Nominal chemical compositions of the used Al alloys (wt.%).
\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-partners-with-ehs-for-digital-advertising-representation-20210416",title:"IntechOpen Partners with EHS for Digital Advertising Representation"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-new-contract-with-cepiec-china-for-distribution-of-open-access-books-20210319",title:"IntechOpen Signs New Contract with CEPIEC, China for Distribution of Open Access Books"},{slug:"150-million-downloads-and-counting-20210316",title:"150 Million Downloads and Counting"},{slug:"intechopen-secures-indefinite-content-preservation-with-clockss-20210309",title:"IntechOpen Secures Indefinite Content Preservation with CLOCKSS"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-to-all-global-amazon-channels-with-full-catalog-of-books-20210308",title:"IntechOpen Expands to All Global Amazon Channels with Full Catalog of Books"},{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3708",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Microwave and Millimeter Wave Technologies Modern UWB antennas and equipment",title:"Microwave and Millimeter Wave Technologies",subtitle:"Modern UWB antennas and equipment",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:null,isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-7619-67-1",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6420-3",doi:"10.5772/210",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"microwave-and-millimeter-wave-technologies-modern-uwb-antennas-and-equipment",numberOfPages:500,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:null,bookSignature:"Igor Minin",publishedDate:"March 1st 2010",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3708.jpg",numberOfDownloads:104344,numberOfWosCitations:21,numberOfCrossrefCitations:20,numberOfDimensionsCitations:26,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:67,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:null,dateEndSecondStepPublish:null,dateEndThirdStepPublish:null,dateEndFourthStepPublish:null,dateEndFifthStepPublish:null,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:1,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"123258",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:null,surname:"Minin",slug:"igor-minin",fullName:"Igor Minin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/123258/images/1782_n.jpg",biography:"Igor V. 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Corporate social responsibility in recent decades, a priori, is seen as an important progressive business evolution vector. The initial idea that began a heated debate to compensate market imperfections is evolving in social stability and harmony; favorable environment creation trajectory to the existence of society and development becomes an integral part of the corporate culture management and strategy. Particular attention to these processes is paid in the European Community countries in the formulation of sustainable development goals of the social environment, but leaving a vast field of creative performance and initiatives. However, the concept formed in the last century remains the key challenge for business organizations and the public. Developing corporate social responsibility processes demonstrates not only the qualitatively growing requirements of customers, business partners, state authorities, wide sections of society, active participation and influence in the construction of the social environment but also the growing business organization flexibility while responding to changes. However, corporate social responsibility is an evolving concept, which is influenced by differences in social, cultural, political and economic environment in which businesses are created and operated. Globalization and business internationalization processes require even greater flexibility and insight. These requirements become especially apparent in Central and Eastern European societies where natural social and business processes were interrupted for several decades, and corporate social responsibility evolving from these relations is still developing. For example, the first Lithuanian companies that joined the United Nations Global Compact [1] network count only a decade, the search for sustainability is slow and complicated, despite the rapidly increasing economic efficiency and international competitiveness. Nevertheless, these processes only emphasize the variety of goals for corporate social responsibility concept development and complexity and give a good opportunity one more time to examine anew the conditions in which the trajectories of corporate relationships with stakeholders are changing and the management culture of those companies is developing.
It has to be admitted that although more and more businesses join the national and international socially responsible corporate networks, a corporate social responsibility statement (a public declaration) does not mean social responsibility per se. It can be stated that scientific research intended for the development of corporate social responsibility and processes is particularly important in order to understand the stimuli of this development, its benefits and prospects. Various studies show that this movement was formed as business reaction and response to the society requirements that became mature in historical civilization development processes. The society is more sensitive and demanding when evaluating the issues such as discrimination, exploitation, product safety, healthy and clean environment, global warming and others. Expectations and reactions of subjects interested to behavior of companies stimulate them to be socially responsible not only in own countries but also in foreign countries in which they are operating. These processes are relevant for opening new branches abroad and encourage to choose partners in a more responsible way in those countries, which are attractive because of cheap, often illegal and exploited labor force. That is why, while shifting social responsibility values and principles, corporate social responsibility is acquiring a more global image. It is significant that corporate social responsibility inspired by the impact of processes taking place in societies is developing in the contexts of multifaceted business strategies. Therefore, there remain relevant debates not only on what economic benefits corporate social responsibility gives to the companies themselves, when the statements about social responsibility are only fiction or a marketing element, what stakeholders have to be chosen and how to develop relations with them, but also what are the conditions of the process for becoming a socially responsible company.
In scientific literature, the content of corporate social responsibility is widely analyzed and discussed, and this discourse highlights the cultural development process. The organization is a single socio-cultural body. Culture permeates the entire organization-employee relations, manager’s relations with employees, communication, organization and so on. However, one can miss a more detailed analysis of factors empowering the process of cultural development, i.e. the initial conditions under which the organization could be ready to incorporate sustainable corporate social responsibility in its strategy by active managerial actions, as well as evaluation of these conditions and design of solutions. Therefore, in the cultural context, we highlighted organizations’ management culture, which is an integral part of organizational culture. Management culture plays an instrumental-functional role. It is a certain managerial art which accumulates in itself management skills, the ability to organize processes, to create a working environment, etc., which together help to create the sense of identity with the organization, to maintain good organizational climate at a cultural level and to increase the sustainability of the organization when solving emerging crises and seeking the progressive development towards the selected direction. Diagnostics and analysis of the level of development of management culture as an instrument can serve for more successful corporate social responsibility implementation into practice, since management culture can be regarded as a methodological basis for the systematic implementation of corporate social responsibility.
Management culture is closely associated with corporate social responsibility, which will continue to be argued in this book by both theoretical research and empirical research. Nevertheless, still insufficient attention is given to the analysis of management culture and its links with corporate social responsibility in Lithuania, where the study is conducted, and internationally as well. The enthusiasm for the implementation of corporate social responsibility can be identified as a challenge to cultural traditions that arose in organizations, which requires changes in thinking of both managerial staff and employees as well as changes in the organization’s management culture. For example, in Lithuania, the international standards ISO 9001 and ISO 14001 [2], which require a substantial change in the organization’s attitude towards management, have gained maximum popularity in recent years. However, the implementation of one or another standard requires assessment of the situation in a particular organization: how much the prevailing management culture is developed, if it is consistent with the principles of corporate social responsibility and what its relevant changes are. These management quality standards should be used when implementing ISO 26000 [3] (guidance on social responsibility) and should define social responsibility guidelines. It is recognized that even in the developed countries, both the public and the companies are in favor of corporate social responsibility values, but their implementation in practice not always is smooth and sometimes it is even complicated. It is not surprising that there are even greater challenges in developing countries. A search for social harmony is a challenge for developing economies that have been evolving in free market conditions since the last decade of the last century, which, in response to the global market processes, cause additional difficulties. The incorporated models that were designed in other socio-cultural environments, including corporate social responsibility, do not operate as successfully as one might expect: this is shown by the situation in Lithuania and the neighboring countries where social responsibility development is very slow, and some companies that linked social responsibility policy to marketing and expected quick economic success are disappointed.
Slow regional corporate social responsibility development is displayed by the changes of the United Nations Global Compact [1] network data in the associated countries. For example, while discussing the Baltic countries region, in the beginning of 2014 this network included a total number of 86 organizations in Lithuania, 11 in Latvia and 5 Estonian companies, and in a year, this ratio changed negatively. The network includes the organizations that are committed to follow the 10 principles of corporate social responsibility formulated by the United Nations Global Compact, but slow presentation of reports speaks about a superficial approach to corporate social responsibility values.
Social responsibility development in organizations in the region has not acquired greater speed, which can be explained by the maturity trends of the public and the organizations themselves. Although the organizations gain social responsibility certifying standards, this in itself does not guarantee high levels of activity standards that are related to the internal perception of social responsibility and decisions dictated by values.
Several trends have been noticed in the research. Private capital companies most often get into the horizon of the researchers, the attention is focused on the activities that are aggressive to the environment, as well as on the problems of profit increase, product security and human rights. Although the ideas of social environment sustainability and social responsibility first evolved as a reaction to industrial and economic factors, social responsibility is not less important for public sector, too, i.e. state and municipal companies, public institutions, budgetary organizations and others.
Empirical studies in Lithuania, as well as in the region are slow. They are quite narrow by nature, and the results are not very promising when expecting faster corporate social responsibility development. Theoretical scientific literature studies are often performed as well as the analysis of the content of organizational reports (annual, on websites, etc.). There is lack of broader empirical research on corporate social responsibility. In addition, traditionally, the companies that have declared the status of corporate social responsibility are analyzed rather than those seeking to become such organizations. Even more rare are the studies on corporate social responsibility and cultural links of the organization, and the role of management culture development for preparation of the companies to become socially responsible is a new field of research. The question of how much the organizations are actually prepared to live according to all the requirements raised for corporate social responsibility is fairly sensitive and is an integral part of the management culture development level.
This scientific monograph developed by the authors differs from other studies and publications by the fact that there is an active attempt to develop the concept of management culture in relation to corporate social responsibility implementation process. As the study is done by Lithuanian organizations operating in the region, a lot of attention is focused on the analysis of the situation in Lithuania and neighboring countries; the studies performed by the authors of these countries are analyzed. The results of this study are important not only in Lithuania but also in neighboring countries in the region, dealing with sensitive issues of corporate social responsibility implementation and development.
The research problem: what should be the level of management culture development aiming for corporate social responsibility and how, having determined it, to prepare for the implementation of corporate social responsibility.
The term of management culture in the works of Lithuanian [4, 5, 6] and foreign [7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13] authors is found quite rarely, but the organizational culture studies where management culture or its individual components are indirectly examined are found in the works of these authors: [14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22] and others. For the proper implementation of corporate social responsibility, in the context of this study, an especially important role is given to decision-making. In the general sense, there is a significant amount of scientific sources analyzing the solutions, but the managerial decisions in many cases are touched upon indirectly [23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28]. There are not many authors directly analyzing management solutions in relation with the management culture [7], social responsibility [29, 30, 31, 32, 33].
Lithuanian scientists explore corporate social responsibility in various aspects. Adomavičiūtė et al. [34] examine social entrepreneurship in non-governmental organizations, Astromskienė and Adamonienė [35] present the factors influencing corporate social responsibility initiatives and Augustinienė and Abromaitienė [36] examine the expression of social responsibility in the context of expectations of future social pedagogues. Bagdonienė and Paulavičienė [37] present the connections of corporate social responsibility and management system, and Banytė et al. [38] discuss green marketing expression when the concept of corporate social responsibility is discussed. Butkevičienė [39] analyzes public attitudes on social policy through the prism of the state, the individual and the family, forming social welfare in the Lithuanian state. Čepinskis and Sakalauskaitė [40] provide the operational analysis of socially responsible companies in Lithuania and assess corporate social responsibility changes in the conditions of economic crisis and its impact on companies’ performance indicators. Česynienė et al. [41], while analyzing social responsibility with respect to the employees, state that application of social responsibility initiatives in relation to the employees in Lithuanian private and public sector organizations faces a growing gap between the objective needs and subjective non-recognition. The authors discuss the aforementioned gap between Lithuanian private and public sector organizations analyzing the state of social responsibility initiatives implementation with respect to the employees, the obstacles and the potential impact on human activity indicators. Čiegis and Norkutė [42] examine corporate social responsibility and sustainable development concepts and assess banking practices in these areas in Lithuania. Dagilienė [43] establishes the social information level disclosure in annual reports of Lithuanian companies. Dagilienė and Bruneckienė [44] deal with the connections of voluntarily disclosed information with corporate social responsibility, and assess the level of social information disclosure in financial reports of a specific company and on a website. Gižienė et al. [45] clarify the role of the state in the process of social responsibility in connection with the knowledge economy. Guogis [46] provides analytical materials in his article related to the state welfare creation and its current ‘retreat’ problems. Guzavičius and Bruneckienė [47] investigate social responsibility interests by providing asymmetric information. Jasinskas and Simanavičienė [48] assess the corporate social responsibility in relation with genetically modified products. These are only some of the studies by Lithuanian scientists demonstrating a wide range of corporate social responsibility problems.
A number of foreign researchers [49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61] and Lithuanian scientists [5, 40, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84], analyzing corporate social responsibility, indicate the relevance of these themes in both scientific and practical terms. However, only a few studies conducted in Lithuania [85, 86] focus on the connections of organizational culture and corporate social responsibility. It should be emphasized that the organizations that have declared the status of corporate social responsibility are mostly analyzed, but the phase of the company’s readiness to become socially responsible is still not analyzed in scientific works. So, there still is a relevant research gap of management culture expression, aiming to implement corporate social responsibility, which should be filled.
Research object: The level of management culture development when aiming for implementation of corporate social responsibility.
Research aim: To determine the level of management culture development and create the model of management culture level determination when aiming for implementation of social responsibility.
In order to achieve the aim set, the following objectives have to be accomplished:
Having analyzed management culture content from a theoretical point of view, to develop management culture assessment criteria.
Having analyzed corporate social responsibility problems from a theoretical aspect, to develop corporate social responsibility assessment criteria.
Having developed management culture and corporate social responsibility assessment criteria, to substantiate management culture as a factor conditioning corporate social responsibility.
Having formed management culture development level instruments aiming to implement corporate social responsibility, to set up management culture level determination model.
Having studied practical application of management culture level determination model, to formulate and present management decisions for corporate social responsibility implementation.
The monograph discusses the following problematic questions: What is the role of management culture aiming to implement corporate social responsibility? What kind of management culture development level should be there to consider the organization ready to pursue the implementation of corporate social responsibility? What should be management culture expression, as the formal and informal part of organizational culture, in order to implement corporate social responsibility with respect to employees? What is management culture expression, as the formal part of organizational culture, aiming to implement corporate social responsibility with respect to top-level managers? What managerial solutions could help to raise management culture level, aiming to prepare for the implementation of corporate social responsibility?
Having analyzed the scientific literature, a complex conceptual model for determining management culture level and describing corporate social responsibility formation was constructed. For quantitative research, a universal questionnaire was created determining the state of expression of management culture as the formal and informal part of the organizational culture in the organization, as well as preparation of companies to aim for social responsibility. For qualitative research, interview questions were formulated enabling the determination of the expression of management culture as a formal part of organizational culture aiming for corporate social responsibility with respect to top-level managers. Quantitative and qualitative research instruments were verified by carrying out expert assessments.
Quantitative studies were performed by using Microsoft Excel and SPSS 20 software. The data were put into matrices and statistical methods such as correlation and multidimensional statistical methods such as multivariate regression were used to process them. To compare means of two independent samples, a Student test (
A qualitative study was carried out by encoding text elements (statements), dividing them into units, grouping the coded units, distributing and connecting them into new formations, analyzing and comparing the latter. Calculations for qualitative research were used only when doing some work related to the analysis.
The studies tested the methodological attitudes of management culture level determination and corporate social responsibility formation model.
The monograph analyses corporate social responsibility only with respect to management culture which represents both the formal and informal parts of organizational culture and how much this could be significant to organizational changes. Management culture and social responsibility analysis are grounded on the value aspects as the base, and thus are not expanded specifically in detailing of, e.g., environmental, philanthropic and other aspects. The work was based on management culture paradigm formulated by Zakarevičius [4].
The study is limited to organizations which declared the ambition to become socially responsible only within the organization, but they have not yet claimed this ambition to be their aim to be realized. Therefore, it is important to determine management culture level which, after being diagnosed, could then lead to the realizable stage design in the organizations, which could be the subject for further research. Two groups of companies were chosen for comparison purposes (employees from 12 companies took part in the survey). Balance between academic society and business practitioners’ audiences was sought with the help of the text structure and style.
Theoretical significance of the accomplished research:
Scientific literature and research on management culture and corporate social responsibility issues were systemized.
Management culture and corporate social responsibility assessment criteria were identified.
Management culture as the factor determining corporate social responsibility was grounded.
According to scientific sources and empirical studies, the importance of cultural management for organizations was grounded aiming to implement corporate social responsibility.
Management culture determination model aiming to implement corporate social responsibility was formed.
A versatile instrument for quantitative research was formed revealing the management culture as the formal and informal part of organizational culture.
An instrument for qualitative research was formed revealing the management culture as a formal part of organizational culture.
Managerial decisions model of management culture development level, aiming to implement corporate social responsibility, was formed.
Practical significance of the accomplished research:
Management culture and corporate social responsibility measurements show close connection between them.
The created instruments will help the organizations to identify strong and weak positions of management culture and corporate social responsibility.
The results of the carried out empirical studies allow assessing of the level of management culture in the organizations and characteristics for readiness to become socially responsible.
The formulated management culture level determination model will help the heads of the organizations to determine the status of the management culture in the organizations.
The formulated managerial solutions will help to prepare properly for the implementation of corporate social responsibility.
The authors of this monograph provide the following directions for further research:
The marketing benefit of corporate social responsibility is often emphasized, but lack of long-term studies and calculations in the context of Lithuanian organizations remains a significant scientific problem. In addition, in future research, the influence of management staff social capital development on corporate social responsibility should be evaluated and methodological corporate social responsibility assessment, as well as development guidelines for state capital companies and other public sector organizations should be prepared.
Although more emphasis is given to legal aspects, greater emphasis on ethics and philanthropy would broaden public discourse. In the accomplished research, the focus is often on certain areas of economic activity, but not including the national economy, and considering the fact that the organizations do not always communicate their socially responsible activities, even based on the content analysis, the image of corporate social responsibility remains quite fragmented and incomplete.
At high temperatures, wetting of a solid (metal or ceramic) by the molten metallurgical melts is of great technological importance in a variety of metallurgical processes, e.g, hot dipping coating process, brazing process, casting process and sintering process. Each process has the different optimal wetting condition. For the hot dipping coating process, the perfect wettability of base materials by liquid metal is demanded. Two key issues for wetting at high temperatures include the spreading dynamics (wetting behavior) and the final wettability (the degree of wettability). For the former issue, it determined the technological parameters in process; for the latter issue, it would be one of the critical evaluation bases for whether the process can be carried out or not.
The description of wettability since from 1805 in Young’s work [1], has been well developed, as following,
where θ is contact angle for a liquid equilibrium with ideal solid at the point of triple line, σ
The coating process by using a hot dipping method, although a traditional technology with relatively high energy consumption, is also a reliable technology with high efficiency. The quality of coating directly depends on the wetting of base metal by the coating metal. The performance of coating as well as the technological parameters in the coating process is also affected by the trace addition in the alloys which may act on the solid/liquid interface and(or) the liquid/vapor interface. In this chapter, based on the effect of trace elements on the wetting behaviors and the interfacial structures, the wetting mechanism of base metals (steel, Ti6Al4V (TC4) alloy, pure Ti (TA2)) by Al alloys (4043 alloy and 6061 alloy) as well as the formation of precursor film in these systems would be presented in Section 3.
This chapter presents an overview of wetting parameters at high temperatures, wetting mechanism in the isothermal spreading, the effect of trace elements on the formation of interface and the possibility of designed interfacial structures.
At high temperatures, one needs to be careful in the characterization of the wetting of molten metal on the surface of materials (ceramics or metals) with relatively high melting pointing under the quasi-ideal condition.
First, the basic condition is the homogeneous temperature field for wetting should be established.
Second, the average roughness (Ra) of substrate should be obtained before wetting test. Usually, Ra for the metallic substrates after polishing and the monocrystal ceramic substrates are in the range of dozens of nanometers over a distance of 2 mm, Ra for the polycrystal ceramic substrates after polishing are in the range of hundreds of nanometers which depends on the relative density of the polycrystal ceramic substrates.
Third, due to the high sensitivity of metal to oxygen, the oxygen partial pressure in the atmosphere should be controlled, usually in a vacuum of ~10−4 Pa or a dried-deoxidized Ar atmosphere, the oxygen partial pressure was estimated to be lower than 10−14 Pa [2] in such a high vacuum, and the oxygen partial pressure was estimated to be lower than 10−8 Pa [2] in a dried-deoxidized Ar atmosphere.
Once the above conditions were confirmed, and then the various methods for the testing should be considered.
Several methods for the testing at room temperatures, such as sessile drop method, wetting balance method, vertical rod method, tilted plate method, capillary rise method, etc., but the sessile drop method based on the complicated calculation is usually adopted due to the good feasibility. One also should note that the sessile drop method used in more than 90% of wetting studies at high temperatures [3]. The size of drop for testing should refer to its capillary length (i.e., 2σlv/(ρg)1/2, where ρ is the density of liquid and g is the acceleration due to gravity), and thus a drop of volume ~5 μl with a spherical diameter of ~2 mm will be suitable for obtaining of the contact angle. Advancing contact angle is the parameter which the engineers mostly care about, and thus the study of wetting behavior used the advancing contact angle.
To acquire wetting parameters under the quasi-ideal condition, a specific wetting furnace is necessary, as be shown in Figure 1. The whole device mainly includes the controlled heat system, the vacuum system, the inertia gas flow system, the water-cooling system, and the image acquisition and data processing system. The details of this device were shown in Figure 1(a), W, Ta or Mo was used as a heater, and two typical drop transfer modes were used, the modified sessile drop method and the improved sessile drop method.
(a) Schematic diagram for wetting furnace and (b) the designed wetting furnace.
Comparing to the traditional sessile drop method (substrate and metal were heated together), the mentioned two sessile drop methods have a distinct advantage in measurement of initial contact angle and spreading dynamics, particularly for the system with a chemical reaction at elevated temperatures.
To acquire the wetting parameters accurately, a laser backlight source (650 nm in wavelength and 10 mW in power) together with the band-pass filter is necessary for an image acquisition and data processing system. To insure the reliability of obtained data, the drop profiles were captured in two axes, as shown in Figure 1(b). The typical side view of captured drop profile was shown in Figure 2. Before the calculation of contact angle, every pixel in the image was defined as a coordinate value (x and y coordinates), and then the program can seek the boundary between drop and backlight, and thus the pixel coordinate function of drop profile can be extracted. The function was further fitted by several models, i.e., Young-Laplace model, conic model, circle model. The choice of fitting model depends on the symmetry of captured drop profile or the contact angle. If the drop profile is almost axisymmetric, Young-Laplace model is the first choice. If the profile deviates axis symmetry, conic model is the first choice. If the contact angle is less than 5°, conic model or circle model is the first choice. Based on the results of calculation, the detailed wetting parameters can be obtained, i.e., the contact angle, the base diameter, the density, volume and surface tension of liquid.
Typical captured drop profile.
The chemical compositions of the used materials were shown in Tables 1 and 2.
Si | Fe | Cu | Mn | Mg | Zn | Ti | Al | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Al 6061 | 0.60 | 0.90 | — | — | 0.90 | 0.25 | 0.15 | Bal. |
Al 4043 | 4.5–6.0 | 0.80 | 0.30 | 0.05 | 0.50 | 0.10 | 0.20 | Bal. |
Nominal chemical compositions of the used Al alloys (wt.%).
Steel | C | Si | Mn | P | S | Fe | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Q235 | 0.12–0.2 | ≤0.3 | 0.3–0.7 | ≤0.045 | ≤0.045 | Bal. | |
Ti alloy | Ti | Fe | Si | C | Al | V | O |
TC4 | Bal. | 0.3 | — | 0.1 | 5.6–5.8 | 3.5–4.5 | 0.2 |
Pure Ti | Ti | Fe | Si | C | N | H | O |
TA2 | Bal. | 0.3 | 0.15 | 0.1 | 0.05 | 0.015 | 0.2 |
Nominal chemical compositions of the used substrates (wt.%).
Based on the wetting characterization, to establish the relationship of wetting behavior and surface/interface evolution, further reveal the wetting mechanism, some necessary micro-analysis were also carried out.
Trace elements in Al alloys, which may act on the surface of drop and/or the solid/liquid interface, and thus the industrial grade Al 4043 alloy and Al 6061 alloy were selected in this work which are of Si addition (~5 wt.%) and of Mg addition (~1 wt.%), respectively. The Si addition may both act on the surface of drop and solid/liquid interface, and the Mg addition may act on the surface of the drop mainly. The metallic substrates were selected as a reactive wetting system, i.e., Al/steel (low-carbon steel), Al/TC4 (Ti6Al4V) and Al/TA2 (TA2 grade pure Ti) systems.
The melting points of Al 4043 alloy and Al 6061 alloy were confirmed by DTA method (STA449-C, NETZSCH, and Germany), are 586 and 582°C, respectively, and thus the isothermal wetting experiments were carried out in a high vacuum (~10−4 Pa) by using improved sessile drop method at the range from 600 to 700°C.
The variations in the contact angle and the normalized contact radius (
Variation in contact angle and normalized contact radius with time, (a) and (b) for 4043 Al/steel, (c) and (d) for 6061 Al/TC4, respectively.
Variation in contact angle and normalized contact radius with time, (a) and (b) for 4043 Al/TC4, (c) and (d) for 6061 Al/TC4, (e) and (f) for 4043 Al/TA2, (g) and (h) for 6061 Al/TA2, respectively.
During spreading, the precursor film (diffusion bond or so called “wetting halo”) was formed at the latter stage of spreading in some specific samples. As shown in Figure 5(a)–(c) are the top-views for the samples after isothermal wetting at 650, 700 and 750°C for Al 4043/steel, and the top-views of (a-1) to (c-1) for Al 6061/steel samples after isothermal wetting at 600, 650 and 700°C. As a consensus, the formation of the precursor film always accompanies the good final wettability, and the larger width of the precursor and the better final wettability. Therefore, the final wettability of Al 6061/steel is better than Al 4043/steel at the same experimental temperature, although the latter has some precursor film at 650 and 700°C, the width of them is very limited (~500–1000 μm). Such a congruent relationship is also suitable for the wetting of metal/ceramic systems [4]. Also, in all Al/TC4 and Al/TA2 (except for Al 6061/TA2 at 600°C which is nonwetting at the final state), the precursor film can be found at the final state after wetting, also can be seen in Hg/Ag system [5] in the study by Be’er et al. However, the formation mechanism is so different from the evaporation-condensation mechanism (suggested by de Gennes [6]) and the surface diffusion mechanism (suggested by Li et al. [7]). Further, the precursor film, in a metal/ceramic system, especially for the melt contain some concentration of the active element, is an adsorbed film. The formation of the film should satisfy some specific conditions, as we reviewed before [4].
Top-view of some typical sessile drop samples of Al/steel after the wetting experiments in vacuum: (a)–(c) for Al 4043 sample at 650, 700 and 750°C; (a-1)–(c-1) for Al 6061 sample at 600, 650 and 700°C.
The sectional views of interfacial structures for Al 6061/steel and Al 4043/steel samples are obviously different after isothermal wetting at the same temperature (at 650°C), as shown in Figures 6(a) and 7(a). Although two types of Fe-Al intermetallics can be found in all the samples (bottom: the continuous Fe2Al5 layer, upper: discontinued FeAl3), the effect of trace elements on the interfacial structures is obvious. In Al 4043/steel, the addition of Si segregated at solid/liquid interface which enhanced the interfacial reaction, so that the barrier of interdiffusion was established. Both Si element distribution map (Figure 6(c)) and the elements line distributions for the corresponding position of Figure 6(b) show Si is incline to segregate at solid/liquid interface rather than surface of liquid. Also, the segregation of Si induced the brittleness of the compact Fe2Al5 layer [8], which induced some continuous and propagating cracks. Actually, some Si was dissolved into the Fe2Al5 phase as a solid solution due to the Si segregation, which can be rewritten as Fe2(Al1−xSix)5, where x is in the range of 0.0625–0.104, as reported by Gupta [9]. Comparing with Al 4043/steel, in the interface of Al 6061/steel, no Mg segregation (even no trace of Mg) can be found in the interface or the bulk of drop due to the high volatility of Mg under the vacuum condition, as shown in Figure 7(a)–(c). The Fe2Al5 reaction layer on steel side is irregular and stretches into the steel side, which is one of the main differences from Al 4043/steel interface. Without the barrier of interdiffusion, the grain boundary as a short-circuit diffused path, Al element prefers to diffuse into the grain boundary, and then reacted with Fe. The X-Ray micro-Diffraction (micro-XRD) pattern of the phases at the surface of the precursor film for Al 6061 sample after isothermal wetting at 700°C in Figure 7(d) shows the precursor film contains Fe2Al5, i.e., the extended reaction layer.
Cross-sectional views of interface structures (Al 4043/steel): (a) at the close of triple line, (b) the central position at interface, (c) Si element distribution map corresponding to the purple rectangle in (b).
Cross-sectional views of interface structures (Al 6061/steel): (a) at the close of triple line, (b) the central position at interface, (c) the typical energy spectrum for the position of yellow cross in (b) and (d) the XRD pattern for the surface of precursor film.
Understanding the reasons caused the wetting, is the benefit of further controlling the manufactured process, which is the prime concern of engineering. In a metallic system, the first obstacle for wetting is the oxide film on the surface of substrate. Protsenko et al. [10] considered the effect of the formation of intermetallic compounds in the wetting with the metallic substrate covered by oxide film. By the formation of IMC by diffusion of reacting components through the thin oxide layer, the oxide film can be disrupted and then in situ a clean surface of intermetallic for wetting can be created. Also, as suggested by Durandet et al. [11], the precipitation of Fe-Al intermetallics is so fast even the contact time of liquid Al and steel as short as 20 ms. Further, the thickness of the IMC layer in this work is larger than the oxide film (in nanoscale), and thus the precipitation of IMC may be a factor for improving wettability. However, the time for spreading cannot correspond to the fast reaction.
The dynamic of IMC precipitation should not be the limited factor for spreading. Although the nonwettable Fe—O oxide film would block wetting, a reduction reaction 2yAl + 3FexOy = yAl2O3 + 3xFe can take place based on the thermodynamic consideration [12], and then Al melts can further react with the fresh surface of Fe. As known, the whole process is limited by the slowest step, and thus the reduction step may be the limited factor for spreading. In Al 6061/steel, although no trace of Mg was observed, the volatilization of Mg cannot be neglected. As suggested by Miller and Pa [13], Mg vapor as a gas flux can reduce Al2O3 in the brazing process of Al alloys. Here, the Fe—O oxide film also can be reduced by Mg vapor due to the more positive formation of Gibbs free energy of Fe—O compounds [12] under the same thermodynamic condition. Based on the result of microstructures, although the precursor film for Al 4043/steel also can be found, it only appears at high experimental temperature with very limited width due to the slight volatility of Al. All the interfacial structures indicate that the formation of the precursor film is related to the volatility of the active element in the specific system. However, the formation mechanism is not the evaporation-condensation mechanism. When the base metal was covered by the thin oxide film, the molten metal would infiltrate under the covered oxide film and then trigger the moving of triple line, and thus the spreading in this stage is also called secondary spreading or wetting, i.e., the formation of precursor film satisfies the subcutaneous infiltration mechanism (as proposed by Zhuang and Lugscheider [14]).
Based on the final wetting states, i.e., nonwetting and wetting states, the typical interfacial structures were selected, as shown in Figures 8, 9, 10. In Figure 8(a) and (b), the precursor with width of several millimeters as well as some Al-Ti intermetallics in the precursor film can be found. The obvious precursor film in Al/TC4 and Al/TA2 (except for the Al/TC4 and Al/TA2 at 600°C which are nonwetting) has the same formation mechanism i.e., so-called “subcutaneous infiltration”. The final wettability was less affected by the oxide film but was determined by the reaction products at the liquid/solid interface. As known, although some residual oxygen in the vacuum chamber could dissolve into Ti due to the high affinity of Ti to oxygen, and then inducing oxidation, however, the diffusion rate for oxygen into the interior of Ti is faster than the oxidation rate so that the oxide film would be thinned or even removed. In Al/TC4 and Al/TA2 systems, both the temperatures and the alloying elements (Si and Mg) caused the different interfacial structures and are responsible for the different final wettability. In Figure 8(d)–(f), the typical cross-sectional view of Al 6061/TC4 after isothermal wetting at 600°C shows the chemical compositions of the granular phase distributed above the reaction layer are closed to Al3Ti. The original concentration of Si in the bulk Al 6061 alloys is only 0.6 at.%, but the concentration of Si in the continuous reaction layer is far beyond that value, as shown in Figure 8(e). The distinct segregation of Si in the reaction layer was formed during wetting. For the nonwetting sample of Al 4043/TC4 (after wetting at 600°C), as shown in Figure 9(a) and (b), the interfacial structures with the virgate phase but no granular phase near triple line and the virgate phase together with granular phase at the center position can be found. Si concentration in the virgate phase is extremely high comparing with the original concentration in bulk Al 4043 alloy, as shown in Figures 9(c)–(e).
(a) Top-view of the microstructures around the triple line for Al 6061/TC4 after isothermal wetting at 600°C; (b) detail of the black rectangle area in (a); cross-sectional view of Al 6061/TC4 (c) near the triple line and (d) at central position of the interfacial microstructures with the elemental line distribution results; (e) and (f) EDS results for the corresponding colored crosses in (d), respectively.
Cross-sectional views for Al 4043/TC4 after isothermal wetting at 600°C: (a) at the triple line; (b) at the center of the interface; (c)–(e) the EDS results for the corresponding cross, circle and triangle in (b).
(a) Top-view of the microstructures at the triple line for Al 4043/TC4 after isothermal wetting at 650°C; (b) detail of the black rectangle area in (a); cross-sectional view of Al 4043/TC4 (c) at the triple line, and (d) at center of the interfacial microstructures with the elemental line distribution results; (e) and (f) EDS results for the corresponding colored crosses in (d), respectively.
For the wetting sample of Al 4043/TC4 which is similar to the interfacial structures in Al 6061/TC4, a precursor film with width of several millimeters was formed. However, such a precursor film contains two layers, as be shown in Figure 10(a) and (b). From the cross-sectional view of the film (Figure 10(c)), the upper layer is the residual Al, which was attracted by the capillary force from the loose reaction layer. At the central position of the interface (Figure 10(d)), the loose continuous layer also can be found, but the virgate phase almost disappeared and only can be found sporadically above the loose layer. Based on the EDS results (Figure 10(e) and (f)), the loose layer may be a continuous Al3Ti layer dissolved with Si as a solid solution. For the sample of Al 4043/TC4 after isothermal wetting at 650°C, the solidified Al was removed by NaOH aqueous solution (1 mol/L), and the macroscopical appearance of the sample and the details for the corresponding positions were shown in Figure 11. The granular phase in Figure 11(b) is corresponding to the loose continuous reaction layer, and the lamellate phase is corresponding to virgate phase in the cross-sectional view of the interface. Further, as shown in Figure 12, the XRD of the phases at the corresponding surface confirmed the granular phase (the loose continuous reaction layer) is Al3Ti, and the lamellate phase is Ti7Al5Si12 (τ1, a solid solution of Al in the TiSi2 phase [15]).
(a) Solidified Al for the sample of Al 4043/TC4 after isothermal wetting at 650°C was removed by NaOH aqueous solution (1 mol/L); (b) and (c) the microstructures for the corresponding positions in (a).
XRD patterns of the phases at the precursor films: for (a) Al 6061 and (b) Al 4043 samples after isothermal wetting at 700°C; (c) the exposed interface of Al 4043/TC4 after isothermal wetting at 650°C through removing of the solidified Al drop using NaOH aqueous solution, and (d) the original surface of TC4.
The formed Ti7Al5Si12 is a metastable phase, once the temperature was above 579°C, a decomposed reaction of Ti7Al5Si12 would take place, i.e.,
Al-Ti-Si partial isothermal section at 700°C for Al rich corner [
Si addition in Al alloys, as known, is a surface-active agent which can decrease the surface tension of the liquid and increase the flowability. However, in Al-Si/steel or Al-Si/Ti system, the interfacial microstructures confirm the affinity of Si to Fe (or Ti) is relatively higher than that of Si to the Al matrix. The Si segregation at the liquid/solid interface satisfies the thermodynamic condition. Such a thermodynamic model also can be used for predicting the segregation of alloying element at the liquid/solid interface. The adsorption energy based on the affinities, which can be described as following [3],
where
where
The calculated
B-M/A | Mg-Al/Fe | Mg-Al/Ti | Mg-Zn/Fe | Mg-Si/Fe | Mg-Cu/Fe | Mg-Ni/Fe | Mg-Si/Ti | Mg-Al/Cu | Mg-Si/Cu | Al-Si/Fe |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
−149 | −212 | −73 | −133 | 6 | −35 | −249 | −17 | 21 | −20 | |
B-M/A | Al-Zn/Fe | Al-Si/Ti | Al-Si/Cu | Cu-Ag/Si | Ni-Zn/Fe | Al-Cu/Fe | Cu-Si/Fe | Cu-Zn/Fe | Mg-Zn/Ti | Al-Mg/Ti |
43 | −73 | 1.8 | 21 | 70 | 181 | −118 | −42 | −137 | 221 |
All the variation in spreading of Al/steel and Al/Ti indicated the characteristics of reactive wetting, i.e., the typical linear spreading as well as the interfacial reaction. Reaction-limited models of linear spreading and nonlinear spreading for the description of the wetting behavior, as proposed by Eustathopoulos group, were expressed as following,
where
Arrhenius plot of the kinetic constants
Deduced activation energies from the slopes in Figure 14.
The average activation energy of linear stage and nonlinear stage.
In Al/steel system, two types of spreading mode, i.e., the linear spreading in Al 4043/steel and nonlinear spreading in Al 6061/steel, can be found. The activation energy for Al 4043/steel can be deduced from the slopes, is 8 kJ/mol for Al 4043. Also, the activation energy for Al 6061 can be deduced from the fitting result of Eq. (5), is 86 kJ/mol. In the work of wetting and spreading of molten pure Al on the surface of mild steel, studied by Ishida [17], the linear kinetics were also observed, and the activation energy is 21.8 kJ/mol. Obviously, the trace elements in the systems influenced the spreading dynamics, and caused the different activation energies. In Al 4043/steel, the segregation of Si at liquid/solid interface enhanced the reactivity, and then might lead to relatively small activation energy. In Al 6061/steel, the liquid Mg in molten Al 6061 alloy does not react with Fe directly. The moving of the triple depends on the removing of oxide film on the surface of substrate. The reduction of Fe—O oxide film by the Mg in Al 6061 and the formation of Fe-Al intermetallics play a combined action in the removing of oxide film, which can induce the spreading. Two spreading stages for Al 6061 at 700°C also indicate these two reaction mechanisms. Especially for the latter stage, the reduction reaction mechanism may play a major role on the moving of the triple line corresponding to the prolonged precursor film in this stage. Therefore, the apparent activation energy in Al 6061 is so different from Al 4043 and almost an order of magnitude larger.
In Al/TC4 system, such apparent activation energies should relate to the energy change of reaction. As suggested by Chen et al. [18], Gibbs energy changes of reaction per mole of reactants for the formation of Ti7Al5Si12 and Al3Ti in the range of 600–750°C are ~− 48 kJ/mol and ~− 30 kJ/mol, respectively. For the nonlinear stage, Ti7Al5Si12 decomposition may play a dominant role in the change of interface tension corresponding to the apparent activation energy of 10–38 kJ/mol; for the linear stage, the decomposition of Ti7Al5Si12 and the formation of Al3Ti may play the role for the change of interface tension corresponding to the apparent activation energy of 62 kJ/mol. The relatively higher activity of Si in Al 4043 (due to the higher concentration) may slow down the decomposition of Ti7Al5Si12, and then decrease the apparent activation energy. Further, the residual Ti7Al5Si12 beneath the drop and above on Al3Ti reaction layer at the close of the triple line (Figure 11(c)) should be one of the indicators that two reaction mechanisms together played a role on change of interface tension. Also, in Al/TA2 system, the apparent activation energies indicated that the whole wetting process is controlled by the above mechanism. Therefore, the activation energies (47–84 kJ/mol) may be also corresponding to the decomposition of Ti7Al5Si12 and the formation of Al3Ti.
Aluminizing of steel or Ti alloys can increase the ability of anti-corrosion, the service time and the working temperature, significantly. The wetting of Al alloys plays an important role in the aluminizing process, and thus studied in this work. The following conclusions can be drawn:
In Al/steel, the wettability was improved by intermetallic formation which would lead to the replacement of the oxidized surface by a clean surface of an intermetallic compound, also due to the reduction by Al with oxide film; However, the final wettability of pure Ti (TA2) and Ti alloys (TC4) by Al was less affected by the oxide film, but was determined by the reaction products at the liquid/solid interface. Enhanced peritectic reaction of Ti7Al5Si12 caused the different interfacial structures of TA2 and TC4.
The alloying elements in Al 6061 alloy (with Mg addition) and Al 4043 alloy (with Si addition) resulted in distinctly different interfacial structures, the formation of precursor film and spreading dynamics. Mg played a role like gas flux and reduced the oxide film on the surface of substrate. Si segregated at solid/liquid interface which satisfied the thermodynamic model. Such a thermodynamic model also can be used for predicting the element segregation at the interface.
The precursor film in these reactive wetting systems is an extended reaction layer. The formation of it satisfies subcutaneous infiltration mechanism.
The spreading dynamics of these systems can be described by RPC model, and the activation energies are related to the removing of oxide film covered the substrate or the reaction at interface.
This work is supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (no. 51665031), “Kaiwu” Innovation Team Support Project of Lanzhou Institute of Technology (no. 2018KW-05).
We have no conflicts of interest to declare.
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