",title:"Prof.",name:"Margarita",surname:"Stoytcheva",slug:"margarita-stoytcheva",fullName:"Margarita Stoytcheva"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2216",title:"Pesticides",subtitle:"Advances in Chemical and Botanical Pesticides",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"47f8991faa031547b7e5bdf66b6e8131",slug:"pesticides-advances-in-chemical-and-botanical-pesticides",bookSignature:"R.P. Soundararajan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2216.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145081",title:"Dr.",name:"R.P.",surname:"Soundararajan",slug:"r.p.-soundararajan",fullName:"R.P. Soundararajan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"70511",title:"A Theoretical Review of Rotating Detonation Engines",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90470",slug:"a-theoretical-review-of-rotating-detonation-engines",body:'\nDetonative combustion is a potential propulsion method for aerospace systems, offering high efficiency and low mechanical complexity. In comparison, deflagration is generally considered easier to control and has therefore dominated both experimental and real world engine applications. Research into detonation engines has been limited due to the lack of the necessary tools required to design and analyse such systems [1, 2]. As such, practical development of detonation engines, notably the pulsed detonation engine (PDE) and the rotating or rotational detonation engine (RDE), has been limited [3]. Nevertheless, the application of detonation engines for propulsion is very promising, already proving to be compact, whilst providing highly efficient thrust generation [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. This supersonic thrust could be utilised independently as a rocket engine, or as part of a gas turbine system. Interest in the development of RDE technology has grown and the challenges of utilising a more thermodynamically-efficient cycle have become better understood [8, 9].
\nCombustion can occur at both subsonic and supersonic velocities, known as deflagration and detonation, respectively. Deflagration is typified by a regular flame, which propagates at less than the speed of sound. The heat release may be used to expel the resulting products, generating thrust. Deflagration has been used in a broad range of applications to produce power. However, in theory, deflagration lacks the thermodynamic efficiency of a detonation system, which is a system where combustion is initiated suddenly and “propagates utilising most, if not all, of the heat from combustion in an incredibly rapid shock wave” [10]. The heat generated by the exothermic chemical reaction sustains the shock wave. The concept of using detonation as a propulsion source has been proposed since the 1840s [11], but no substantial work had been completed until the 1950s when the development of models and concepts for a more lightweight and compact engine began [12]. The mechanisms that drive the detonation engine were not well understood at that time, so much of the research over the following decades was centred on the theoretical development of the engine.
\nAs the name implies, the pulse detonation engine (PDE) has been proposed for propulsion using detonations [12, 13]. In a PDE, a detonation chamber is filled with a fuel/oxidiser mixture, which is subsequently detonated. The accelerating detonation propels the exhaust from the chamber, thereby generating thrust. The chamber is then re-primed with fresh reactants, and re-detonated. With sufficiently high cycle speeds, large amounts of thrust may be generated in a small engine [14, 15]. This type of engine has been found to be particularly efficient [3, 16, 17].
\nDevelopment of the concept of a rotating detonation engine (RDE) began as a result of further work into detonative propulsion. This engine type is characterised by one or more detonation waves contained within an open-ended annular chamber. A fuel/oxidiser mixture is fed into one end of the chamber, and the detonation wave consumes these reactants azimuthally, expelling reactants from the open end of the annulus. In some literature, this type of engine may also be referred to as a continuous detonation wave engine (CDWE) or a spin detonation engine [6].
\nEarly research into rotating detonations was conducted in the 1950s [18], with attempts to document the structure of detonation shock waves, including those in spinning detonations, with further developments through the 1960s [1]. Subsequent research has been conducted into the effects of geometry, rotation characteristics, spiralling of the wave, and other variables [6, 19, 20, 21, 22]. Another advancement in general detonation research is improvements in deflagration to detonation transitions (DDTs), leading to a greater understanding of the consumption of fuel in the chamber [23, 24, 25]. Further work has developed prototype RDEs to measure the thrust of small-scale units as a baseline for larger model behaviour, utilising the results from experimental work to verify theoretical results, and to generate new results [26, 27, 28, 29, 30].
\nIn this review, several aspects of RDEs will be examined, starting with a brief comparison of RDEs and PDEs. This will be followed by further exploration into RDE operation, and methods of analysing RDEs, both experimentally and with numerical modelling. Finally, there will be an overview of areas still requiring further work.
\nThe majority of gas turbines that operate with a deflagration follow the Brayton (B) cycle: an isobaric (constant pressure) process, as shown in Figure 1 [31]. In contrast, a detonation is almost isochoric (constant volume) and may be modelled with the Humphrey (H) cycle, or, preferably, with the Fickett-Jacobs (FJ) cycle, which models detonation [3, 31]. The H cycle assumes that combustion occurs in a fixed volume, resulting in a pressure spike as the products expand. Differentiation between the H and FJ cycles in Figure 1 can be seen through the state changes of 2–\n
Thermodynamic cycles: Humphrey, Brayton, and Fickett-Jacobs. Adapted from Wolański [
where \n
Fuel | \nBrayton (%) | \nHumphrey (%) | \nFickett-Jacobs (%) | \n
---|---|---|---|
Hydrogen (H2) | \n36.9 | \n54.3 | \n59.3 | \n
Methane (CH4) | \n31.4 | \n50.5 | \n53.2 | \n
Acetylene (C2H2) | \n36.9 | \n54.1 | \n61.4 | \n
Calculated thermodynamic efficiencies for various fuels under different thermodynamic cycles [26].
In a PDE, such as that shown in Figure 2, a detonation chamber is filled with a fuel/oxidiser mixture and then ignited. The deflagration of the reactants accelerates, and through a deflagration-to-detonation transition (DDT), generates a shock wave. The products are accelerated from the end of the chamber, carried by the detonation front, generating thrust [30, 31]. For each cycle, the chamber must be purged and then refilled with fresh fuel/oxidiser mixture and then detonated again, limiting the maximum practical frequency of operation to an order of 100 Hz [32]. This results in poor efficiency when scaled to high thrust levels as the discontinuous thrust cycles may not be fast enough to approximate the continuity required for propulsion purposes [32, 33, 34, 35]. In some designs, it is also necessary to purge the chamber with an inert gas due to some residual combustion products remaining stagnant in the detonation chamber that interfere with the next detonation cycle. This process further restricts the operating frequency to approximately 50 Hz [3, 16].
\nLabelled schematic of a PDE. Adapted from [
In order to provide a more compact device, obstacles may be placed in the chamber to accelerate the DDT, but these reduce the specific impulse (\n
An RDE, such as the one shown as a cutaway in Figure 3, consists of an annular combustion chamber, into which fuel and oxidiser, either premixed or non-premixed, are fed through a series of orifices [3, 26, 36]. Each fuel/oxidiser mix requires a slightly different orifice geometry for optimal operation, so some devices have an adjustable injector plate [37, 38].
\nCross-section of a typical rotating detonation engine [
A detonation wave is initiated in the chamber, most commonly utilising a high speed flame that undergoes DDT by the time it enters the chamber [39, 40]. As this wave propagates around the chamber, it consumes the fuel, generating a high pressure zone behind it. This zone expands, and due to the geometric constraints, exits the chamber, generating thrust [35, 41]. An example of a CFD representation of the propagating wave can be seen in Figure 4 [42]. Behind the wave, fresh fuel enters the chamber at a constant rate, priming that section of the chamber for the wave to continue on the next revolution, thus making a self-sustaining wave as long as fresh mixture is supplied [35, 43]. The detonation waves generally propagate close to the Chapman-Jouguet velocity (discussed in Section 3.2) for each fuel type (typically 1500–2500 m s−1), so the effective operational frequency of current RDEs is approximately 1–10 kHz. Frequency is dependent on the chamber geometry, fuel, and thermal and frictional losses [31, 44]. The result is quasi-continuous thrust that approximates a continuous thrust through high frequency rotations, suitable for both direct propulsion applications and in the combustor of a gas turbine [31, 32, 45].
\n3D model of the detonation wave propagation in an RDE [
Important areas of RDE research include determining the wave characteristics, geometric constraints, the effects of pressure on the injection characteristics, determining fuel flow properties, and examining the geometry and structure of the detonation wave [3, 4, 30, 31, 41, 42, 44]. Additionally, there has been research into potential applications of detonation engines in which an RDE may be applied, such as air-breathing vehicles and gas turbines [46]. Despite a growing body of work on RDEs, there are still large gaps in current understanding that restrict practical application. Notably, optimising the system for wave stability, ensuring reliable detonation initiation, and ensuring the RDE does not overheat, are significant challenges facing engine development prior to commercial applications. Further development in this area would allow an engine to operate reliably over extended durations, with well-designed chamber and fuel supply.
\nMost experimental RDEs are geometrically similar in design, consisting of an annulus made up of coaxial cylinders [5, 38, 47]. The chamber width, characterised by \n
There is reasonable consistency across published designs in the methods of initiating detonation waves in the RDE. Detonator tubes, in which a high-speed flame is encouraged to transition from deflagration to detonation, have been regularly and reliably used [26, 31, 32, 39, 49, 51]. It has been shown that the success of the detonation tube makes it an excellent initiator, producing a self-sustaining rotating detonation 95% of the time [26].
\nLike all jet-thrust reaction-based engines, the exhaust from a RDE may be channelled through a nozzle to increase thrust. Outlet and nozzle designs have varied across different RDEs. Many have not attached any nozzle, whilst some have chosen to utilise an aerospike [30, 31, 52]. The use of an aerospike increases performance through higher expansion area ratios, although the increased surface area results in higher heat flux and thus a loss of efficiency from the additional heat transfer [53]. Aerospikes may be directly attached to the end of the reaction chamber [31]. A diverging nozzle was found to increase the specific impulse, although the thrust increase was small, and for angles greater than 10°, the increase with angle was negligible [53]. None have made use of converging or converging-diverging nozzles, because the exhaust is typically flowing at supersonic velocities and thus could be choked through the converging cross-section. This would result in a loss of energy that would decrease the overall efficiency of the system.
\nA typical RDE, 90.2 mm in diameter, has been tested on a thrust sled [54]. It produced a thrust of 680 N using 176 g s−1 of C2H4/O2 propellant at an equivalence ratio of 1.48 [54]. As can be seen from Table 2, this is well below that required for typical supersonic flight applications. The specific impulse (\n
Engine | \nApplication | \nThrust | \nThrust to weight | \n
---|---|---|---|
Rolls-Royce Olympus 593 | \nBAC Concorde | \n38,000 lb (169,000 N) | \n5.4:1 [55] | \n
Teledyne CAE J402 | \nMcDonnell Douglas Harpoon | \n660 lb (2900 N) | \n6.5:1 [56] | \n
Pratt and Whitney F135 | \nLockheed Martin F-35 | \n191,300 N | \n11.47:1 (dry) [57] | \n
General Electric F414-400 | \nBoeing F/A-18E/F | \n98,000 N | \n9:1 [58] | \n
Experimental RDE | \nNone | \n680 N | \n3.47:1* [54] | \n
Thrusts and applications of various engines.
This is the thrust to weight ratio calculated using a pre-weight load cell system.
RDEs have been found to be successfully operable with a range of gaseous fuels including hydrogen, acetylene and butane, as well as various jet fuels [30, 31]. Air, pure oxygen, and oxygen-enriched air have all be used as oxidisers [31]. Each of these has a variety of advantages and disadvantages, in both performance characteristics, and ease of obtaining, transporting, and storing the oxidiser. Particular difficulty is noted in the transport of gases such as H2 and O2 due to the high risk regarding transportation and significant compression of these chemical species [59]. In the case of transporting liquid fuels such as LH2 and LOx cryogenic units are also required, adding to the already challenging process. The performance characteristics for several of these fuel types will be discussed further in Section 4.4.
\nThe detonation wave velocity in operational H2/air RDEs has been found to be on the order of 1000 m s−1 [30, 39]. In these RDEs, the operational frequencies are on the order of 4000 Hz, which produces quasi-continuous thrust [3, 32]. As wave speed is a key factor in the development of thrust, stable waves with high speeds are ideal for propulsion purposes. Stable detonation waves have reached maximum speeds in the range of 1500–2000 m s−1 in most designs using a H2/air or H2/O2 fuel/oxidiser combination (more commonly the former), suggesting that there is open research into whether there is upper limit for detonation wave speed, and subsequently the thrust that may be produced [3, 22, 26, 60]. However, at very high frequencies (19–20 kHz), there may be multiple waves rotating around the annulus [60, 61, 62]. Multiple wave modes of propagation appear to be affected by fuel/oxidant equivalence ratio as well as total mass flow rate through the system. The high frequencies are a result of multiple waves travelling at approximately the same speed as the normal single wave. This phenomenon has the potential to provide more continuous thrust, though the higher frequency may limit \n
There are several methods of recording data from an operating RDE. Thrust generated may be measured with a thrust plate, and the flow rates of fuel and oxidiser may be measured or controlled within the supply lines [30]. The details of the shock may be recorded with pressure sensors attached to the chamber head, and external cameras [30]. Pressure sensors record the increased pressure generated by the shock, and by using multiple sensors, the detonation wave propagation velocity may be determined. A high-speed camera may be set up to capture the operation of the engine, allowing various parameters to be recorded, including the detonation wave propagation velocity, although this method is limited by spatial resolution, as the channel width can be quite small [30, 39]. A camera may also be used to image from the side, if the outer surface of the annulus is made of a transparent material [63]. Additionally, OH* chemiluminescence may be used to detect, record, and analyse the detonation waves in UV-transparent optically-accessible RDEs [64, 65]. These radicals are indicative of the reaction zone, and so, by analysis of their chemiluminescence, the structure of the detonation can be inferred. Often this detection is done through a quartz side window integrated into the RDE [63]. Peak intensity of the OH* chemiluminescence indicates the location of the detonation front, and so the effects of varying factors such as equivalence ratio and chamber geometries can be documented. Images are often phase-averaged and can by “unwrapped” for comparison to equivalent two-dimensional, “linearised”, simulations and designs.
\nThe structure of shock waves in gases was examined in detail by Voitsekhovskii in 1969, including those of shock waves in spinning detonations [66]. These examinations resulted in the first diagram of the structure of a spinning shock wave, and the identification of a number of features, which are identified from the computational model of an RDE shown in Figure 5 [32]. This model used premixed hydrogen/air as the fuel/oxidiser mixture and has been “unwrapped” into two-dimensions (this approach is described in Section 5.1). Feature A is the primary detonation front; Feature B is an oblique shock wave that propagates from the top of the detonation wave; Feature C is a slip line between the freshly detonated products and older products from the previous cycle; Feature D is a secondary shock wave; Feature E is a mixing region between the fresh premixture and the product gases, where deflagration may occur [67]; Feature F is the region where the injector nozzles are blocked; and Feature G is the unreacted premixture.
\nPressure contour indicating the cell structure of a detonation wave in an RDE with a premixed supply, taken from a computational modelling study [
In both Figure 5b and Figure 8c (Section 4.3) the detonation cell structure can be seen, with high pressure zones outlining each cell. These lines of high pressure contain triple points, where the transverse and oblique shocks meet the Mach stem of the detonation wave [68, 69]. The concentrated pressure at these triple points is the point of maximum energy release, and the subsequent pressure spike when two triple points collide generates new detonation cells [68, 70]. While this generation is the main reason behind the propagation of detonation waves, the triple points still require further investigation as to the effects they have on the overall characteristics of a detonation wave [70]. The direction of these triple points can be seen as the white lines in Figure 8c with trailing high pressure zones forming the walls of the detonation cells. As the detonation cell width is defined by the geometry of the system and the chemical composition of the detonating fuel, it seems that the triple point velocity and direction must also directly relate to these factors, although limited research has been done to formally connect these points.
\nIn an RDE, the detonation wave remains attached to the base of the annulus, as illustrated in Figure 5b and in Figure 6 [3, 6, 71]. This is due to the continuous fuel/oxidant supply [3, 71], as a premixture or allowed to mix in the chamber ahead of the detonation wave [32, 39]. There is also some evidence that stable, lifted waves may also be possible if there is insufficient mixing between the fuel and oxidant [27, 44]. The propagating detonation wave combusts the reactants [32, 39] which generates a region of extremely high pressure immediately behind the wave. This pressure is on the order of 15–30 times higher than the pressure ahead of the detonation, preventing flow through the injectors [3]. The high pressure zone expands in a Prandtl–Meyer fan, allowing fresh fuel and oxidiser to enter the chamber [35]. This expansion propels the mixed products axially along the engine, generating thrust. In addition to the primary shock, an oblique shock and a secondary attached shock are also generated (Features B and D in Figure 5a).
\nDiagram showing the general structure of the detonation in an unwrapped RDE [
At the interface between the premixed reactants and the combustion products, there is a significant difference between the conditions of the unburnt fuel/oxidiser mixture and the products. This causes some deflagration along the slip line, as shown in Figure 6, generating Kelvin-Helmholz instabilities, which vary the detonation propagation velocity [3, 22, 72, 73]. This decrease in the propagation velocity results in an increase in the pressure, disturbing the oncoming shock wave and forcing the sonic flow directly behind the shock wave to undergo supersonic flow acceleration [74]. As shown in Figure 6 there is a section of injector flow blockage that occurs as the wave passes the fuel array. The high pressure front from the shock wave causes stagnation of the injector flow, or even back-flow which, if not handled, could cause catastrophic failure of the system [3, 6, 36]. This back-flow is a strong reason as to why the fuel and oxidants should not be premixed in practical systems or experimental investigations as it can result in flashback.
\nThe Chapman-Jouguet (CJ) condition can be defined as the requirements for the leading shock of a detonation to not be weakened by the rarefactions of the upstream detonation products [75]. This sonic plane then acts to allow the supersonic expansion of the detonated gases to occur without disturbance by rarefactions downstream of the flow [75]. The CJ condition can be used to approximate the detonation velocities in three-dimensional models but is better suited to a one dimensional analysis with an infinitesimally thin detonation front [76]. Despite this, it is used in most instances of numerical modelling as a guide as to whether the wave is performing as expected for the given parameters of the RDE [4, 6, 27, 31, 32, 42, 75, 77]. Chapman and Jouguet’s theory only applies to kinetic energy, disregarding the chemical energy of the reacting species, and hence, the Zel’Dovich-von Neumann-Doring (ZND) model is used as a more complete representation of the shock, taking into account the finite chemical reaction area directly upstream of the leading shock [3, 21, 45, 75, 78, 79, 80].
\nThere are two methods which may be used to initiate the detonative shock in an RDE—directly in the chamber, or indirectly via a high speed flame in a deflagration to detonation transition (DDT) tube [26, 31, 39, 49, 51]. These tubes are very similar in structure to a PDE. Directly initiating the detonation in the chamber via commercial spark plugs has been found to be generally unreliable, with only a 40% success rate for shock initiation when using CH4 in O2 [26]. Particular difficulty is noted in ensuring the detonation travels in the desired direction [26, 32]. In contrast, indirect initiation via a DDT tube has had a 95% success rate for the same fuel/oxidant combination [26, 31]. The indirect method involves using a detonator tube that can be set up in any orientation relative to the chamber, although tangential is favoured for initiating the detonation direction. Initiation is then caused by a small volume of a highly detonative mixture being ignited by spark plugs before DDT occurs, thus initiating the RDE. Perpendicular initiation can also be used, but this often results in the development of two detonation waves that rotate around the chamber in opposite directions [31]. Collision of these opposing waves usually destabilises the system as the waves weaken and reflect back in the direction of origin [31]. Desired direction also appears to be affected by initial total pressure and ignition distribution around the fuel plenum [27, 81]. For a desired single wave direction and propagation, tangential initiation is the most suitable method. Although slightly less compact due to the initiator tube, this may be reduced by placing obstacles in the tube to accelerate the DDT, or by using a more detonative fuel than that used in the primary process [31, 48, 62, 82, 83]. Using an initiator tube, however, may produce small wavelets ahead of the main detonation front, which, if present, reduce the detonation propagation velocity by up to 60% [84]. Once the main detonation is running, the interface between the initiator tube and main chamber must be closed off prior to the shock completing a revolution of the chamber [84]. Additionally, there may be a slight delay, on the order of milliseconds, between the detonation exiting the DDT tube and the commencement of full RDE operation in order to purge the spent reactants from the DDT process [85]. This delay seems to only be transient with no large effects on shock structure or stability, and the excess products are expelled along with the rest of the exhaust [85].
\nThree-dimensional modelling has shown that increasing the width of the channel—whilst maintaining the equivalence ratio, injection pressure, chamber length, and injector configuration—increases the detonation velocity, but the transverse shock wave ceases to be aligned with the radial direction [22, 27, 86]. As can be seen in Figure 7, the point of contact with the inner wall begins to lead the detonation wave as the channel width increases [22]. This phenomenon generates reflected shocks from the outer annulus wall, which may produce instabilities in the primary shock. It has been suggested through qualitative observation, however, that the effect of upstream reflected shocks on the shock structure may only be minimal [39, 87]. Once the channel becomes sufficiently wide, as shown in Figure 7c, the shock wave detaches from the inner wall, briefly forming a horseshoe shape against the outer wall [22]. This allows significant amounts of fuel to pass through the engine without combusting, and produces large instabilities and fragmentation in the detonation wave, which causes the structure to collapse [22]. These lead to a significant loss of performance, and secondary detonations in the exhaust [22]. It has been noted that increasing the channel width also results in increased variance of \n
Schematic of three different RDE designs showing the effect of varying the channel width on detonation structure. Arrows show detonation wave propagation direction. The red line is detonation wave, indicative only. Based on research from [22]. (a) Narrow channel, (b) mid-sized channel, and (c) wide channel.
It has been found that using a fuel-rich mixture produces stable waves with high detonation velocity and efficiency [80, 88]. Higher mass flow rates have also been attributed to increasing the chance of a stable wave being formed [6, 89]. Additionally, it has been shown that the equivalence ratio has a strong influence on the effectiveness of detonation and the stability of the system [80]. Detailed investigation has shown that the stability of the system is improved with increased equivalence ratio, but indicated a maximum equivalence ratio of 1.27, before the detonation wave became short-lived and transient, which is unsuitable for practical purposes [60]. Whether this is a universal limit, or a limit of that particular investigation is unclear, and requires further research. Furthermore, the findings indicated that lower equivalence ratio influences the number of wave fronts produced, with stoichiometric seeming to be a transition point to a stable one wave propagation mode [60, 86, 90]. It is interesting to note that for lean mixtures, the initial channel pressure needs to be higher for a stable detonation to propagate [88].
\nThe wave propagation velocity varies with the fuel/oxidiser combination. A variety of mixtures have been tested in a detonation tube of an RDE, with their wave propagation velocities and wavefront pressures shown in Table 3, which is indicative of their varying performance in an RDE. It should be noted that the pressure, energy and specific impulse in Table 3 are determined with a detonation tube, and provide a numerical comparison between each fuel/oxidiser combination. Hydrogen/oxygen mixes have been ideal for modelling purposes due to the simple chemistry involved, and are often used in experimental work due to the predictable behaviour. Additionally, the high detonation propagation velocity and wavefront pressure of hydrogen makes it a suitable fuel for real applications. Another common fuel choice is methane, due to the satisfactory propagation velocity and specific impulse in testing [31]. As mentioned in Section 2, the theoretical \n
Fuel mixture | \nDetonation speed (m s−1) | \nWavefront pressure (atm) | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Hydrogen/oxygen | \n2836 | \n18.5 | \n8.43 | \n289.39 | \n
Hydrogen/air | \n1964 | \n15.5 | \n3.48 | \n200.41 | \n
Ethylene/oxygen | \n2382 | \n31.9 | \n5.23 | \n243.06 | \n
Ethylene/air | \n1821 | \n18.2 | \n2.85 | \n185.82 | \n
Ethane/oxygen | \n2257 | \n29.0 | \n4.87 | \n230.31 | \n
Ethane/air | \n1710 | \n15.8 | \n2.49 | \n174.49 | \n
Propane/oxygen | \n2354 | \n34.2 | \n5.18 | \n240.20 | \n
Propane/air | \n1797 | \n17.5 | \n2.80 | \n183.37 | \n
Fuels, wave propagation velocities and pressures, heat of combustion (\n
Transportability of fuel, and maintenance of fuel lines, are deciding factors in determining which fuels can be used. These issues are especially important for aerospace applications. Gases such as H2 and O2 are particularly volatile and reactive, hence can be difficult to transport in the large quantities needed for use in an RDE. Therefore, gaseous fuels and non-air oxidisers are challenging and largely unsuitable for real world applications [5]. However, H2 does have a high heat of combustion that is not matched by liquid hydrocarbon fuels. Jet fuel, kerosene, octane and other long-chain hydrocarbons provide a practical alternative to the H2/O2 mixture though. High volumetric energy density as a result of liquid state, as well as greater ease of transportability makes these hydrocarbons a more feasible fuel choice.
\nThere are several issues regarding fuel choice that deserve further discussion. In particular, the use of cryogenic fuels for cooling the engine is a beneficial approach, increasing thermal efficiency, as well as reducing the thermal load on other components such as mounting systems [3]. Another advantage is a higher volumetric energy density that comes from the compression of normally gaseous fuel sources. Testing of liquid oxygen (LOx) and gaseous or liquid hydrogen (GH2/LH2) fuel/oxidant systems for viability has been performed, but implementation in real world scenarios is challenging [92, 93]. Liquid hydrocarbons require further investigation to demonstrate their effectiveness in producing thrust through detonation [30], particularly because of the need for flash vapourisation to avoid multiphase effects in the mixing process [30, 51].
\nAn axial fuel injection process through a circumferential orifice plate was consistent across most simulations and real world models as an injection scheme [5, 6, 22, 26, 30, 32, 36, 38, 39, 41, 42, 42, 52, 61, 62, 82, 86, 88, 92, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99]. Further research is required into fuel blockage effects due to the high pressure of the shock wave, with particular emphasis on the effects of increasing fuel pressure to alleviate blockage and increase overall engine performance [100]. In the majority of numerical and physical models, such as Figure 3, fuel and oxidiser are injected through an orifice place around the annulus, allowing them to continually feed the propagating detonation wave. Typically, the fuel and oxidiser are fed in separately, and allowed to mix in the chamber [26]. This design is also used in most numerical models, although some have used premixed fuel/oxidiser as a simplified boundary condition. Almost all physical designs have been built without a premixed fuel/oxidant injection scheme due to concerns with flashback [99]. In a premixed design, the shock wave may propagate into the injection plenum, carrying with it the reaction front. With sufficient pressure though, typically 2.3–3 times the chamber pressure, this can be avoided [32].
\nInvestigation into flow characteristics of a turbulent inflow have shown that there are specific zones within the chamber which favour different forms of combustion: some zones favour deflagration, and others favour detonation [101]. The larger deflagration zones created reduce the thermodynamic efficiency of the engine, indicating that fuel flowrate influences the reliability of an RDE [101]. It has been suggested that high inlet velocities generate incomplete combustion and hot spots, reducing detonation wave stability and reducing system efficiency, although further research is required [102]. As indicated in Section 3.3, the introduction of instabilities in the flow profile can decrease the efficiency of the engine as well as disrupt the detonation wave itself. Further findings indicate that increasing the fuel injection area, particularly by increasing the number of orifices, results in more efficient pressure gain [86, 97, 99, 103]. This produces a larger expansion wave of the previous combustion reactants, generating higher thrust, without disrupting the flow-field characteristics [98]. However, with lower fuel injection velocities comes an increased risk of flashback. There is, therefore, some optimal fuel injection area for operation which requires further work to verify [98]. Finally, the pressure ratio between the inlets and the engine outlet also has an effect on the \n
Existing RDEs tend to be relatively small, and therefore may need to be scaled up, or arranged in parallel, to produce thrust required for practical applications, such as those listed in Table 2. One method of scaling RDEs is to run multiple identical devices in parallel, in a similar manner to that used to run multiple PDEs [34, 104]. However, this would require more complex plumbing, increasing the weight of the overall system, and thus decreasing the thrust-to-weight ratio. However, this solution has not been explored in any depth and its viability is unknown.
\nIn order to make larger RDEs, in-depth research into the geometry of the combustion chamber is required. A number of relationships between the critical detonation wave height and the various dimensions have been identified [27, 30]. Detonation structure, as described in Section 3.1 is composed of small diamond shaped detonation cells that make up the front. The widths of these cells are dependent on the energy of the detonation (related to the fuel in use) as well as the available geometry for detonation. In this way, the equivalence ratio can be a large determining factor [30, 105, 106]. Critical minimum fill height is the minimum mixture height required for a detonation wave to propagate through a given fuel/oxidiser mixture. It has been found that the critical minimum fill height, \n
and the minimum channel width, \n
Finally, the minimum axial length of an RDE, \n
although lengths under 2–3 times the minimum result in reduced efficiency due to incomplete combustion [27]. However, in simulations, it has been suggested that for low inlet-nozzle pressure ratios the wave the wave height grew with the chamber length, reducing the \n
Geometric parameters of an RDE. The red area is the area filled by the fuel/oxidiser mix in which the detonation propagates. (a) Top view, (b) side view, and (c) detonation cell width adapted from [79].
There is not yet any theoretical data for \n
Modelling a large-scale RDE presents a challenge due to increasing computational requirements with increasing size, so limited work has been done in this area. Nevertheless, a larger scale experimental RDE has been demonstrated [5]. This RDE had an outer chamber diameter of 406 mm, and a channel width of 25 mm, and an air inlet slit that could be varied across the range 2–15 mm [5]. It produced a consistent thrust of 6 kN with a combined fuel/oxidiser flow rate of 7.5 kg s−1, whilst also producing an \n
The design used in most simulations and experimental work is a coaxial cylinder structure [3, 27, 31, 35]. This simple geometry is advantageous for both modelling and manufacturing. Design variations including using nozzles, aerospikes such as that shown in Figure 9, or an entirely hollow cylinder, have been utilised in several RDE designs [5, 52].
\nExample of an aerospike nozzle configuration [
Alternative chamber geometries have been largely limited to adjustments in the diameters of the chamber [4, 42], including with different sized engines [15, 31, 39, 54]. Other work has been conducted on a single RDE with interchangeable outer wall sections [22, 30]. As noted in Section 2 and Section 3, both of these factors influence the stability and the performance of RDEs. The effect of varying the length of the chamber on the detonation propagation has been investigated, which led to the previously mentioned requirement that the chamber be at least twice, and preferably four to six times, the fuel fill height [4, 96].
\nHollow RDEs, dubbed “centrebodiless” designs, have been tested with two different designs [50, 61]. One design was identical to a conventional RDE 100 mm across, but the inner cylinder terminated parallel to the fuel/oxidiser injectors [61]. In this design, tested with 169.7 g s−1 of CH4/O2 at an equivalence ratio of 1.154, it was found that the detonation was unstable [61]. The fuel and oxidiser were free to move into the space usually occupied by the centre body, and thus insufficiently mixed to sustain a stable detonation [61]. However, when the same geometry was tested with 253.3 g s−1 of CH4/O2 at an equivalence ratio of 0.665, the mixture became sufficiently mixed to sustain a stable four-wave detonation structure [61]. Another design was completely hollow, allowing oxygen-enriched air to be pumped through the centre of the chamber, and fuel was supplied around the edge [50]. In this design, stable detonations, operating at \n
The attachment of turbines to RDEs has been proposed [8, 9, 31, 32, 45]. It has also been noted that there is a secondary shock propagating from the detonation, which exits the outlet of the chamber [32]. However, turbine blades are sensitive to shocks. As such, the effect of the secondary shocks on the blades of potential turbines must be investigated. It is worth noting that an experimental PDE array has been tested with an attached turbine, in the form of an automotive turbocharger [31]. In that case, a buffer chamber was inserted between the PDE and the turbine [31], and such a technology may be suitable for RDEs.
\nComputational fluid dynamics (CFD) modelling is a powerful tool for the analysis of rotating detonations prior to, or in tandem with, experimental systems. The majority of numerical studies have aimed to provide in-depth understanding and details of the detonation structure [22, 41, 62, 67, 72, 94, 107, 108] or assess the physical and modelling factors influencing performance [32, 67, 73, 109].
\nComputational models of the azimuthal detonations in RDEs may use full three-dimensional geometries [20, 22, 67, 94, 95, 107, 110] or simplified, two-dimensional geometries [6, 32, 41, 43, 62, 72, 73, 108, 109, 111, 112, 113, 114]. The former, higher-fidelity, approach can incorporate complex geometric and flow features, although require \n
Two-dimensional modelling of RDEs assumes that the flowfield along the centre of the channel is representative of shock and deflagration structure across the entire width. Consequently, this inherently assumes slip-wall conditions and that the detonation-front is normal to the two-dimensional geometry. In the unwrapped two-dimensional geometry, all fuel is injected axially from one edge (the bottom edge in Figure 5a [32]) and is exhausted through the opposite edge (the top edge in Figure 5a) [6, 32, 72, 111]. It therefore follows that all exhaust products must leave the domain axially, due to conversation of angular momentum. This was confirmed in early two-dimensional modelling, which found that the density-averaged azimuthal velocity was less than 3% of the axial velocity [41]. Such a criterion could be extended to assessing whether a three-dimensional model, at some fixed radius within the channel, could be treated as an unwrapped planar domain.
\nDetonation wave curvature, imperfect mixing, three-dimensional turbulent structures and transverse shocks are features reported in three-dimensional computational modelling [22, 67, 79, 94, 107] and experimental studies [62]. These features arise from the effects of channel size [22], discrete injectors [79] and interactions between transverse waves and walls [62, 79]. These features are inherently three-dimensional and cannot be captured using planar, periodic models, and require more complex computational geometries.
\nFuel/oxidiser inlets may be modelled as simple points, lines, surfaces or complex, discrete injectors. The latter may be treated as a series of inlets in two-dimensional models, assuming upstream micro-mixing [109, 112]. Differences in the injector configuration can lead to differences in detonation pressure [112], or lifted flame behaviour in the event of poor mixing in a partially premixed system [109]. The study which observed the latter phenomenon, however, was undertaken using the Euler equations, which may affect the fidelity of modelled mixing (discussed later in this section), and a simplified induction parameter model (described in Section 5.4) [109], although this has also been observed experimentally in C2H2-fuelled RDEs [115].
\nInlet boundary conditions in premixed models, are often defined by inlet throat-to-nozzle-exit ratios. These, and the set upstream pressure, control whether the inlets are blocked, subsonic or choked and are chosen to range from 0.1–0.2 [6, 109, 110, 112], although ranges as large as 0.07–0.3 have shown little effect on \n
Rotating detonation engines have often been numerically modelled using the compressible Euler Equations [6, 20, 32, 41, 43, 62, 72, 95, 108, 110, 111, 112]. The Euler equations conserve momentum, mass and energy, but do not account for viscosity, following the assumption that the detonation structure dominates viscous dissipation. Viscous effects may, however, be incorporated into numerical studies of RDEs through the use Reynolds-averaged Navier Stokes (RANS) modelling [107, 113], LES, LES-RANS hybrids such as [improved] delayed detached eddy simulations (IDDES) [67, 94], or DNS [22]. Of these approaches, Euler, IDDES and DNS studies [22, 41, 67] have all been able to capture Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities in the unreacted/reacted and the post-shock mixing layers (see Figure 5a as an example), using sufficiently small element sizing in both two- and three-dimensional models.
\nThe grid required to resolve large structures in RDE mixing layers is dependent on the size of the geometry. Elements of 200 μm have been shown to predict shear layer instabilities using either Euler equations or IDDES in an RDE with a mid-channel diameter of 90 mm [67] and an \n
Both viscosity and species diffusion have been stated as critical features in non-premixed models of RDEs, promoting the use of IDDES or LES in modelling studies [67]. In contrast, a negligible dependence of detonation velocity or \n
Although the Euler equations cannot account for viscous effects, such as wall shear-stress and heat transfer, these have a small, but non-negligible, effect (\n
Incorporating viscosity and thermal wall-effects into IDDES simulations requires significant computational resources. One such study required a computational mesh of \n
The majority of numerical RDEs works to date targeted H2/air and H2/O2 systems [6, 20, 22, 41, 62, 72, 73, 79, 94, 95, 111, 112, 118, 121, 122], given their relatively simple chemistry in comparison with both small and large hydrocarbons. Nevertheless, limited data are also available for linearised CH4/air and C2H4/air systems [114].
\nThe simplest approach to describe the chemistry is that of a one-step irreversible reaction [6, 43, 62, 95, 108, 109]. This assumption has been widely used to numerically investigate various aspects of fully premixed canonical RDE cases and useful insights have been gained [6, 32, 95]. However, it is well known that such a simplification is not able to accurately quantify many detonation responses of interest (e.g. upstream deflagration phenomena [109], triple shocks structure [79, 116]), mainly due to the sensitive Arrhenius nature of the reaction rate to temperature variations. Also, the use of
Simplified approaches to chemical kinetics may employ a one-step reversible reaction [20, 62] or a two-step mechanism [22, 41] to describe the chemistry within a system. In particular, for the one-step case, the forward reaction rate is calculated using the classical Arrhenius equation with the reaction rate constants tuned from a reference case while the backward reaction rate is calculated from the assumption of local chemical equilibrium [20, 62]. This approach has been validated against detailed chemistry for a 1D model [20]. For canonical 2D premixed RDEs, a one-step reversible reaction is not able to accurately capture the post-detonation temperature while it is able to predict both the experimental pressure and velocity fields [20]. In addition, it was also found that this approach can be successfully implemented to describe stratification effects in three-dimensional non-premixed RDE systems [62].
\nFor the one-step case, a number of two- and three-dimensional premixed RDE simulations employ an induction-time parameter model (IPM) to compute the chemical source terms [6, 32, 43, 109]. The IPM has shown reasonable accuracy for the prediction of detonation wave propagation in premixed systems [108], as the induction time is derived from the same configuration as the CJ wave-speed [116]. In addition, it is computationally inexpensive as a global induction parameter allows for release of energy over a finite period of time. Nevertheless, the IPM lacks the flexibility to accurately describe the physics occurring in more realistic non-premixed systems [94]. The thermodynamic properties of the single product species employed in this model are dependent upon the equivalence ratio of the fuel/air mixture. Therefore, this approach cannot easily handle the spatially varying local equivalence ratio occurring in a non-premixed system [116]. This model also lacks the capability to capture the low-pressure heat release and the change in equilibrium chemistry of post-detonation products. Finally, this method requires
Finite-rate kinetics and the associated kinetic mechanisms are needed to capture complex phenomena such as near-limit propagation leading to quenching of the detonation wave [116]. This is mainly because the use of a one-step reaction precludes the influence of chain-branching-termination mechanisms that are invariably multi-step in nature. In this regard, an advanced approach is the induction-length model, which concerns determining the induction length for adiabatic propagation and using it to estimate global detonation parameters such as the cell size of steady propagation and the wave curvature at quenching [116]. This study showed that at least a four-step mechanism is required to achieve acceptable predictions in CJ detonation.
\nModels of RDEs using H2/air, H2/O2, CH4/air and C2H4/air mixtures have employed detailed chemistry and simplified configurations [68, 72, 73, 79, 111, 112, 114, 118, 122], although only limited studies are available in comparison with simplified (one- or two-step) chemistry, given the relatively large computational expense required and the current computational resources. A set of 8–9 chemical species and 18–21 elementary reactions are generally employed for H2 systems [72, 112], while 21–22 species and 34–38 reactions are used for simple hydrocarbons systems [114]. These studies highlighted that the use of detailed chemistry is needed to accurately predict the energy-release pattern in RDEs and complex characteristics, including re-ignition, number of triple points and transverse waves [68].
\nA linearised model may be constructed to simulate the operation of an RDE [79, 124]. These models, shown in Figure 10, are known as linearised model detonation engines (LMDEs). In this model, fuel is fed into the chamber, and a transverse shock wave propagates through it. This occurs in much the same manner as in an RDE. However, the chamber is rectangular, and so the detonation only makes a single pass through the chamber [79, 124]. Both computer models and practical experiments have been run in three different modes, all using fresh supplies [79, 125]:
The chamber is pre-filled with premixed fuel/oxidiser, and then the detonation is initiated.
The chamber is pre-filled with an inert gas, then premixed fuel/oxidiser is injected and the detonation is initiated simultaneously.
The chamber is pre-filled with oxidiser, then fuel is injected and the detonation is initiated simultaneously.
An example linearised model detonation engine [
LMDEs have been used to characterise the detonation process, by allowing both sides of the chamber to be imaged through quartz walls, or the density field imaged through the use of the Schlieren technique [79, 126]. It has been found that the critical fill height of an LMDE is about \n
Computer modelling of an LMDE indicated that the propagation of a detonation wave was not affected by the turbulence caused by in-chamber mixing of fuel and oxidiser [118]. However, the presence of this turbulence did cause the reaction zone to trail the detonation wave [118]. A model of an LMDE was also used to test the result of applying different back pressures, such as might occur if a nozzle or a turbine was attached to an RDE [114]. This indicated that increased back pressure also increased the detonability of the fuel mixture, but also restricted the acceleration of the products, which, in some cases, led to the production of tertiary shock waves to sufficiently compress the flow to match the exit plane conditions [114]. However, as noted previously in Section 2, nozzles have very limited benefit [53], and, as noted in Section 4 the effect of secondary and tertiary shocks on a turbine may be problem.
\nRotating detonation engines have the potential to provide a significantly more efficient combustion cycle than deflagration-based engines. The application of this technology to turbines promises to increase the thermodynamic efficiency of these engines to previously unattainable levels. Additionally, RDEs as a standalone engine hold significant promise for both air-breathing and air-independent rocket propulsion. However, there exists a large body of research and development work still-to-be undertaken, including:
Nozzles have been shown to have limited benefit to the thrust generated by RDEs. However, varying the angles of the walls of an RDE, either independently or together, may simulate the effect of a nozzle to provide a slight benefit to performance. It remains unknown what effect such modifications to the conventional cylinder might have.
Comparisons of thrust to weight ratios between experimental RDEs and conventional rocket engines show similar values, indicating that an RDE could represent a method of propulsion in space. This has not been widely explored as an option, and would benefit from experimental work in vacuum conditions or microgravity conditions.
It has been suggested that there may be a maximum equivalence ratio at which an RDE will operate, but further investigation is required to determine if this is a universal limit, and identify ways to lower the limit.
Triple points appear to have significant effect on the propagation of the detonation wave but little work has been done on determining the constraints, besides chemical composition, on the formation of stable and consistent triple points as well as the effect of those parameters on other characteristics of the triple points such as peak pressure and propagation direction. Findings would be beneficial in terms of properly defining the parameters that affect \n
Very few studies have provided a mathematical relationship between the detonation cell width and the geometry requirements of the chamber. More supporting work to help refine and verify or dispute the relationships that have been established needs to be done, so that in the future, specialised design needs can be catered for through knowing the geometry and cell width of fuel types.
Varying the channel width has been noted to affect the stability of the detonation wave in an RDE. As such, this is likely to affect the performance of such devices. Further research is required to determine what the optimal width would be for different design requirements.
It is established that RDE chambers need to be at least twice as long as the fuel fill height, and increasing the length four to six times the fill height improves the efficiency. However, depending on the ratio of inlet pressure to nozzle pressure, such a length increase may also result in reduced \n
So-called “centrebodiless” designs have been explored, and proposed for use in afterburners. However, they have not been modelled or tested with heated high velocity air, as would be typically found at the outlet of a conventional jet engine, so their potential performance remains unknown.
It has been demonstrated that the thrust produced by RDEs scales non-linearly with engine size, but they are not yet approaching the size required to replace most existing gas turbines. It remains unknown if an RDE can be scaled up sufficiently to provide the thrust levels offered by contemporary gas turbine engines.
It has been suggested that a turbine could be attached to an RDE. However, the effects of the various shocks on a turbine have not been explored. In particular, the oblique shock (Feature B in Figure 5a) has been shown to propagate out of the chamber, and is likely to have significant effect on the viability of using a turbine.
The invsicid Euler equations have been demonstrated to over-predict deflagration in three-dimensional computational models of premixed RDEs, even with the use of detailed chemistry. Their validity in non-premixed RDE configurations, with deflagration upstream of the detonation and the potential to produce lifted detonation waves, still requires rigorous assessment.
Viscous and thermal wall-effects in RDEs have significant effect on RDE performance characteristics, and may be essential in accurately reproducing experimentally measured values. Understanding of the appropriate numerical modelling approaches of these effects, however, is still immature, owing to the computational resources required for sufficiently fine resolution of near-wall grids.
The computationally predicted wave-speeds and plenum pressures in RDEs are significantly different to those measured experimentally. It has been proposed that this could be partially due to baroclinic vorticity, resulting from interactions between detonation waves, fresh reactants, deflagration reaction-zones and post-combustion products, although this is yet to be analysed in detail in either full RDEs or linearised models.
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\\n\\nAll rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the specific approval of the Author or Co-Authors.
\\n\\nThe Author, on his/her own behalf and on behalf of the Co-Authors, will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Work as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Work arising from the translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits as determined by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nAUTHOR'S DUTIES
\\n\\nWhen distributing or re-publishing the Work, the Author agrees to credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Author guarantees that Co-Authors will also credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Work.
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\\n\\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of issue of the invoice. The Author or whoever is paying on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\\n\\nThe Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Work worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen, at its request, the original copies of such consents for inspection or the photocopies of such consents.
\\n\\nThe Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from those who might recognize themselves or be identified by others, for example from case reports or photographs.
\\n\\nThe Author shall respect confidentiality during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Author and Co-Authors are confidential and are intended only for the recipients. The contents of any communication may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\\n\\nAUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm and warrant that the Work does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Work contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy.
\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm that: (i) the Work is their original work and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Work has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors have not assigned, and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign, any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
\\n\\nThe Author agrees to indemnify IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses, as well as all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of, or in connection with, any breach of the agreed confirmations and warranties. This indemnity shall not apply in a situation in which a claim results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\\n\\nNothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\\n\\nTERMINATION
\\n\\nIntechOpen has the right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Author and/or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (being a private individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (as a corporate entity) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for, or enters into, any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\\n\\nIn the event of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Author of the decision in writing.
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\\n\\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen, at its discretion, agrees to publish the Work attributing it to the Author and Co-Authors.
\\n\\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen agrees to provide publishing services which include: managing editing (editorial and publishing process coordination, Author assistance); publishing software technology; language copyediting; typesetting; online publishing; hosting and web management; and abstracting and indexing services.
\\n\\nIntechOpen agrees to offer free online access to readers and use reasonable efforts to promote the Publication to relevant audiences.
\\n\\nIntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\\n\\nIntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nMISCELLANEOUS
\\n\\nFurther Assurance: The Author shall ensure that any relevant third party, including any Co-Author, shall execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\nThird Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\\n\\nEntire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by, or on behalf of, the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (known as the "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of any fraudulent pre-contract misrepresentation or concealment.
\\n\\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\\n\\nVariation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall have effect unless it is in writing and signed by the parties, or their duly authorized representatives.
\\n\\nSeverance: If any provision, or part-provision, of this Publication Agreement is, or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted. Any modification to, or deletion of, a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\nNo partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
\\n\\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2018-09-11
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'When submitting a manuscript, the Author is required to accept the Terms and Conditions set out in our Publication Agreement – Monographs/Compacts as follows:
\n\nCORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\nSubject to the following Article, the Author grants to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright, and any extensions or renewals of that term, the following:
\n\nThe foregoing licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Publication Agreement for any reason.
\n\nThe Author, on his or her own behalf and on behalf of any of the Co-Authors, reserves the following rights in the Work but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Work as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\n\nThe Author, and any Co-Author, confirms that they are, and will remain, a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Work and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process, including all published versions, is retained by the Author and any Co-Authors.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Author and Co-Authors retain patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Work.
\n\nAll rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the specific approval of the Author or Co-Authors.
\n\nThe Author, on his/her own behalf and on behalf of the Co-Authors, will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Work as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Work arising from the translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits as determined by IntechOpen.
\n\nAUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\nWhen distributing or re-publishing the Work, the Author agrees to credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Author guarantees that Co-Authors will also credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Work.
\n\nThe Author agrees to:
\n\nThe Author will be held responsible for the payment of the agreed Open Access Publishing Fee before the completion of the project (Monograph/Compacts publication).
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of issue of the invoice. The Author or whoever is paying on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\nThe Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Work worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen, at its request, the original copies of such consents for inspection or the photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from those who might recognize themselves or be identified by others, for example from case reports or photographs.
\n\nThe Author shall respect confidentiality during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Author and Co-Authors are confidential and are intended only for the recipients. The contents of any communication may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\nAUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm and warrant that the Work does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Work contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy.
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm that: (i) the Work is their original work and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Work has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors have not assigned, and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign, any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
\n\nThe Author agrees to indemnify IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses, as well as all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of, or in connection with, any breach of the agreed confirmations and warranties. This indemnity shall not apply in a situation in which a claim results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\nNothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\nTERMINATION
\n\nIntechOpen has the right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Author and/or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (being a private individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (as a corporate entity) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for, or enters into, any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn the event of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Author of the decision in writing.
\n\nIntechOpen’s DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen, at its discretion, agrees to publish the Work attributing it to the Author and Co-Authors.
\n\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen agrees to provide publishing services which include: managing editing (editorial and publishing process coordination, Author assistance); publishing software technology; language copyediting; typesetting; online publishing; hosting and web management; and abstracting and indexing services.
\n\nIntechOpen agrees to offer free online access to readers and use reasonable efforts to promote the Publication to relevant audiences.
\n\nIntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\nIntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\nMISCELLANEOUS
\n\nFurther Assurance: The Author shall ensure that any relevant third party, including any Co-Author, shall execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\nThird Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\nEntire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by, or on behalf of, the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (known as the "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of any fraudulent pre-contract misrepresentation or concealment.
\n\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\nVariation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall have effect unless it is in writing and signed by the parties, or their duly authorized representatives.
\n\nSeverance: If any provision, or part-provision, of this Publication Agreement is, or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted. Any modification to, or deletion of, a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\nNo partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
\n\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2018-09-11
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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Over the past few decades, no major new types of antibiotics have been produced and almost all known antibiotics are increasingly losing their activity against pathogenic microorganisms. The levels of multi-drug resistant bacteria have also increased. It is known that worldwide, more than 60% of all antibiotics that are produced find their use in animal production for both therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes. The use of antimicrobial agents in animal husbandry has been linked to the development and spread of resistant bacteria. Poultry products are among the highest consumed products worldwide but a lot of essential antibiotics are employed during poultry production in several countries; threatening the safety of such products (through antimicrobial residues) and the increased possibility of development and spread of microbial resistance in poultry settings. This chapter documents some of the studies on antibiotic usage in poultry farming; with specific focus on some selected bacterial species, their economic importance to poultry farming and reports of resistances of isolated species from poultry settings (farms and poultry products) to essential antibiotics.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Christian Agyare, Vivian Etsiapa Boamah, Crystal Ngofi Zumbi and\nFrank Boateng Osei",authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"261271",title:"MSc.",name:"Crystal Ngofi",middleName:null,surname:"Zumbi",slug:"crystal-ngofi-zumbi",fullName:"Crystal Ngofi Zumbi"},{id:"261272",title:"MSc.",name:"Frank Boateng",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"frank-boateng-osei",fullName:"Frank Boateng Osei"},{id:"261273",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivian Etsiapa",middleName:null,surname:"Boamah",slug:"vivian-etsiapa-boamah",fullName:"Vivian Etsiapa Boamah"}]},{id:"39599",doi:"10.5772/50046",title:"Encapsulation Technology to Protect Probiotic Bacteria",slug:"encapsulation-technology-to-protect-probiotic-bacteria",totalDownloads:12297,totalCrossrefCites:40,totalDimensionsCites:81,abstract:null,book:{id:"3145",slug:"probiotics",title:"Probiotics",fullTitle:"Probiotics"},signatures:"María Chávarri, Izaskun Marañón and María Carmen Villarán",authors:[{id:"150285",title:"Dr.",name:"María",middleName:null,surname:"Chávarri Hueda",slug:"maria-chavarri-hueda",fullName:"María Chávarri Hueda"},{id:"151613",title:"MSc.",name:"Izaskun",middleName:null,surname:"Marañon",slug:"izaskun-maranon",fullName:"Izaskun Marañon"},{id:"151621",title:"Dr.",name:"Mª Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Villarán",slug:"ma-carmen-villaran",fullName:"Mª Carmen Villarán"}]},{id:"39607",doi:"10.5772/50121",title:"Recent Application of Probiotics in Food and Agricultural Science",slug:"recent-application-of-probiotics-in-food-and-agricultural-science",totalDownloads:10098,totalCrossrefCites:28,totalDimensionsCites:74,abstract:null,book:{id:"3145",slug:"probiotics",title:"Probiotics",fullTitle:"Probiotics"},signatures:"Danfeng Song, Salam Ibrahim and Saeed Hayek",authors:[{id:"107905",title:"Prof.",name:"Salam",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"salam-ibrahim",fullName:"Salam Ibrahim"},{id:"150202",title:"Dr.",name:"Danfeng",middleName:null,surname:"Song",slug:"danfeng-song",fullName:"Danfeng Song"},{id:"151025",title:"MSc.",name:"Saeed",middleName:null,surname:"Hayek",slug:"saeed-hayek",fullName:"Saeed Hayek"}]},{id:"49246",doi:"10.5772/61300",title:"Chitosan as a Biomaterial — Structure, Properties, and Electrospun Nanofibers",slug:"chitosan-as-a-biomaterial-structure-properties-and-electrospun-nanofibers",totalDownloads:4607,totalCrossrefCites:24,totalDimensionsCites:55,abstract:"Chitosan is a polysaccharide derived from chitin; chitin is the second most abundant polysaccharide in the world, after cellulose. Chitosan is biocompatible, biodegradable and non-toxic, so that it can be usedin medicalapplications such as antimicrobial and wound healing biomaterials. It also used as chelating agent due to its ability to bind with cholesterol, fats, proteins and metal ions.",book:{id:"4648",slug:"concepts-compounds-and-the-alternatives-of-antibacterials",title:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials",fullTitle:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials"},signatures:"H. M. Ibrahim and E.M.R. El- Zairy",authors:[{id:"90645",title:"Dr.",name:"Hassan",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"hassan-ibrahim",fullName:"Hassan Ibrahim"},{id:"175694",title:"Dr.",name:"Enas",middleName:null,surname:"El- Zairy",slug:"enas-el-zairy",fullName:"Enas El- Zairy"}]},{id:"51065",doi:"10.5772/63499",title:"Role of the Biofilms in Wastewater Treatment",slug:"role-of-the-biofilms-in-wastewater-treatment",totalDownloads:6759,totalCrossrefCites:24,totalDimensionsCites:55,abstract:"Biological wastewater treatment systems play an important role in improving water quality and human health. This chapter thus briefly discusses different biological methods, specially biofilm technologies, the development of biofilms on different filter media, factors affecting their development as well as their structure and function. It also tackles various conventional and modern molecular techniques for detailed exploration of the composition, diversity and dynamics of biofilms. These data are crucial to improve the performance, robustness and stability of biofilm-based wastewater treatment technologies.",book:{id:"5197",slug:"microbial-biofilms-importance-and-applications",title:"Microbial Biofilms",fullTitle:"Microbial Biofilms - Importance and Applications"},signatures:"Shama Sehar and Iffat Naz",authors:[{id:"180364",title:"Dr.",name:"Iffat",middleName:null,surname:"Naz",slug:"iffat-naz",fullName:"Iffat Naz"},{id:"183345",title:"Dr.",name:"Shama",middleName:null,surname:"Sehar",slug:"shama-sehar",fullName:"Shama Sehar"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"65613",title:"The Methods for Detection of Biofilm and Screening Antibiofilm Activity of Agents",slug:"the-methods-for-detection-of-biofilm-and-screening-antibiofilm-activity-of-agents",totalDownloads:9033,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Biofilm producer microorganisms cause nosocomial and recurrent infections. Biofilm that is a sticky exopolysaccharide is the main virulence factor causing biofilm-related infections. Biofilm formation begins with attachment of bacteria to biotic surface such as host cell or abiotic surface such as prosthetic devices. After attachment, aggregation of bacteria is started by cell-cell adhesion. Aggregation continues with the maturation of biofilm. Dispersion is started by certain conditions such as phenol-soluble modulins (PSMs). By this way, sessile bacteria turn back into planktonic form. Bacteria embedded in biofilm (sessile form) are more resistant to antimicrobials than planktonic bacteria. So it is hard to treat biofilm-embedded bacteria than planktonic forms. For this reason, it is important to detect biofilm. There are a few biofilm detection and biofilm production methods on prosthetics, methods for screening antibacterial effect of agents against biofilm-embedded microorganism and antibiofilm effect of agents against biofilm production and mature biofilm. The aim of this chapter is to overview direct and indirect methods such as microscopy, fluorescent in situ hybridization, and Congo red agar, tube method, microtiter plate assay, checkerboard assay, plate counting, polymerase chain reaction, mass spectrometry, MALDI-TOF, and biological assays used by antibiofilm researches.",book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"}]},{id:"62553",title:"Antibiotic Use in Poultry Production and Its Effects on Bacterial Resistance",slug:"antibiotic-use-in-poultry-production-and-its-effects-on-bacterial-resistance",totalDownloads:7129,totalCrossrefCites:42,totalDimensionsCites:82,abstract:"A surge in the development and spread of antibiotic resistance has become a major cause for concern. Over the past few decades, no major new types of antibiotics have been produced and almost all known antibiotics are increasingly losing their activity against pathogenic microorganisms. The levels of multi-drug resistant bacteria have also increased. It is known that worldwide, more than 60% of all antibiotics that are produced find their use in animal production for both therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes. The use of antimicrobial agents in animal husbandry has been linked to the development and spread of resistant bacteria. Poultry products are among the highest consumed products worldwide but a lot of essential antibiotics are employed during poultry production in several countries; threatening the safety of such products (through antimicrobial residues) and the increased possibility of development and spread of microbial resistance in poultry settings. This chapter documents some of the studies on antibiotic usage in poultry farming; with specific focus on some selected bacterial species, their economic importance to poultry farming and reports of resistances of isolated species from poultry settings (farms and poultry products) to essential antibiotics.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Christian Agyare, Vivian Etsiapa Boamah, Crystal Ngofi Zumbi and\nFrank Boateng Osei",authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"261271",title:"MSc.",name:"Crystal Ngofi",middleName:null,surname:"Zumbi",slug:"crystal-ngofi-zumbi",fullName:"Crystal Ngofi Zumbi"},{id:"261272",title:"MSc.",name:"Frank Boateng",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"frank-boateng-osei",fullName:"Frank Boateng Osei"},{id:"261273",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivian Etsiapa",middleName:null,surname:"Boamah",slug:"vivian-etsiapa-boamah",fullName:"Vivian Etsiapa Boamah"}]},{id:"65914",title:"Introductory Chapter: The Action Mechanisms of Antibiotics and Antibiotic Resistance",slug:"introductory-chapter-the-action-mechanisms-of-antibiotics-and-antibiotic-resistance",totalDownloads:4310,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:null,book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu, Nesrin Gareayaghi and Bekir S. Kocazeybek",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"},{id:"248288",title:"Prof.",name:"Bekir",middleName:null,surname:"Kocazeybek",slug:"bekir-kocazeybek",fullName:"Bekir Kocazeybek"},{id:"406463",title:"Dr.",name:"Nesrin",middleName:null,surname:"Gareayaghi",slug:"nesrin-gareayaghi",fullName:"Nesrin Gareayaghi"}]},{id:"50992",title:"Probiotics: A Comprehensive Review of Their Classification, Mode of Action and Role in Human Nutrition",slug:"probiotics-a-comprehensive-review-of-their-classification-mode-of-action-and-role-in-human-nutrition",totalDownloads:5325,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"Probiotics are live microorganisms that live in gastrointestinal (GI) tract and are beneficial for their hosts and prevent certain diseases. In this chapter, after a complete introduction to probiotics, definition, mechanism of action, and their classification, currently used organisms will be discussed in detail. Moreover, different kinds of nutritional synthetic products of probiotics along with their safety and drug interaction will be noticed. This chapter mentions all clinical trial studies that have been done to evaluate probiotic efficacy with a focus on gastrointestinal diseases.",book:{id:"5193",slug:"probiotics-and-prebiotics-in-human-nutrition-and-health",title:"Probiotics and Prebiotics in Human Nutrition and Health",fullTitle:"Probiotics and Prebiotics in Human Nutrition and Health"},signatures:"Amirreza Khalighi, Reza Behdani and Shabnam Kouhestani",authors:[{id:"179560",title:"Dr.",name:"Amirreza",middleName:null,surname:"Khalighi",slug:"amirreza-khalighi",fullName:"Amirreza Khalighi"},{id:"185238",title:"Dr.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Behdani",slug:"reza-behdani",fullName:"Reza Behdani"},{id:"185239",title:"Dr.",name:"Shabnam",middleName:null,surname:"Kouhestani",slug:"shabnam-kouhestani",fullName:"Shabnam Kouhestani"}]},{id:"56849",title:"Physiology and Pathology of Innate Immune Response Against Pathogens",slug:"physiology-and-pathology-of-innate-immune-response-against-pathogens",totalDownloads:6083,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"Pathogen infections are recognized by the immune system, which consists of two types of responses: an innate immune response and an antigen-specific adaptive immune response. The innate response is characterized by being the first line of defense that occurs rapidly in which leukocytes such as neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, eosinophils, mast cells, dendritic cells, etc., are involved. These cells recognize the pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), which have been evolutionarily conserved by the diversity of microorganisms that infect humans. Recognition of these pathogen-associated molecular patterns occurs through pattern recognition receptors such as Toll-like receptors and some other intracellular receptors such as nucleotide oligomerization domain (NOD), with the aim of amplifying the inflammation and activating the adaptive cellular immune response, through the antigenic presentation. In the present chapter, we will review the importance of the main components involved in the innate immune response, such as different cell types, inflammatory response, soluble immune mediators and effector mechanisms exerted by the immune response against bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites; all with the purpose of eliminating them and eradicating the infection of the host.",book:{id:"5975",slug:"physiology-and-pathology-of-immunology",title:"Physiology and Pathology of Immunology",fullTitle:"Physiology and Pathology of Immunology"},signatures:"José Luis Muñoz Carrillo, Flor Pamela Castro García, Oscar\nGutiérrez Coronado, María Alejandra Moreno García and Juan\nFrancisco Contreras Cordero",authors:[{id:"214236",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Muñoz-Carrillo",slug:"jose-luis-munoz-carrillo",fullName:"Jose Luis Muñoz-Carrillo"},{id:"216080",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandra",middleName:null,surname:"Moreno-García",slug:"alejandra-moreno-garcia",fullName:"Alejandra Moreno-García"},{id:"216081",title:"Dr.",name:"Oscar",middleName:null,surname:"Gutiérrez-Coronado",slug:"oscar-gutierrez-coronado",fullName:"Oscar Gutiérrez-Coronado"},{id:"216082",title:"Dr.",name:"Pamela",middleName:null,surname:"Castro-García",slug:"pamela-castro-garcia",fullName:"Pamela Castro-García"},{id:"220717",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Contreras Cordero",slug:"juan-francisco-contreras-cordero",fullName:"Juan Francisco Contreras Cordero"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"13",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81760",title:"On the Selective Isolation of Actinobacteria from Different Mexican Ecosystems",slug:"on-the-selective-isolation-of-actinobacteria-from-different-mexican-ecosystems",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104699",abstract:"Actinobacteria isolated from less studied sites on our planet represent a huge opportunity for the discovery of novel microorganisms that may produce unique compounds with biological activity. The class actinobacteria encompasses 80% of the microbes that produce the antibacterial compounds used in medicine today. However, the resistance acquired/showed by pathogenic microorganisms opens the opportunity to explore Mexican ecosystems as a source of novel actinobacteria. Air samples have shown to be an excellent site of study, marine ecosystems which include sediments and marine organisms are important sources of novel actinobacteria and soil samples are still a promising source to isolate this microbial group. The isolation of novel actinobacteria is a dynamic strategy that depends on the expertise, patience, and talent of the techniques applied and needs to be fully explored to untap the unknown actinobacterial diversity with potential in biology.",book:{id:"10893",title:"Actinobacteria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10893.jpg"},signatures:"Erika T. Quintana, Luis A. Maldonado, Luis Contreras-Castro, Amanda Alejo-Viderique, Martha E. Esteva García, Claudia J. Hernández-Guerrero, Juan C. Cancino-Díaz, Carlos Sánchez, Luis A. Ladino, Juan Esteban Martínez-Gómez and Noemí Matías-Ferrer"},{id:"81741",title:"Chronic Intraocular Leptospiral Infection Relying on Biofilm Formation inside the Vitreous Cavity Leads to Recurrent Uveitis in Horses",slug:"chronic-intraocular-leptospiral-infection-relying-on-biofilm-formation-inside-the-vitreous-cavity-le",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104527",abstract:"Equine recurrent uveitis (ERU) is a disease known and feared for centuries, as it almost always leads to blindness even with careful and meticulous conservative treatment of the individual episodes of uveitis. In about one-third of horses, both eyes are affected, often necessitating euthanasia. A link between ERU and leptospiral infection has been suspected for nearly 80 years. Vitreous lavage (vitrectomy) can preserve vision in affected eyes. After surgery, no further episodes of uveitis occur in up to more than 95% of operated eyes. With routine performance of vitrectomies, numerous vitreous samples could be used for further investigations. Intraocular anti-Leptospira antibody production was proven, leptospires could be cultured from the vitreous samples, and the LipL32 gene could be detected in the vitreous samples by PCR. Thus, there was convincing evidence of a chronic intraocular leptospiral infection, which can be eliminated most reliably by vitrectomy. Recently, it has been shown that the intraocular leptospires produce biofilm in the equine vitreous. Biofilm formation explains not only the success of vitrectomy, but also the survival of leptospires in the vitreous cavity for many years despite the presence of high intraocular antibody titers and immunocompetent cells, as well as the high tolerance to antibiotics.",book:{id:"11092",title:"Bacterial Biofilms",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11092.jpg"},signatures:"Bettina Wollanke and Hartmut Gerhards"},{id:"81758",title:"Growing Environmental Bacterium Biofilms in PEO Cryogels for Environmental Biotechnology Application",slug:"growing-environmental-bacterium-biofilms-in-peo-cryogels-for-environmental-biotechnology-application",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104813",abstract:"This Chapter discusses the entrapment, growing and biofilm formation by an environmental bacterium immobilized in polyethyleneoxide cryogel to be applied in environmental biotechnology. The KCM-R5 bacterium was isolated from the heavy metal-polluted environment near a large Pb-Zn smelter, also producing precious metals in Bulgaria. Molecular-genetic analysis revealed affiliation with Pseudomonas rhodesiae. The strain is capable of growing in high concentrations of phenol and different phenol derivatives. Polyethylene oxide was found to be friendly and nontoxic to bacteria polymer enabling bacteria easy to penetrate in it and fast to grow. KCM-R5 biofilms were grown for 30 days in batch culture with phenol (300-1000 mg L−1) dissolved in the mineral medium. The bacterium was able to involve phenol in its metabolism and use it as a single carbon supplier. The results obtained in the study showed 98% phenol biodegradation using the biotech installation described. The proposed PEO cryogel-P. rhodesiae KCM-R5 bacterium biotech biofilter can be used for environmental biotechnology application in industrial wastewater detoxification.",book:{id:"11092",title:"Bacterial Biofilms",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11092.jpg"},signatures:"Galina Satchanska"},{id:"81733",title:"Impairment of the Cardiovascular System during SARS-CoV-2 Infection",slug:"impairment-of-the-cardiovascular-system-during-sars-cov-2-infection",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103964",abstract:"Although the infection with the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV-2) virus affects primarily the respiratory system, it became evident from the very beginning that the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is frequently associated with a large spectrum of cardiovascular involvements such as myocarditis/pericarditis, acute coronary syndrome, arrhythmias, or thromboembolic events, explained by a multitude of pathophysiological mechanisms. Individuals already suffering of significant cardiovascular diseases were more likely to be infected with the virus, had a worse evolution during COVID-19, with further deterioration of their basal condition and increased morbidity and mortality, but significant cardiac dysfunctions were diagnosed even in individuals without a history of heart diseases or being at low risk to develop such a pathology. Cardiovascular complications may occur anytime during the course of COVID-19, persisting even during recovery and, potentially, explaining many of the persisting symptoms included now in terms as subacute or long-COVID-19. It is now well accepted that in COVID-19, the occurrence of cardiovascular impairment represents a significant negative prognostic factor, immensely rising the burden of cardiovascular pathologies.",book:{id:"11369",title:"RNA Viruses",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11369.jpg"},signatures:"Cristina Tudoran, Mariana Tudoran, Voichita Elena Lazureanu, Adelina Raluca Marinescu, Dorin Novacescu and Talida Georgiana Cut"},{id:"81718",title:"Advances in the Development of Anti-Trichinella spiralis Vaccine, Challenges, and Future Prospective",slug:"advances-in-the-development-of-anti-trichinella-spiralis-vaccine-challenges-and-future-prospective",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103027",abstract:"Trichinellosis is a food-borne, zoonotic disease that causes infection by a nematode parasite belonging to the genus Trichinella. This is an important disease, and its causative agent is prevalent throughout the world (cosmopolitan). More clinical awareness of trichinellosis is required due to its many outbreaks, increase in the consumption of pork meat and its by-products. Trichinellosis is an epizootic in nature and its economic burden is associated with the prevention of this disease from the human food chain. This disease is transmitted from animals to humans through the consumption of raw or undercooked meat containing encapsulated muscle larvae of Trichinella spiralis. This paper demonstrates the direct effect of progesterone (P4) and mifepristone (RU486) on the progesterone receptors of T. spiralis. Also, studied the challenges in the preparation of DNA and recombinant protein vaccination to control trichinellosis. It is simply done this study at different life cycle developmental stages of T. spiralis. Vaccines development against T. spiralis infection is the new paradime shift from prevention of trichinellosis to fulfilling the food safety requirements.",book:{id:"11380",title:"Parasitic Helminths and Zoonoses - From Basic to Applied Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11380.jpg"},signatures:"Muhammad Tahir Aleem, Ruofeng Yan, Asad Khan, Rida Asrar, Amna Shakoor, Areej Asif, Zhaohai Wen, Zhengqing Yu, Muhammad Abdullah Malik, Tauseef-ur-Rehman, Rao Zahid Abbas, Muhammad Mohsin, Xiaokai Song, Lixin Xu and Xiangrui Li"},{id:"81699",title:"Efflux Pumps among Urinary E. coli and K. pneumoniae Local Isolates in Hilla City, Iraq",slug:"efflux-pumps-among-urinary-e-coli-and-k-pneumoniae-local-isolates-in-hilla-city-iraq",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104408",abstract:"Urinary tract infections (UTI) are the most common bacterial infections affecting humans. Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae were common enterobacteria engaged with community-acquired UTIs. Efflux pumps were vital resistance mechanisms for antibiotics, especially among enterobacteria. Overexpression of an efflux system, which results in a decrease in antibiotic accumulation, is an effective mechanism for drug resistance. The ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters, small multidrug resistance (SMR), and multidrug and toxic compound extrusion (MATE) families, the major facilitator superfamily (MFS), and the resistance-nodulation- cell division (RND) family are the five superfamilies of efflux systems linked to drug resistance. This chapter highlights the results of studying the prevalence of efflux pump genes among local isolates of E. coli and K. pneumoniae in Hilla City, Iraq. class RND AcrAB-TolC, AcrAD-TolC, and AcrFE-TolC genes detected by conventional PCR of E. coli and K. pneumoniae respectively. The result revealed approximately all studied efflux transporter were found in both E. coli and K. pneumoniae in different percentages. Biofilm formation were observed in 50(100%) of K. pneumoniae and 49(98%) of E. coli isolates were biofilm former and follow: 30(60%), 20(40%) were weak, 12(24%), 22(44%) were moderate and 7(14%) and 8(16%) were Strong biofilm former for E. coli and K. pneumoniae, respectively.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic – Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Hussein Al-Dahmoshi, Sahar A. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. 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He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"8",type:"subseries",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11404,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343"},editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",slug:"hitoshi-tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",slug:"marcus-vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",slug:"ramana-vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:17,paginationItems:[{id:"81647",title:"Diabetes and Epigenetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104653",signatures:"Rasha A. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. Osma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDv7QAG/Profile_Picture_1626602531691",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad de Los Andes",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Colombia"}}},{id:"69697",title:"Dr.",name:"Mani T.",middleName:null,surname:"Valarmathi",fullName:"Mani T. Valarmathi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/69697/images/system/69697.jpg",institutionString:"Religen Inc. | A Life Science Company, United States of America",institution:null},{id:"205081",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:"Vinícius",surname:"Chaud",fullName:"Marco Chaud",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDGeQAO/Profile_Picture_1622624307737",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Sorocaba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/188430",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"188430"},fullPath:"/profiles/188430",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()