Anatomic locations for intravital microscopy, advantages and limitations.*
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6665",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Advances In Hydrogen Generation Technologies",title:"Advances In Hydrogen Generation Technologies",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Among energy sources, hydrogen gas is clean and renewable and has the potential to solve the growing energy crisis in today's society because of its high-energy density and noncarbon fuel properties. It is also used for many potential applications in nonpolluting vehicles, fuel cells, home heating systems, and aircraft. In addition, using hydrogen as an energy carrier is a long-term option to reduce carbon dioxide emissions worldwide by obtaining high-value hydrocarbons through the hydrogenation of carbon dioxide. This book presents the recent progresses and developments in water-splitting processes as well as other hydrogen generation technologies with challenges and future perspectives from the point of energy sustainability.",isbn:"978-1-78923-535-7",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-534-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-629-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71918",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"advances-in-hydrogen-generation-technologies",numberOfPages:134,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"99ccb9f2118953ff45f33ec391868157",bookSignature:"Murat Eyvaz",publishedDate:"August 22nd 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6665.jpg",numberOfDownloads:10915,numberOfWosCitations:16,numberOfCrossrefCitations:21,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:37,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:74,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 31st 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 21st 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 20th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 10th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 9th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"170083",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Eyvaz",slug:"murat-eyvaz",fullName:"Murat Eyvaz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/170083/images/system/170083.png",biography:"Dr. Murat Eyvaz is an associate professor in the Environmental Engineering Department, Gebze Technical University, Turkey. His research interests include applications in water and wastewater treatment facilities, electrochemical treatment processes, filtration systems at the lab, pilot-scale membrane processes (forward osmosis, reverse osmosis, membrane bioreactors), membrane manufacturing methods (polymeric membranes, nanofiber membranes, electrospinning), spectrophotometric analyses (UV, atomic absorption spectrophotometry), and chromatographic analyses (gas chromatography, high-pressure liquid chromatography). He has co-authored many journal articles and conference papers and has taken part in many national projects. He serves as an editor and reviewer for numerous journals. He holds four patents on wastewater treatment systems.",institutionString:"Gebze Technical University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:{name:"Gebze Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"885",title:"Bioenergy",slug:"sustainable-energy-bioenergy"}],chapters:[{id:"60944",title:"Hydrogen Generation by Water Electrolysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76814",slug:"hydrogen-generation-by-water-electrolysis",totalDownloads:4015,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:20,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Hydrogen is a promising energy vector for the future. Among the different methods of its production, the electrolysis of water has attracted great attention because it is a sustainable and renewable chemical technology. Thus, hydrogen represents a suitable energy vector for the storage of intermittent energies. This chapter is devoted to the hydrogen generation by water electrolysis as an important part of both existing and emerging industrial electrochemical processes. It aims to give an insight into the theoretical foundations of the operating principles of different types of electrolyzers. Also, it is developed in this chapter, the thermodynamic and kinetic aspects of the reactions taking place at the electrodes of water electrolysis. The evolution reaction of hydrogen has a rapid kinetics, and thus, the polarization of the cathode is not critical. On the other hand, the evolution reaction of oxygen is characterized by a very slow kinetics and is thus responsible for most of the overvoltage in the electrolysis of water. The most important technologies of water electrolysis are addressed: alkaline electrolysis, proton exchange membrane electrolysis, and solid oxide high-temperature electrolysis.",signatures:"Youssef Naimi and Amal Antar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60944",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60944",authors:[{id:"232378",title:"Dr.",name:"Youssef",surname:"Naimi",slug:"youssef-naimi",fullName:"Youssef Naimi"},{id:"236905",title:"Mrs.",name:"Amal",surname:"Antar",slug:"amal-antar",fullName:"Amal Antar"}],corrections:null},{id:"60946",title:"Hydrogen Production by Membrane Water Splitting Technologies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76727",slug:"hydrogen-production-by-membrane-water-splitting-technologies",totalDownloads:1758,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Hydrogen production by membrane water splitting technologies is a sustainable method to synthesize hydrogen and provides an alternative to hydrogen production instead of conventional process of synthesizing hydrogen from steam methane reforming. A hybrid polymer electrolyte membrane electrolyzer operational at working temperature of above 80–200°C is advantageous for faster electrochemical kinetics, higher current exchange density, and more resistance to fuel impurities. Phosphoric acid (PA) doping onto polybenzimidazole (PBI) membrane shows significant improvement in proton conductivities, permeability, and thermal stability. PBI-based electrolyzer is relatively new to the hydrogen production technologies as compared to Nafion-based electrolyzer. However, the high cost of purchasing Nafion membrane and inability to execute electrolysis operational above 90°C has sparked new interest on PBI-based membrane, which is known for its good thermal stability.",signatures:"Mohd Fadhzir Ahmad Kamaroddin, Nordin Sabli and Tuan Amran\nTuan Abdullah",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60946",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60946",authors:[{id:"238514",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nordin",surname:"Sabli",slug:"nordin-sabli",fullName:"Nordin Sabli"},{id:"239453",title:"Mr.",name:"Mohd Fadhzir",surname:"Ahmad Kamaroddin",slug:"mohd-fadhzir-ahmad-kamaroddin",fullName:"Mohd Fadhzir Ahmad Kamaroddin"},{id:"245516",title:"Dr.",name:"Tuan Amran",surname:"Tuan Abdullah",slug:"tuan-amran-tuan-abdullah",fullName:"Tuan Amran Tuan Abdullah"}],corrections:null},{id:"61569",title:"Hydrogen Production from Light Hydrocarbons",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76813",slug:"hydrogen-production-from-light-hydrocarbons",totalDownloads:1435,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Recognizing and procurement of a sustainable energy system are among the supreme important problems that today’s scientists should tackle. Interchanging the existing fossil fuels and transforming them into a sustainable fuel is one of the vital pieces in that system. Hydrogen as an energy carrier, obtained from light hydrocarbons, can take an essential role in the matters of sustainability, eco-friendly emissions, and energy saving. Our enthusiasm in stirring toward a hydrogen economy has its root in the vision of securing energy requirements at a satisfactory price, with larger competence and small environmental destruction associated with the utilization of traditional fuels. Hydrogen production pathways and relevant issues are discussed here. This chapter highlights the recent technological progress in the light hydrocarbons toward sustainable hydrogen production.",signatures:"Ahmed Aidid Ibrahim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61569",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61569",authors:[{id:"231457",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"ahmed-ibrahim",fullName:"Ahmed Ibrahim"}],corrections:null},{id:"60902",title:"Production of Hydrogen and their Use in Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76663",slug:"production-of-hydrogen-and-their-use-in-proton-exchange-membrane-fuel-cells",totalDownloads:1385,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This work will show an overview of the hydrogen production from ethanol by steam reforming method, using distinct catalysts, resulting in low carbon monoxide content in H2 produced; a thermodynamic analysis of reforming employing entropy maximization, the ideal condition for ethanol, and other steam reforming reactions, the state of the art of steam reforming catalysts for H2 production with low CO content. Moreover, in the second part, there will be an overview of the use of hydrogen in a proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC), the fuel cell operational conditions, a thermodynamic analysis of PEMFC, the catalysts used in the electrodes of the fuel cell, consequences of the CO presence in the hydrogen fuel feed in PEMFC, and the operation conditions for maximum output power density.",signatures:"Flavio Colmati, Christian Gonçalves Alonso, Tatiana Duque Martins,\nRoberto Batista de Lima, Antonio Carlos Chaves Ribeiro, Leandro de\nLima Carvalho, André Mychell Barbieux Silva Sampaio, Monah\nMarques Magalhães, José William Diniz Coutinho, Geovany Albino\nde Souza, Lucas Fernandes Aguiar, Diericon de Sousa Cordeiro,\nAdão Marcos Ferreira Costa, Thiago Soares Silva Ribeiro, Pedro\nHenrique Machado Godoy and Guilherme Botelho Meireles de\nSouza",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60902",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60902",authors:[{id:"35340",title:"Prof.",name:"Tatiana",surname:"Martins",slug:"tatiana-martins",fullName:"Tatiana Martins"},{id:"165059",title:"MSc.",name:"Antonio Carlos",surname:"Ribeiro",slug:"antonio-carlos-ribeiro",fullName:"Antonio Carlos Ribeiro"},{id:"174142",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Diericon",surname:"Cordeiro",slug:"diericon-cordeiro",fullName:"Diericon Cordeiro"},{id:"174143",title:"Dr.",name:"Flavio",surname:"Colmati",slug:"flavio-colmati",fullName:"Flavio Colmati"},{id:"208948",title:"BSc.",name:"Lucas",surname:"Aguiar",slug:"lucas-aguiar",fullName:"Lucas Aguiar"},{id:"217360",title:"Dr.",name:"Leandro",surname:"Carvalho",slug:"leandro-carvalho",fullName:"Leandro Carvalho"},{id:"217363",title:"Prof.",name:"Roberto",surname:"Lima",slug:"roberto-lima",fullName:"Roberto Lima"},{id:"236711",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian Gonçalves",surname:"Alonso",slug:"christian-goncalves-alonso",fullName:"Christian Gonçalves Alonso"},{id:"243994",title:"Mr.",name:"José William",surname:"Diniz Coutinho",slug:"jose-william-diniz-coutinho",fullName:"José William Diniz Coutinho"},{id:"243995",title:"Mr.",name:"André Mychell B. S.",surname:"Sampaio",slug:"andre-mychell-b.-s.-sampaio",fullName:"André Mychell B. S. Sampaio"},{id:"243996",title:"Mr.",name:"Geovany Albino",surname:"De Souza",slug:"geovany-albino-de-souza",fullName:"Geovany Albino De Souza"},{id:"243997",title:"Mr.",name:"Adão Marcos F.",surname:"Costa",slug:"adao-marcos-f.-costa",fullName:"Adão Marcos F. Costa"},{id:"243999",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago Soares",surname:"Silva Ribeiro",slug:"thiago-soares-silva-ribeiro",fullName:"Thiago Soares Silva Ribeiro"},{id:"244000",title:"Mr.",name:"Pedro Henrique",surname:"Machado Godoy",slug:"pedro-henrique-machado-godoy",fullName:"Pedro Henrique Machado Godoy"},{id:"244002",title:"Mr.",name:"Guilherme B.",surname:"Meireles De Souza",slug:"guilherme-b.-meireles-de-souza",fullName:"Guilherme B. Meireles De Souza"},{id:"244003",title:"Ms.",name:"Monah",surname:"Magalhães",slug:"monah-magalhaes",fullName:"Monah Magalhães"}],corrections:null},{id:"62495",title:"Iodine Doped Graphene for Enhanced Electrocatalytic Oxygen Reduction Reaction in PEM Fuel Cell Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76495",slug:"iodine-doped-graphene-for-enhanced-electrocatalytic-oxygen-reduction-reaction-in-pem-fuel-cell-appli",totalDownloads:1166,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Although doped graphene based materials have been intensively investigated, as electrocatalysts for oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), there is still a number of challenges to be explored in order to design a highly active, durable, thermodynamically stable and low-cost catalyst with full recognized technological importance. The application of iodine-doped graphene in fuel cells (FC) has been recently examined as innovative nanomaterial for cathode fabrication. Up to date microscopic and spectroscopic techniques have been combined with structural and electrochemical investigations for a compendious characterization of developed ORR catalysts. The unique structure of doped graphenes is ascertained by the presence of mesopores, vacancies and high surface area, and favors the ions/electrons transportation at nanometric scale. The chapter discusses (a) how to use the existing knowledge in respect to synthesized doped graphenes and (b) how to improve the FC by taking into account these materials and have an enhanced electrochemical performance as well as long-term durability.",signatures:"Adriana Marinoiu, Elena Carcadea, Mircea Raceanu and Mihai\nVarlam",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62495",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62495",authors:[{id:"232450",title:"Dr.",name:"Adriana",surname:"Marinoiu",slug:"adriana-marinoiu",fullName:"Adriana Marinoiu"},{id:"233672",title:"MSc.",name:"Raceanu",surname:"Mircea",slug:"raceanu-mircea",fullName:"Raceanu Mircea"},{id:"233673",title:"Dr.",name:"Carcadea",surname:"Elena",slug:"carcadea-elena",fullName:"Carcadea Elena"},{id:"243884",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihai",surname:"Varlam",slug:"mihai-varlam",fullName:"Mihai Varlam"}],corrections:null},{id:"61778",title:"Concentrated Photovoltaic (CPV): Hydrogen Design Methodology and Optimization",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78055",slug:"concentrated-photovoltaic-cpv-hydrogen-design-methodology-and-optimization",totalDownloads:1157,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"To compete with the fossil fuel, there is a need for steady power supply from renewable energy systems. Solar energy, being highest potential energy source, is only available during diurnal period. Therefore, for steady power supply, an energy storage system is needed to be coupled with the primary solar energy system. For such application, hydrogen production is proved to provide long term and sustainable energy storage. However, firstly, there is a need to capture solar energy with higher efficiency for minimum energy storage and reduced system size. Concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) system, utilizing multi-junction solar cell (MJC), provides highest energy conversion efficiency among all photovoltaic systems. Despite, there is no model reported in the literature regarding its performance simulation and stand-alone operation optimization. None of the commercial software is capable of handling CPV performance simulation. In this chapter, a detailed performance model and an optimization strategy are proposed for stand-alone operation of CPV with hydrogen production as energy storage. A multi-objective optimization technique is developed using micro-GA for its techno-economic analysis. The performance model of MJC is developed based upon the cell characteristics of InGaP/InGaAs/Ge triple-junction solar cell. The system design is presented for uninterrupted power supply with minimum system cost.",signatures:"Muhammad Burhan, Muhammad Wakil Shahzad and Kim Choon\nNg",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61778",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61778",authors:[{id:"174208",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Wakil",surname:"Shahzad",slug:"muhammad-wakil-shahzad",fullName:"Muhammad Wakil Shahzad"},{id:"249811",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Burhan",slug:"muhammad-burhan",fullName:"Muhammad Burhan"},{id:"254696",title:"Prof.",name:"Kim Choon",surname:"Ng",slug:"kim-choon-ng",fullName:"Kim Choon Ng"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6732",title:"Desalination and Water Treatment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eee2f03e0328f289e68fde28738c333f",slug:"desalination-and-water-treatment",bookSignature:"Murat Eyvaz and Ebubekir 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Synthetic and Recycled Aggregates",slug:"sustainability-of-concrete-with-synthetic-and-recycled-aggregates",publishedDate:"May 4th 2022",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10668.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"347459",title:"Mr.",name:"Abebe",middleName:"Demissew",surname:"Demissew Gashahun",fullName:"Abebe Demissew Gashahun",slug:"abebe-demissew-gashahun",email:"abebe_demissew@dmu.edu.et",position:null,institution:{name:"Debre Markos University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ethiopia"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"77888",slug:"production-of-sustainable-concrete-by-using-challenging-environmentally-friendly-materials-instead-o",signatures:"Abebe Demissew Gashahun",dateSubmitted:"April 13th 2021",dateReviewed:"July 5th 2021",datePrePublished:"September 23rd 2021",datePublished:"May 4th 2022",book:{id:"10668",title:"Sustainability of Concrete With Synthetic and Recycled Aggregates",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Sustainability of Concrete With Synthetic and Recycled Aggregates",slug:"sustainability-of-concrete-with-synthetic-and-recycled-aggregates",publishedDate:"May 4th 2022",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10668.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"347459",title:"Mr.",name:"Abebe",middleName:"Demissew",surname:"Demissew Gashahun",fullName:"Abebe Demissew Gashahun",slug:"abebe-demissew-gashahun",email:"abebe_demissew@dmu.edu.et",position:null,institution:{name:"Debre Markos University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ethiopia"}}}]},book:{id:"10668",title:"Sustainability of Concrete With Synthetic and Recycled Aggregates",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Sustainability of Concrete With Synthetic and Recycled Aggregates",slug:"sustainability-of-concrete-with-synthetic-and-recycled-aggregates",publishedDate:"May 4th 2022",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10668.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11512",leadTitle:null,title:"Photodetectors - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tPhotodetectors are sensors of electromagnetic radiation. These devices may be classified by mechanism of detection, such as photoelectric or photochemical effects, or by performance metrics, such as spectral response. In addition, unique materials or materials systems exhibit physical and chemical properties that allow control or interaction with light converting the optical signal into an electrical signal for applications in photonics, electronics, and optoelectronics.
\r\n\r\n\tThe present book entitled "Photodetectors - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications" aims to provide state-of-the-art knowledge on photodetector fundamentals and technology based on the latest research trends and exciting novel materials. Written by a team of world-renowned experts, with contributions from universities, research institutes, and industries, this book is timely and suitable for students and professionals engaged in photodetector technology research and development. Emphasis will range from synthesis methods, structural and performance characterization, new materials design, processing, and function, optoelectronic properties to theoretical analysis and simulations. Important experimental results are thoroughly addressed, embodying an advanced account of activities in this significant and exciting field in research and industry.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-090-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-089-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-091-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"01d4be8e37c9bf12fd8dcb67c135b29b",bookSignature:"Prof. Kuan W. A. Chee",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11512.jpg",keywords:"Particle Physics, Photomultiplier, Phototubes, Solar Cells, Photovoltage, Infrared Detectors, Photodiodes, Photoresistors, Phototransistors, Bolometers, Photoreceptor Cells, Photochemical Synthesis",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 26th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 1st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 31st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 19th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 18th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"4 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher and industry leader in semiconductor devices and materials, appointed head of the Optoelectronic Materials and Devices Laboratory, Senior Member IEEE, author of numerous research papers, and holder of multiple professional awards and prizes.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"206271",title:"Prof.",name:"Kuan",middleName:"W. A.",surname:"Chee",slug:"kuan-chee",fullName:"Kuan Chee",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Kuan W. A. Chee is Outstanding Professor at the Shandong Academy of Sciences and head of the Optoelectronics Materials Laboratory. He is also a Chief Technology Officer in the mechatronics industry. He has a diverse background in leading high-tech industries and academia. He has published in several top journals, books, and conference proceedings and has given numerous talks at international conferences and seminars in science and engineering. His research covers electronic design, nano- and post-CMOS electronics, and photonic and optoelectronic devices. He has received prizes and awards such as from the Institution of Engineering and Technology, UK; the Institute of Physics, UK; the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, USA; the Royal Academy of Engineering, UK; the Materials Research Society; and the Cambridge Philosophical Society. Prof. Chee is supported by a science and engineering talent program in China.",institutionString:"University of Cambridge",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Cambridge",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"440212",firstName:"Elena",lastName:"Vracaric",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/440212/images/20007_n.jpg",email:"elena@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Critical to these biologic processes, platelets undergo several dynamic morphologic changes in overall shape and size. Furthermore, at the organelle level they alter and differentially release their cellular contents in signal dependent manners [6, 7, 8, 9, 10]. Detailed knowledge of these changes is essential for understanding platelet biology, including in the contexts of hemostasis and thrombosis, cellular and pathogen interactions, and intracellular signaling mechanisms [9, 11, 12, 13, 14]. Within this chapter, we will review the methods and applications of multiple modalities of platelet imaging including light transmission, super-resolution, electron, and intravital microscopy. Advances in our ability to image platelets have enabled a more complete understanding of platelet biology in health and disease, and these techniques remain powerful clinical and research tools [15, 16, 17, 18, 19]. We will also detail the challenges of these imaging methods specific to platelets, and future barriers that should to be addressed.
Owing to their small size, platelets were not discovered until long after red blood cells and leukocytes had been visualized with traditional microscopy. With the development of compound and achromatic microscopes, they were finally observed by several scientists in the nineteenth century, including the Italian scientist Giulio Bizzozero, who began to identify their roles in hemostasis and thrombosis [14, 20]. In their resting state, platelets are 2–3 μm in diameter and discoid in shape, appearing as small blue circular structures on traditional light microscopy with Giemsa staining (Figure 1). Despite the resolution limitations of light microscopy, many important advances have been made in our understanding of platelet structure and function with this technique. In fact, light microscopy remains an important diagnostic and research tool today [21, 22].
Standard light microscopy of platelets. Image from a light microscope (500×) from a Giemsa-stained peripheral blood smear showing platelets (blue dots) surrounded by red blood cells (pink circular structures). Image and caption by Dr. Graham Beards, reproduced under Creative Commons GNU Free Documentation
Many heritable platelet disorders can be diagnosed using light microscopy of blood smears when used in conjunction with immunofluorescent staining. Typically, light microscopy is initially used to identify abnormalities in platelet shape and size, narrowing the differential diagnosis, which is then followed by specific staining or flow cytometry to make a final diagnosis (Figure 2) [21]. This may be diagnostic in approximately 25–35% of cases of suspected inherited thrombocytopenia, and can obviate the need for further expensive genetic testing or complex imaging modalities such as electron microscopy [21, 22].
Light microscopy of peripheral blood smear. Performed with Giemsa staining, showing a giant platelet characteristic of Bernard-Soulier syndrome. Diagnosis can then be confirmed by either immune-fluorescent microscopy or flow cytometry demonstrating defects in glycoprotein Ib. Image reproduced with permission from Sandrock et al. [
Differential interference contrast microscopy is a specialized form of light microscopy used to characterize platelet spreading and adhesion to proteins on transparent surfaces [24]. For example, the role of actin proteins in the platelet responses to collagen or fibrinogen can be studied (Figure 3) [25]. This form of microscopy enhances contrast in unstained platelet samples thereby allowing adequate visualization of shape change [24]. Platelet spreading experiments have led to several important advances in platelet biology such as the identification of sex differences in platelet adhesion [26], discovery of novel platelet structures such as actin nodules [27], and delineation of platelet-extracellular matrix interaction [25, 28].
Analysis of platelet spreading and actin organization. Washed platelets (2 × 107 platelets/ml) from wild type and HS1 (actin binding protein) −/− mice were added to cover slips coated with collagen (100 μg/ml), collagen related peptide (10 μg/ml) or fibrinogen (100 μg/ml) ± thrombin (1 U/ml) and allowed to settle for 45 or 90 min at 37°C. Spread platelets were fixed in formalin and imaged using differential interference contrast microscopy. Representative images of platelets at 45 min are shown. Image and caption reproduced with permission from Thomas et al. [
In order to study platelet behavior in conditions that more closely replicate human vascular biology, techniques that incorporate the imaging of platelets under flow conditions have been developed [8, 29, 30, 31]. These include
Standard light microscopy offers a maximum resolution of about 200–300 nm due to the limits on resolution to about half of the wavelength of visible light [34]. This allows platelets to be identified, but it is difficult to distinguish and examine intracellular structures. However, recent advances in fluorescence light microscopy with the development of super-resolution microscopy techniques have improved upon conventional light microscopy resolution by 2–10 fold, to the 10–200 nm range, and the pioneers of these advances were awarded Nobel prize in chemistry in 2014 [34, 35]. These novel techniques all utilize fluorescent labeling but broadly apply three different imaging techniques (wide-field microscopy, total internal reflection fluorescence, or confocal microscopy) to overcome the resolution limit of light microscopy, with resolutions at the 10–200 nm range [36, 37]. Further, they can be coupled to automated image analysis to systematically evaluate platelet granules and reveal three dimensional structural details [34, 37].
Localization microscopy or pointillist imaging by single-molecule localization (SMLM) entails using many cycles of detecting and localizing single fluorescent labels within the cell achieving up to 10 nm resolution. By repeating the fluorescent imaging cycles thousands of times in conjunction with an on/off mechanism for fluorescence, the positions of molecules are precisely mapped out [37]. However, this process is quite slow given the need for several cycles of images to be taken. Sub-variants include photoactivation localization microscopy (PALM) and stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (STORM) [34].
Target based inhibition of fluorescence emission by stimulated emission uses an excitation and a depletion laser beam to manipulate fluorescent signals to further improve resolution, relying on diffraction properties of light from the microscope’s focal point [37, 38]. Some examples of this include stimulated emission depletion (STED), reversible saturable optical fluorescence transitions (RESOLFT), and conical diffraction [34]. This method requires a narrow field and imaging an entire sample is a lengthy process, though the resolution is excellent at up to 20 nm [34].
Structured illumination microscopy only improves resolution by approximately 2 fold (up to 120 nm) compared to light microscopy, but this is a more efficient, faster method [35]. It employs mathematical processing of a series of illumination and laser interference patterns to improve resolution [37]. As a proof of concept, Westmoreland and colleagues used structured illumination microscopy to discriminate between three patients with Hermansky-Pudlak Syndrome (a platelet storage defect whereby dense granules are absent) and healthy controls [35]. This work highlights some of the inherent limitations of super-resolution microscopy. Because it relies upon fluorescent labeling of structures of interest, there are risks of mislabeling and therefore misidentification of structures. For example, in their paper, the authors noted that in order to stain dense granules fluorescently, a CD63 marker was used, however, off target effects such as identification of lysosomes were seen as these are also known to be CD63 positive. The description of platelet actin nodules required for platelet-platelet interactions and their potential relevance to Wiskot-Aldrich syndrome is another advance that was made using structured illumination microscopy [39].
In summary, super-resolution microscopy is a recent and notable advance over traditional light microscopy techniques in the identification and visualization of platelet ultrastructural features. Despite some limitations, it does offer the advantage, particularly for structured illumination microscopy, of being relatively less time consuming and intensive than other advanced imaging techniques (such as electron microscopy), and as such may ultimately become more widely available.
Electron microscopy (EM) utilizes a beam of accelerated electrons as the source of illumination, and because the wavelength of an electron is up to 100,000 times shorter than that of visible light, this provides resolution at the nanometer level with excellent visualization of platelet ultrastructural details (see Figure 4). EM was first developed in the 1930s, and much of our detailed knowledge of platelets has been gleaned through application of EM, including through transmission, scanning, and cryogenic EM [40, 41]. Substantial early contributions were made by James White who analyzed platelet ultrastructure in health and disease states using EM [13, 14, 16, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48], and by Marcel Bessis, who studied both megakaryocyte and platelet ultrastructure in addition to other blood cell morphologies [49, 50]. In this section, we will explore the applications of EM in clinical and research settings and discuss their respective advantages and drawbacks.
Resting platelet shape and structural components. (a) Transmission electron microscopy in the equatorial plane of a resting, discoid platelet, with showing the peripheral MTC in the equatorial plane. (b) A scheme of a platelet in the equatorial plane (upper image) and in cross section (image at the bottom).
Scanning (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) can magnify up to a resolution of 0.2 nm [15]. In SEM, detailed topographical images are obtained of the platelet surface. However, to examine the contents of platelets, TEM is used which sends a beam of electrons through ultrathin sections, providing excellent internal details. EM relies on differences in electron density to differentiate individual structures; however, some structures may have similar electron densities. For example, the identification and study of platelet lysosomes with EM requires staining with acid phosphatase or by using arylsulfatase reactive granules to differentiate them from alpha granules [52]. EM has also been used to demonstrate how platelets may release organelles encapsulated in vesicles, such as mitochondria, to drive pathologic inflammation [53, 54].
Despite the significant advances SEM and TEM contributed to the understanding of platelet structure and biology, they have important limitations. Both SEM and TEM require extensive processing of the samples. This includes fixation, dehydration, hardening or embedding, as well as sectioning. Given that platelets are prone to activation, degranulation, and microparticle release with even modest environmental stimuli, the concern is that these fixation processes risk significantly altering and activating platelets. The most common fixative used for SEM and TEM of platelets is glutaraldehyde, which preserves morphology best of the agents used. Despite these limitations, SEM and TEM have significantly contributed to our understanding of the intracellular organization of platelet contents with nanometer resolutions. Critically, SEM and TEM can be combined with immune-gold labeling to further localize structures [7]. For example, this labeling approach has been used to delineate the intracellular distribution of vWF [10], and to demonstrate that thrombin but not adenosine diphosphate treated platelets have upregulated GLUT-3 receptors [55].
Cryogenic electron microscopy (Cryo-EM), developed in the 1980s, is a technique in which EM is applied to samples which are nearly instantaneously cooled to cryogenic temperatures in aqueous solution [56]. This process (typically done by plunging into liquid ethane) occurs so rapidly that water molecules do not rearrange into crystalline form (also known as amorphous or vitreous ice). This preserves cellular structures such as lipid membranes in their near native states [41]. This is a particularly important advantage over TEM and SEM which require extensive fixation as described above because platelets are known to activate with minimal stimuli. Furthermore, samples can then be stored for long periods of time in liquid nitrogen. Once cryogenically preserved, standard TEM techniques are applied to the samples. Additionally, multiple “tilt-series” or tomograms are obtained, in which images are captured at multiple angles, which can then be built into 3D reconstructions (also called cryogenic electron tomography or cryo-ET), which can detail internal structures such as the open canalicular system, organelles, and granules [57, 58] (Figure 5).
Electron tomographic 3D model of the open canalicular system (OCS). The OCS is shown with a pore (P) connecting it with the surrounding milieu. The DTS is indicated by arrowheads. One virtual slice is shown in background.
There are several important diagnostic applications of EM for assisting in the diagnosis of a variety of platelet disorders, particularly for granule defects [15]. Further, there have been recent increases in interest in utilizing EM for platelet research, in particular with the advent of cryo-ET paired with quantitative image analysis of platelet ultrastructural features.
The diagnosis of several granule defects is assisted or can even be made using EM. For example, in Gray Platelet Syndrome, which consists of a rare, heterogenous group of inherited platelet disorders, “gray” and enlarged platelets are observed by EM after Wright staining [59, 60]. More specifically, EM is able to reliably demonstrate the absence of alpha granules and presence of empty vacuoles (which are the immature alpha granule precursors), a key diagnostic criterion [15]. Furthermore, cryogenic electron microscopy studies have revealed different alpha granule subtypes, some of which are in fact tubular in nature and lack vWF [7]. Paris Trousseau syndrome is a rare platelet bleeding disorder also present in nearly all patients with Jacobsen syndrome (chromosomal disorder with multiple anomalies), and the diagnosis can be confirmed by detecting the presence of giant alpha granules by EM with immune-gold labeling [16]. Similarly, for Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome, the absence of dense granules on EM is criteria for diagnosis [17], while Chediak-Higashi syndrome can be confirmed by observing decreased dense bodies, normal alpha granules, and giant cytoplasmic inclusions [46]. While the clinical use of EM is not widely available, it remains an important tool for the diagnosis of rare, but important platelet disorders described above, as well as for several others [15, 46].
In addition to the current clinical applications of platelet EM for the diagnosis of platelet disorders, emerging research using cryo-ET shows promise for expanding our understanding of the role of platelets in a range of disease states including cancer [61], thrombo-inflammatory conditions, and for monitoring the quality of blood banking strategies for platelets [51, 58]. In a recent investigation using cryo-ET of platelets from patients with ovarian cancer, the authors identified important morphological changes in nine parameters between those with and without malignancy, including shortened microtubules, and increases in both size and number of platelet mitochondria [61]. These differences were then incorporated into a prediction model which accurately identified 20 out of 23 patients with ovarian cancer, demonstrating exciting potential for future diagnostic purposes.
Electron microscopy has also been used to characterize the properties of platelet microparticles, patterns of platelet activation, as well as the structure of platelet plug formation in
Despite its clear potential as both a research and clinical tool, EM has important drawbacks. In addition to high costs, it requires specialized equipment and highly trained personnel, and therefore is neither widely available nor easy to automate. Furthermore, from a technical perspective, sample thickness is limited, as resolution dramatically decreases with increasing diameters, though this presents more of a challenge for imaging larger cells than it does for platelets [41]. Further, if an intracellular structure takes on an unexpected shape or localization, it can be very difficult to identify without the aid of immuno-labeling, which is not always feasible. Currently, techniques to label intracellular structures require fluorescent tagging and light microscopy, which can be correlated to electron microscopy images (correlative light and electron microscopy or CLEM). These have been improved upon with the use of super-resolution light microscopies as described above, but still does not reach the resolution of EM (super-resolution correlated light and electron microscopy) [35, 36, 41, 64]. However, emerging techniques using cloneable, genetic, electron dense markers, for direct localization with EM could have important applications if used with EM of platelets [65, 66]. Lastly, expanding the use of EM for diagnostic purposes, not just of rare platelet disorders, but in other conditions which affect platelets such as malignancy may provide important insights into disease processes as well as novel diagnostic approaches [61].
Intravital microscopy is a well-established research tool that has been increasingly applied to study platelets, real-time,
The cremaster muscle and mesenteric veins of mice are the most commonly used imaging windows for intravital microscopy, but other possible sites include carotid artery, brain, skin, bones, or liver [11, 72, 73]. In order for visualization and subsequent quantitative analyses, platelets must be labeled with fluorescent antibodies or genetically modified mouse models which express fluorescent platelet proteins. Both of these approaches provide adequate capacity to visualize platelets
Site | General approach | Advantages | Limitations |
---|---|---|---|
Cremaster Muscle | Muscle is exteriorized through scrotal incision in mice | Quick preparation (5–7 min) Thin, transparent Multiple vessels can be studied simultaneously | Vessels are too small to assess flow by Doppler |
Mesentery | Mesentery exteriorized through midline incision | Mesenteric vessels large enough for easy ligation or glass pipette mechanical injury | Older mice (>3–4 weeks) have too much fat around vessels to allow for brightfield microscopy Fewer vessels can be studied simultaneously Greater trauma during sample preparation |
Ear | Ear is shaved and trans-illuminated to identify vessels | Simple preparation | Difficult to produce reliable injury models due to variation in vascular anatomy |
Carotid Artery | Neck incision with dissection of carotid artery | Vessel large enough for Doppler flow monitoring | Only amenable to fluorescent microscopy, no bright field images can be obtained |
Brain | Cranial window on dorsal surface of skull | Good for studying microvasculature | Technically challenging |
Liver | Lateral abdominal incision with liver exteriorization | Amenable to conventional confocal microscopy | Technically challenging |
The essential imaging equipment includes a microscope, an illumination light source for fluorescence excitation, an ablation laser (to generate endothelial injury), an image intensifier, and a camera [75]. Endothelial injury and thrombosis can also be induced by mechanical or chemical means, but laser injury offers the advantage of greater temporal and spatial control than the other methods [75]. There are a number of different microscopes that may be used, depending on the type of imaging required, which is in large part dictated by the depth of penetration required by type of tissue being examined, see Masedunskas et al. [69]. Recommendations for camera characteristics include that they be sensitive enough to detect the lowest expected fluorescent signals and to be able to reset fast enough to allow frame rates of 10 per second [75]. For further details on methods of performing intravital microscopy to study platelet function, see Stalker et al. [9], Herr et al. [11], and Falati et al. [70].
Intravital microscopy has several applications to identify underlying mechanisms of disease and new aspects of platelet biology. A few illustrative examples of the value and versatility of the technique include studies demonstrating mechanisms of microvascular thrombosis, platelet production, and for examining platelet leukocyte interactions [19, 72, 73, 76]. For example, in a murine model of arteriolar thrombosis, Lu et al employed cranial intravital microscopy to study anti-platelet properties of caffeic acid (Figure 6) [72]. It can also be used to better characterize platelet interactions with other cell types. Using liver intravital microscopy to examine pathways involved in steatohepatitis, Malehmir et al. showed that platelet colonization depended on Kupffer cells and CD44 binding, and that treatment with anti-platelet therapy reduced infiltration of platelets into liver cells as well as platelet immune interactions and trafficking, ultimately leading to attenuation of liver damage [73]. Lastly, the identification of the lung microvasculature as a site of platelet production is another remarkable discovery made possible by the use of intravital microscopy [19].
Cranial intravital microscopy of thrombus formation in a mouse model. (A) Representative images of thrombus formation in mouse cerebral arterioles induced by photochemical injury in different conditions and at different time points. In order to compare the activities of CA and clopidogrel at a similar blood concentration, 5 mg/kg of CA (MW: 180.16) and 12 mg/kg of clopidogrel (MW: 419.90) were continuously infused through the catheterized femoral vein starting from 20 min prior to the vessel wall injury. This resulted in approximately the same blood concentration of CA and clopidogrel in mice
The main limitations of intravital microscopy include the depth of penetration depending on the type of microscope used, technical challenges, heterogeneous features and low transparency of certain tissues, and limitations on the number of fluorescent tags that can be used simultaneously [68, 69, 75]. Future advances may include incorporation of correlative light and electron microscopy (CLEM) to intravital approaches, technical advances in miniaturization of lenses and imaging equipment, and improvements in the array of genetic and molecular markers used to track platelet-cellular and platelet-ultrastructural processes [68].
An increasingly versatile armamentarium of imaging modalities is available for research and diagnostic purposes to study platelets [11, 61, 68, 71]. We anticipate these will continue to play instrumental roles in further discoveries in the field of platelet biology, revealing new insights into the dynamics of platelet signaling, ultrastructure, and function. Understanding how to utilize these evolving imaging technologies to best suit the visualization of platelets is essential. Given the inherently highly reactive nature of platelets, newer approaches that cause minimal manipulation and processing offer significant advantages, including intravital microscopy for studying the roles of platelets roles in thrombus formation and cellular interactions [70], and cryogenic electron tomography which preserves platelets in a near native state for ultrastructural analysis [61]. Important advances continue to be made in labeling approaches that can be paired with imaging modalities, including correlative light and electron microscopy, and genetically inducible fluorescent or electron dense markers [34, 65, 66, 77]. In addition to the technical advances in our imaging capabilities, their integration with advanced statistical and computational power will continue to reveal new opportunities to analyze and better understand platelet structure and function.
Dr. Kornblith and Dr. Matthay have nothing to disclose.
Dr. Kornblith is supported by NIH 1K23GM130892-01; Dr. Matthay is supported by The National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences of the NIH award 5TL1TR001871-04.
Human and Animal Rights Informed Consent: This study does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects performed by any of the authors.
Sputter deposition is a physical vapor deposition (PVD) method of thin film deposited by sputtering. The general sputtering method can be used to prepare a variety of materials such as metals, semiconductors, insulators, etc., and has the advantages of simple equipment, easy control, large coating area, and strong adhesion, and the magnetron sputtering method developed in the 1970s achieves high speed, low temperature, and low damage.
Adding a closed magnetic field parallel to the target surface in the bipolar sputtering, the secondary electron is bound to a specific area of the target surface to enhance the ionization efficiency by means of the orthogonal electromagnetic field formed on the surface of the target, increasing the ion density and energy, and finally realizing the high-rate sputtering. The above statement is the concept of magnetron sputtering.
Magnetron sputtering is a dominant technique to grow thin films because a large quantity of thin films can be prepared at relatively high purity and low cost. This involves ejecting material from a “target” that is a source onto a “substrate” such as a silicon wafer, as shown in Figure 1.
Schematic diagram of magnetron sputtering.
Magnetron sputtering is the collision process between incident particles and targets. Since high-speed sputtering is performed at a low pressure, it is necessary to effectively increase the ionization rate of the gas. The incident particle undergoes a complex scattering process in the target, collides with the target atom, and transmits part of the momentum to the target atom, which in turn collides with other target atoms to form a cascade process. During this cascade, certain target atoms near the surface gain sufficient momentum for outward motion and are sputtered out of the target. Magnetron sputtering increases the plasma density by introducing a magnetic field on the surface of the target cathode and utilizing the constraints of the magnetic field on the charged particles to increase the sputtering rate.
Magnetron sputtering includes many types, such as direct current (DC) magnetron sputtering and radio frequency (RF) magnetron sputtering, each has a different working principle and application objects. The main advantage of RF magnetron sputtering over DC magnetron sputtering is that it does not require the target as an electrode be electrically conductive. Therefore, any material can be sputter-deposited theoretically using RF magnetron sputtering.
But there is one thing in common for any type of magnetron sputtering: the interaction between the magnetic field and the electric field causes the electrons to spiral in the vicinity of the target surface, thereby increasing the probability that electrons will strike the argon gas to generate ions. The generated ions collide with the target surface under the action of an electric field to sputter the target. The target source is divided into balanced and unbalanced types; the balanced target source is uniformly coated, and the unbalanced target coating layer and the substrate have strong bonding force.
Balanced target sources are mostly used in semiconductor optical films, and unbalanced are mostly used in wear decorative films. Sputtering metals and alloys with a magnetron target is easy, and it is convenient for ignition and sputtering. Magnetron reactive sputtering insulators appear to be easy, but it is difficult for practical operations.
The magnetron cathodes are roughly classified into an equilibrium state and an unbalanced magnetron cathode according to the distribution of the magnetic field configuration. Cooling is necessary for all sources (magnetron, multiarc, ion) because a large part of the energy is converted to heat. If there is no cooling or insufficient cooling, this heat will cause the target temperature to reach more than 1000°C to dissolve the entire target.
Main uses of magnetron sputtering are the following:
Various functional films: such as films having absorption, transmission, reflection, refraction, polarization, and so on. For example, a silicon nitride antireflection film is deposited at a low temperature to improve the photoelectric conversion efficiency of the solar cell.
Applications in the field of decoration, such as various total reflection films and translucent films, such as cell phone cases, mice, etc.
As a nonthermal coating technology in the field of microelectronics, mainly used in chemical vapor deposition (CVD) or metal organics.
Chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) growth is difficult and unsuitable material film deposition, and a very uniform film of a large area can be obtained.
In the field of optics: if closed-field unbalanced magnetron sputtering technology has also been applied in optical films (such as antireflection film), low-emissivity glass, and transparent conductive glass. In particular, transparent conductive glass is widely used in flat panel display devices, solar cells, microwave and RF shielding devices, and devices, sensors, and the like.
In the machining industry, the surface deposition technology of surface functional film, super hard film, and self-lubricating film has been developed since its inception, which can effectively improve surface hardness, composite toughness, wear resistance, and high temperature chemical stability. Performance greatly increases the service life of coated products.
In addition to the abovementioned fields that have been widely used, magnetron sputtering plays an important role in the research of high-temperature superconducting thin films, ferroelectric thin films, giant magnetoresistive thin films, thin film luminescent materials, solar cells, and memory alloy thin films.
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Taiar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7543.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"157376",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Bernardo-Filho",slug:"mario-bernardo-filho",fullName:"Mario Bernardo-Filho"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6772",title:"Occupational Therapy",subtitle:"Therapeutic and Creative Use of Activity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0f6de90c02282919494d6254e473defe",slug:"occupational-therapy-therapeutic-and-creative-use-of-activity",bookSignature:"Meral Huri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6772.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"171525",title:"Dr.",name:"Meral",middleName:null,surname:"Huri",slug:"meral-huri",fullName:"Meral Huri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5711",title:"Occupational Therapy",subtitle:"Occupation Focused Holistic Practice in Rehabilitation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"38180e287b6cb09b8002b7ab485de2c2",slug:"occupational-therapy-occupation-focused-holistic-practice-in-rehabilitation",bookSignature:"Meral Huri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5711.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"171525",title:"Dr.",name:"Meral",middleName:null,surname:"Huri",slug:"meral-huri",fullName:"Meral Huri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:3,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"55163",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68799",title:"Virtual Reality and Occupational Therapy",slug:"virtual-reality-and-occupational-therapy",totalDownloads:2642,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Virtual reality is three dimensional, interactive and fun way in rehabilitation. Its first known use in rehabilitation published by Max North named as “Virtual Environments and Psychological Disorders” (1994). Virtual reality uses special programmed computers, visual devices and artificial environments for the clients’ rehabilitation. Throughout technological improvements, virtual reality devices changed from therapeutic gloves to augmented reality environments. Virtual reality was being used in different rehabilitation professions such as occupational therapy, physical therapy, psychology and so on. In spite of common virtual reality approach of different professions, each profession aims different outcomes in rehabilitation. Virtual reality in occupational therapy generally focuses on hand and upper extremity functioning, cognitive rehabilitation, mental disorders, etc. Positive effects of virtual reality were mentioned in different studies, which are higher motivation than non‐simulated environments, active participation of the participants, supporting motor learning, fun environment and risk‐free environment. Additionally, virtual reality was told to be used as assessment. This chapter will focus on usage of virtual reality in occupational therapy, history and recent developments, types of virtual reality technologic equipment, pros and cons, usage for pediatric, adult and geriatric people and recent research and articles.",book:{id:"5711",slug:"occupational-therapy-occupation-focused-holistic-practice-in-rehabilitation",title:"Occupational Therapy",fullTitle:"Occupational Therapy - Occupation Focused Holistic Practice in Rehabilitation"},signatures:"Orkun Tahir Aran, Sedef Şahin, Berkan Torpil, Tarık Demirok and\nHülya Kayıhan",authors:[{id:"172938",title:"Prof.",name:"Hulya",middleName:null,surname:"Kayihan",slug:"hulya-kayihan",fullName:"Hulya Kayihan"},{id:"183079",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sedef",middleName:null,surname:"Şahin",slug:"sedef-sahin",fullName:"Sedef Şahin"},{id:"196848",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Orkun Tahir",middleName:null,surname:"Aran",slug:"orkun-tahir-aran",fullName:"Orkun Tahir Aran"},{id:"197159",title:"Mr.",name:"Tarık",middleName:null,surname:"Demirok",slug:"tarik-demirok",fullName:"Tarık Demirok"},{id:"197312",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Berkan",middleName:null,surname:"Torpil",slug:"berkan-torpil",fullName:"Berkan Torpil"}]},{id:"61806",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78312",title:"Executive Functions and Neurology in Children and Adolescents",slug:"executive-functions-and-neurology-in-children-and-adolescents",totalDownloads:1756,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"This chapter discusses the theoretical and methodological issues of creating a developmental perspective on executive function (EF) in childhood and adolescence. Focusing on school periods, this section outlines the development of the basic components of EF—inhibition, working memory, and attention. Cognitive and neurophysiological evaluations show that despite the emergence of EF in the first few years of life, it continues to grow significantly in childhood and adolescence. The components vary slightly according to their developmental sequence. The chapter links findings to long-standing developmental issues (i.e. developmental sequences and processes) and suggests the necessary research to establish a developmental framework covering early childhood throughout adolescence.",book:{id:"6772",slug:"occupational-therapy-therapeutic-and-creative-use-of-activity",title:"Occupational Therapy",fullTitle:"Occupational Therapy - Therapeutic and Creative Use of Activity"},signatures:"Gokcen Akyurek",authors:[{id:"197265",title:"Dr.",name:"Gokcen",middleName:null,surname:"Akyurek",slug:"gokcen-akyurek",fullName:"Gokcen Akyurek"}]},{id:"56049",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69101",title:"Measurement of Participation: The Role Checklist Version 3: Satisfaction and Performance",slug:"measurement-of-participation-the-role-checklist-version-3-satisfaction-and-performance",totalDownloads:2820,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Participation in society is an area of interest to both clinicians and population researchers. Measurement of participation is therefore important, yet differences in definition, in terms of both content and scope, have made general agreement on one instrument tool elusive. What is recognized is the need for a theoretically based tool that captures both the insider and the outsider perspective. The outsider perspective, inclusive of the generally held views of a society, supports the utility for aggregating population data, whereas the insider perspective provides the internally held views of an individual needed for client-centered treatment planning. The Role Checklist Version 3 modifies one of the most commonly used assessment tools in occupational therapy practice, has good preliminary psychometric properties, and is theoretically consistent with both the ICF and the Model of Human Occupation. The Model of Human Occupation is the most widely used theoretical model in occupational therapy. This chapter provides an overview of the theoretical development, empirical testing, and implications for use of this participation measure by occupational therapists along with implications for population researchers.",book:{id:"5711",slug:"occupational-therapy-occupation-focused-holistic-practice-in-rehabilitation",title:"Occupational Therapy",fullTitle:"Occupational Therapy - Occupation Focused Holistic Practice in Rehabilitation"},signatures:"Patricia J. Scott, Kelsey McKinney, Jeff Perron, Emily Ruff and Jessica\nSmiley",authors:[{id:"195495",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia J",middleName:null,surname:"Scott",slug:"patricia-j-scott",fullName:"Patricia J Scott"},{id:"208801",title:"Dr.",name:"Kelsey G.",middleName:null,surname:"McKinney",slug:"kelsey-g.-mckinney",fullName:"Kelsey G. McKinney"},{id:"208802",title:"Mr.",name:"Jeffrey M.",middleName:null,surname:"Perron",slug:"jeffrey-m.-perron",fullName:"Jeffrey M. Perron"},{id:"208803",title:"Dr.",name:"Emily G.",middleName:null,surname:"Ruff",slug:"emily-g.-ruff",fullName:"Emily G. Ruff"},{id:"208804",title:"Dr.",name:"Jessica L.",middleName:null,surname:"Smiley",slug:"jessica-l.-smiley",fullName:"Jessica L. Smiley"}]},{id:"55024",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68463",title:"Occupational Therapy in Oncology and Palliative Care",slug:"occupational-therapy-in-oncology-and-palliative-care",totalDownloads:2694,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Cancer is a chronic disease that may occur in both children and adults. Occupational therapy focuses on the activity limitations and participation problems in their life. Oncology rehabilitation involves in helping an individual with cancer to regain maximum physical, psychological, cognitive, social, and vocational functioning with the limits up to disease and its treatments in an interdisciplinary team concept. These treatment options are associated with the risk of some side effects, including fatigue, pain, cognitive problems, decrease in bone density and muscle endurance, weight loss, and stress- or anxiety-related psychosocial problems. Occupational therapy approaches are a holistic view in a client center and use training in activities of daily living, assistive technology, education of energy conservation techniques, and management of treatment-related problems, such as pain, fatigue, and nausea. In palliative and hospice care, occupational therapists support clients with cancer by minimizing the secondary symptoms related to cancer and its treatments. At the end of life, occupational therapy offers to identify the roles and activities that are meaningful and purposeful to the client with cancer and try to determine the barriers that limit their performance. Clients with cancer who have childhood cancer or adult cancer can face problems about body structure and functions, activity, and participation, which may limit their participation to their daily life.",book:{id:"5711",slug:"occupational-therapy-occupation-focused-holistic-practice-in-rehabilitation",title:"Occupational Therapy",fullTitle:"Occupational Therapy - Occupation Focused Holistic Practice in Rehabilitation"},signatures:"Sedef Şahin, Semin Akel and Meral Zarif",authors:[{id:"183079",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sedef",middleName:null,surname:"Şahin",slug:"sedef-sahin",fullName:"Sedef Şahin"},{id:"183078",title:"Dr.",name:"Burcu Semin",middleName:null,surname:"Akel",slug:"burcu-semin-akel",fullName:"Burcu Semin Akel"},{id:"198859",title:"Dr.",name:"Meral",middleName:null,surname:"Zarif",slug:"meral-zarif",fullName:"Meral Zarif"}]},{id:"70122",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89360",title:"Parkinson’s Disease Rehabilitation: Effectiveness Approaches and New Perspectives",slug:"parkinson-s-disease-rehabilitation-effectiveness-approaches-and-new-perspectives",totalDownloads:2077,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Parkinson’s disease has been considered one of the most important and common neurodegenerative diseases in the world. Its motor and nonmotor signs determine a huge functional loss, leading the individuals to lose their independence. Although the treatment requires a pharmacological approach, physical therapy has confirmed its importance in this process. Today, neurorehabilitation is indispensable to increase many of the cardinal signs of the disease. Using traditional or technological approaches, physical therapy has reached good results in improving motor and nonmotor functions, as well as the quality of life of Parkinsonians. However, it is important to develop and to fortify the physical therapy approach so that we can provide stronger evidence about our practice.",book:{id:"7543",slug:"physical-therapy-effectiveness",title:"Physical Therapy Effectiveness",fullTitle:"Physical Therapy Effectiveness"},signatures:"Luciana Auxiliadora de Paula Vasconcelos",authors:[{id:"98546",title:"Dr.",name:"Luciana Auxiliadora",middleName:null,surname:"De Paula Vasconcelos",slug:"luciana-auxiliadora-de-paula-vasconcelos",fullName:"Luciana Auxiliadora De Paula Vasconcelos"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"55080",title:"Life Skills in Occupational Therapy",slug:"life-skills-in-occupational-therapy",totalDownloads:6067,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Occupational therapy is a health profession that uses the purposeful activities to achieve multiple and complex rehabilitation aims. The main goals of the occupational therapy are to support the reintegration of individuals in daily living skills as well as to increase their independence and autonomy. Interventions of occupational therapists have primarily focused on self-care, productivity, and leisure time activities. Since the life skills includes a wide range of abilities that enable a person to perform personal care and more complicated tasks such as traveling, shopping, community participation etc., occupational therapists provide life skills training programs to meet the needs of the clients. This chapter aims to contribute to the current understanding and practices of life skills from an occupational therapy perspective. The chapter starts with a brief discussion of the importance of life skills in occupational therapy. After this introduction, the first part takes a look at the definition of life skills and identifies core components of life skills. The second part describes assessment and interventions of life skills. The third one gives an overview about school life skills programs for children and adolescents. Finally, the last part explains some life skills programs in people with disadvantages.",book:{id:"5711",slug:"occupational-therapy-occupation-focused-holistic-practice-in-rehabilitation",title:"Occupational Therapy",fullTitle:"Occupational Therapy - Occupation Focused Holistic Practice in Rehabilitation"},signatures:"Hatice Abaoğlu, Özge Buket Cesim, Sinem Kars and Zeynep Çelik",authors:[{id:"197551",title:"Dr.",name:"Hatice",middleName:null,surname:"Abaoğlu",slug:"hatice-abaoglu",fullName:"Hatice Abaoğlu"},{id:"205199",title:"Dr.",name:"Sinem",middleName:null,surname:"Kars",slug:"sinem-kars",fullName:"Sinem Kars"},{id:"205200",title:"Dr.",name:"Zeynep",middleName:null,surname:"Celik",slug:"zeynep-celik",fullName:"Zeynep Celik"},{id:"205203",title:"Ms.",name:"Özge Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Cesim",slug:"ozge-buket-cesim",fullName:"Özge Buket Cesim"}]},{id:"62493",title:"Occupational Therapy in Forensic Settings",slug:"occupational-therapy-in-forensic-settings",totalDownloads:2536,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"It is necessary for a person to comply with the expectations of society and the rules of law to which these expectations are secured. Offenders turn back to the community after the penalty was executed by isolating from society and some occupations. An occupational imbalance is seen in the individuals, during this penalty period and afterward, because of limited occupational participation. As an occupational being, this affects their physical, mental and psychological well-being. Imprisonment is an important practice in criminal law to punish criminals. This may be necessary for the protection of society from criminals, but successful integration into a community after exiting the prison is the most important factor in preventing recidivism. Occupational therapy focuses on health and well-being by using meaningful and purposeful occupations. Occupation involves any activity that people perform or participate in, such as giving care to themselves or others, working, learning, playing games, and interacting with others. From this perspective, the role of occupational therapists in forensic settings is to determine the abilities of these individuals to congregate their deprived freedoms and use them to train them for an independent and autonomous life; to provide a professional orientation, career counseling, and self-esteem; to gain some habits for physical, spiritual and moral life and to reinforce.",book:{id:"6772",slug:"occupational-therapy-therapeutic-and-creative-use-of-activity",title:"Occupational Therapy",fullTitle:"Occupational Therapy - Therapeutic and Creative Use of Activity"},signatures:"Esma Ozkan, Sümeyye Belhan, Mahmut Yaran and Meral Zarif",authors:null},{id:"70122",title:"Parkinson’s Disease Rehabilitation: Effectiveness Approaches and New Perspectives",slug:"parkinson-s-disease-rehabilitation-effectiveness-approaches-and-new-perspectives",totalDownloads:2070,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Parkinson’s disease has been considered one of the most important and common neurodegenerative diseases in the world. Its motor and nonmotor signs determine a huge functional loss, leading the individuals to lose their independence. Although the treatment requires a pharmacological approach, physical therapy has confirmed its importance in this process. Today, neurorehabilitation is indispensable to increase many of the cardinal signs of the disease. Using traditional or technological approaches, physical therapy has reached good results in improving motor and nonmotor functions, as well as the quality of life of Parkinsonians. However, it is important to develop and to fortify the physical therapy approach so that we can provide stronger evidence about our practice.",book:{id:"7543",slug:"physical-therapy-effectiveness",title:"Physical Therapy Effectiveness",fullTitle:"Physical Therapy Effectiveness"},signatures:"Luciana Auxiliadora de Paula Vasconcelos",authors:[{id:"98546",title:"Dr.",name:"Luciana Auxiliadora",middleName:null,surname:"De Paula Vasconcelos",slug:"luciana-auxiliadora-de-paula-vasconcelos",fullName:"Luciana Auxiliadora De Paula Vasconcelos"}]},{id:"62210",title:"Occupational Therapy’s Role in the Treatment of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders",slug:"occupational-therapy-s-role-in-the-treatment-of-children-with-autism-spectrum-disorders",totalDownloads:2748,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Occupational therapists (OT) offer a wide range of therapies for individuals with ASD on the basis of specific deficits and difficulties. This chapter explores the role that OT plays, and the expertise, in relation to the interdisciplinary team. In addition, it discusses and presents empirical support for several therapeutic approaches commonly used by OTs working with individuals with ASD.",book:{id:"6772",slug:"occupational-therapy-therapeutic-and-creative-use-of-activity",title:"Occupational Therapy",fullTitle:"Occupational Therapy - Therapeutic and Creative Use of Activity"},signatures:"Bryan M. Gee, Amy Nwora and Theodore W. Peterson",authors:null},{id:"55049",title:"Community Participation in People with Disabilities",slug:"community-participation-in-people-with-disabilities",totalDownloads:2429,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Despite the fact that participation is an important building and a valuable target, the conceptualization, identification and measurement methods vary widely. This chapter tried to gain an insider’s perspective from the obstacles that summarize what meaning participation means, how to characterize it, and what prevents and supports participation. Participation is seen as a right and a responsibility attributed to and attributed to both the person and the community. Participation does not take place in a vacuum; the environment dynamically influences participation. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. 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In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"243698",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. 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\r\n\tThe integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, as well as the expression, structure, and function of molecular and cellular components, is essential for modern physiology. The following concerns will be addressed in this Cell Physiology subject, which will consider all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, liver; gut, kidney, eye) and their interactions: (1) Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease (2) Free Radicals (3) Tumor Metastasis (4) Antioxidants (5) Essential Fatty Acids (6) Melatonin and (7) Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology.
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