Various feedstock composition analysis.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10459",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Light-Emitting Diodes and Photodetectors - Advances and Future Directions",title:"Light-Emitting Diodes and Photodetectors",subtitle:"Advances and Future Directions",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book provides a detailed overview of the most recent advances in the fascinating world of light-emitting diodes (LEDs), organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs), and photodetectors (PDs). Chapters in Section 1 discuss the different types and designs of LEDs/OLEDs and their use in light output, color rendering, and more. Chapters in Section 2 examine innovative structures, emerging materials, and physical effects of PDs. This book is a useful resource for students and scientists working in the field of photonics and advanced technologies.",isbn:"978-1-83968-556-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-555-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-564-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92474",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"light-emitting-diodes-and-photodetectors-advances-and-future-directions",numberOfPages:206,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"3e9039cfb58370a6596abf61dfaf4973",bookSignature:"Maurizio Casalino and Jagannathan Thirumalai",publishedDate:"September 29th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10459.jpg",numberOfDownloads:2519,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:5,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:10,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 25th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 22nd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 21st 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 9th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 10th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"106767",title:"Dr.",name:"Maurizio",middleName:null,surname:"Casalino",slug:"maurizio-casalino",fullName:"Maurizio Casalino",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/106767/images/system/106767.jpg",biography:'Dr. Maurizio Casalino earned a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from the University “Mediterranea” of Reggio Calabria, Italy, after obtaining a laurea (summa cum laude) in Electrical Engineering from University of Naples \\"Federico II.” In 2010, he joined the Institute of Applied Sciences and Intelligent Systems, Naples, as a researcher. He taught Optoelectronics at the University of Calabria from 2009 to 2012, physics of the semiconductors and devices and analog electronics from 2013 to 2021, and from 2020 to 2021, respectively, at the University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”. \n\nHe is the author of more than ninety scientific articles focused on the development of optoelectronic and photonic devices. His research activities have been funded by CNR (National Research Council of Italy), public and external organizations, and the European Community.',institutionString:"National Research Council",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"National Research Council",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",middleName:null,surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99242/images/system/99242.png",biography:"Dr. J. Thirumalai received his Ph.D. from Alagappa University, Karaikudi in 2010. He was also awarded the Post-doctoral Fellowship from Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Republic of Korea, in 2013. He worked as Assistant Professor of Physics, B.S. Abdur Rahman University, Chennai, India (2011 to 2016). Currently, he is working as Senior Assistant Professor of Physics, Srinivasa Ramanujan Centre, SASTRA Deemed University, Kumbakonam (T.N.), India. His research interests focus on luminescence, self-assembled nanomaterials, and thin film opto-electronic devices. He has published more than 60 SCOPUS/ISI indexed papers and 11 book chapters, edited 4 books and member in several national and international societies like RSC, OSA, etc. Currently, he served as a principal investigator for a funded project towards the application of luminescence based thin film opto-electronic devices, funded by the Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB), India. As an expert in opto-electronics and nanotechnology area, he has been invited as external and internal examiners to MSc and PhD theses, invited to give talk in some forum, review papers for international and national journals.",institutionString:"SASTRA University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"10",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"755",title:"Photonics",slug:"electrical-and-electronic-engineering-photonics"}],chapters:[{id:"77274",title:"Conducting Polymer-Based Emissive Layer on Efficiency of OLEDs",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98652",slug:"conducting-polymer-based-emissive-layer-on-efficiency-of-oleds",totalDownloads:264,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Many changes have arisen in the world of display technologies as time has passed. In the vast area of display technology, Organic light-emitting diode is a recent and exciting discovery. Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) have received a lot of curiosity among the researcher in recent years as the next generation of lighting and displays due to their numerous advantages, such as superior efficiency, mechanical flexibility and stability, chemical versatility, ease of fabrication, and so on. It works on the theory of electroluminescence, which is a mechanism in which electrical energy converts to light energy. Organic LEDs have a thickness of 100 to 500 nanometers or 200 times that of human hair. In OLEDs, organic material can be used in two or three layers. The emissive layer plays a key role in OLEDs. Polymers are used in the emissive layer to enhance the efficiency of OLEDs at the same time self-luminescence materials are used in OLEDs. In displays, this self-illuminating property removes the need for backlighting. Compared to LEDs and LCDs, OLED displays are smaller, lighter, and more portable.",signatures:"Debashish Nayak and Ram Bilash Choudhary",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77274",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77274",authors:[{id:"334427",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Debashish",surname:"Nayak",slug:"debashish-nayak",fullName:"Debashish Nayak"},{id:"415407",title:"Prof.",name:"Ram Bilash",surname:"Choudhary",slug:"ram-bilash-choudhary",fullName:"Ram Bilash Choudhary"}],corrections:null},{id:"74673",title:"Economic Applications for LED Lights in Industrial Sectors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95412",slug:"economic-applications-for-led-lights-in-industrial-sectors",totalDownloads:353,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"After the Introduction, which discuss the main advantages and disadvantage of LED from Economics angle, the entire Chapter is presented in three sections. The first section discusses the economic benefits of replacing different types and rating of outdoor HID lights, typically installed in an industrial plant, with LED lighting. The section determines important economic indicators to evaluate direct and indirect benefits that can be achieved from using LED lights. In second section an efficient, safe and cost effective design to automate LED lighting system used for long roads with low-traffic is provided. The section provides smart control using image recognition for cost saving of road lighting operation and gives economic analysis for this lighting system. In third section, design of intelligent daylight utilization to achieve efficient indoor lighting intensity control for LED lights that are used in industrial building is provided. Comprehensive evaluation of the lighting system economics is discussed.",signatures:"Muhammad M.A.S. Mahmoud",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74673",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74673",authors:[{id:"150046",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad M.A.S.",surname:"Mahmoud",slug:"muhammad-m.a.s.-mahmoud",fullName:"Muhammad M.A.S. Mahmoud"}],corrections:null},{id:"76115",title:"Passive and Active Topologies Investigation for LED Driver Circuits",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97098",slug:"passive-and-active-topologies-investigation-for-led-driver-circuits",totalDownloads:389,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, a survey of LED driver circuits is presented. The driver circuit is a crucial component in the LED light system. It provides the correct voltage and current values for the best brightness and long life. Furthermore, the driver circuits contribute to obtaining high efficiency and reliability light system. Several lighting applications need different driver topologies that meet the use requirement and the energy sources available. In actual applications, passive and active circuits are implemented to satisfy the LED driver electrical requirements and cost-effective demands. The LED driver circuits investigation evaluate the issues and the solutions in the LED lighting systems connected to a DC source such as a battery or AC line. The AC line connection requisites such as the power factor correction and the harmonic distortion are dealt with both the driver topology and control optimization. Also, the volume reduction need is examined in the circuitry choice. Moreover, the different topologies of the power converters isolated and not isolated used in the driver circuits based on both the power request and supply source are described and critically evaluated.",signatures:"Salvatore Musumeci",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76115",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76115",authors:[{id:"335428",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Salvatore",surname:"Musumeci",slug:"salvatore-musumeci",fullName:"Salvatore Musumeci"}],corrections:null},{id:"78120",title:"Near-Infrared Schottky Silicon Photodetectors Based on Two Dimensional Materials",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99625",slug:"near-infrared-schottky-silicon-photodetectors-based-on-two-dimensional-materials",totalDownloads:218,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Since its discovery in 2004, graphene has attracted the interest of the scientific community due to its excellent properties of high carrier mobility, flexibility, strong light-matter interaction and broadband absorption. Despite of its weak light optical absorption and zero band gap, graphene has demonstrated impressive results as active material for optoelectronic devices. This success pushed towards the investigation of new two-dimensional (2D) materials to be employed in a next generation of optoelectronic devices with particular reference to the photodetectors. Indeed, most of 2D materials can be transferred on many substrates, including silicon, opening the path to the development of Schottky junctions to be used for the infrared detection. Although Schottky near-infrared silicon photodetectors based on metals are not a new concept in literature the employment of two-dimensional materials instead of metals is relatively new and it is leading to silicon-based photodetectors with unprecedented performance in the infrared regime. This chapter aims, first to elucidate the physical effect and the working principles of these devices, then to describe the main structures reported in literature, finally to discuss the most significant results obtained in recent years.",signatures:"Teresa Crisci, Luigi Moretti, Mariano Gioffrè and Maurizio Casalino",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78120",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78120",authors:[{id:"106767",title:"Dr.",name:"Maurizio",surname:"Casalino",slug:"maurizio-casalino",fullName:"Maurizio Casalino"},{id:"346015",title:"Dr.",name:"Teresa",surname:"Crisci",slug:"teresa-crisci",fullName:"Teresa Crisci"},{id:"346017",title:"Prof.",name:"Luigi",surname:"Moretti",slug:"luigi-moretti",fullName:"Luigi Moretti"},{id:"346018",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariano",surname:"Gioffrè",slug:"mariano-gioffre",fullName:"Mariano Gioffrè"}],corrections:null},{id:"74722",title:"Photo-Detectors Based on Two Dimensional Materials",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95559",slug:"photo-detectors-based-on-two-dimensional-materials",totalDownloads:299,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"2D materials like transition metal dichalcogenides, black phosphorous, silicene, graphene are at the forefront of being the most potent 2D materials for optoelectronic applications because of their exceptional properties. Several application-specific photodetectors based on 2D materials have been designed and manufactured due to a wide range and layer-dependent bandgaps. Different 2D materials stacked together give rise to many surprising electronic and optoelectronic phenomena of the junctions based on 2D materials. This has resulted in a lot of popularity of 2D heterostructures as compared to the original 2D materials. This chapter presents the progress of optoelectronic devices (photodetectors) based on 2D materials and their heterostructures.",signatures:"Mubashir A. Kharadi, Gul Faroz A. Malik and Farooq A. Khanday",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74722",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74722",authors:[{id:"331214",title:"Dr.",name:"Mubashir A.",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"mubashir-a.-ahmad",fullName:"Mubashir A. Ahmad"},{id:"332399",title:"Mr.",name:"Gul-Faroz Ahmad",surname:"Malik",slug:"gul-faroz-ahmad-malik",fullName:"Gul-Faroz Ahmad Malik"},{id:"335891",title:"Dr.",name:"Farooq Ahmad",surname:"Khanday",slug:"farooq-ahmad-khanday",fullName:"Farooq Ahmad Khanday"}],corrections:null},{id:"75114",title:"Two-Dimensional Group-10 Noble-Transition-Metal Dichalcogenides Photodetector",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95883",slug:"two-dimensional-group-10-noble-transition-metal-dichalcogenides-photodetector",totalDownloads:464,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"2D Transition-Metal Dichalcogenides (TMDs) have been widely considered as a promising material for future optoelectronics due to the strong light-matter interaction, fantastic electronic properties and environmental stability. However, the relatively large bandgap and low mobility of conventional TMDs (such as MoS2 and WS2) limit their applications in infra optoelectronics and high-speed photodetection. In this chapter, we introduce a new type of group-10 noble TMDs (NTMDs), which exhibit outstanding properties such as unique structural phase, widely tunable energy gap and high mobility. Till now, various NTMDs-based photodetectors have been realized with ultrabroad detection waveband (200 nm to 10.6 μm), fast response time, high responsivity and detectivity, and polarization sensitivity. NTMDs have been excellent potential candidates for next-generation photodetection devices with high-performance, wafer-scalability and flexibility.",signatures:"Haoran Mu, Jian Yuan and Shenghuang Lin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75114",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75114",authors:[{id:"329900",title:"Prof.",name:"Shenghuang",surname:"Lin",slug:"shenghuang-lin",fullName:"Shenghuang Lin"},{id:"344332",title:"Dr.",name:"Haoran",surname:"Mu",slug:"haoran-mu",fullName:"Haoran Mu"},{id:"344333",title:"Dr.",name:"Jian",surname:"Yuan",slug:"jian-yuan",fullName:"Jian Yuan"}],corrections:null},{id:"74602",title:"Group III-Nitrides and Their Hybrid Structures for Next-Generation Photodetectors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95389",slug:"group-iii-nitrides-and-their-hybrid-structures-for-next-generation-photodetectors",totalDownloads:288,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the last few decades, there has been a phenomenal rise and evolution in the field of III–Nitride semiconductors for optoelectronic applications such as lasers, sensors and detectors. However, certain hurdles still remain in the path of designing high-performance photodetectors (PDs) based on III-Nitride semiconductors considering their device performance. Recently, a lot of progress has been achieved in devices based on the high quality epilayers grown by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE). Being an ultra-high vacuum environment based-technique, MBE has enabled the realization of high-quality and highly efficient PDs which have exhibited competitive figures of merit to that of the commercial PDs. Moreover, by combining the novel properties of 2D materials with MBE-grown III-Nitrides, devices with enhanced functionalities have been realized which would pave a way towards the next-generation photonics. In the current chapter, the basic concepts about photodetection have been presented in detail, followed by a discussion on the basic properties of the III-Nitride semiconductors, and the recent advancements in the field of MBE-grown III-Nitrides-based PDs, with an emphasis on their hybrid structures. Finally, an outlook has been provided highlighting the present shortcomings as well as the unresolved issues associated with the present-day devices in this emerging field of research.",signatures:"Deependra Kumar Singh, Basanta Kumar Roul, Karuna Kar Nanda and Saluru Baba Krupanidhi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74602",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74602",authors:[{id:"196960",title:"Dr.",name:"Basanta",surname:"Roul",slug:"basanta-roul",fullName:"Basanta Roul"},{id:"328314",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Saluru Baba",surname:"Krupanidhi",slug:"saluru-baba-krupanidhi",fullName:"Saluru Baba Krupanidhi"},{id:"331999",title:"Mr.",name:"Deependra Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"deependra-kumar-singh",fullName:"Deependra Kumar Singh"},{id:"332001",title:"Prof.",name:"Karuna Kar",surname:"Nanda",slug:"karuna-kar-nanda",fullName:"Karuna Kar Nanda"}],corrections:null},{id:"74765",title:"Studying a LW-VCSEL-Based Resonant Cavity Enhanced Photodetector and Its Application in Microwave Photonics Circuits",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95560",slug:"studying-a-lw-vcsel-based-resonant-cavity-enhanced-photodetector-and-its-application-in-microwave-ph",totalDownloads:244,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A detailed comparative experimental study was carried out to pursue advanced performances corresponding to the key parameters of two photodetectors based on vertical cavity surface emitting laser (VCSEL) operating in free-running or optically injection locked mode, as well as an inherent pin-photodetector. During the preliminary study, the key static and dynamic parameters were quantitatively determined and the optimal operating modes were derived for the both versions of VCSEL-based photodetectors as separate microwave-photonics circuit elements. Based on them, a final experiment was conducted to evaluate the processing quality, when one of the versions of VCSEL-based photodetectors or a inherent pin-photodetector is implemented as an optical-to-electrical converter for a typical microwave-photonics circuit that processes 120-Mbps 16-position quadrature amplitude modulated signal on the radio frequency carrier of 1–6 GHz. As a result, it was confirmed that better processing quality, i.e. Error Vector Magnitude value of less than 4%, could be obtained by using the free-running VCSEL-based photodetector version.",signatures:"Mikhail E. Belkin, Leonid I. Zhukov, Dmitriy A. Fofanov, Mikhail G. Vasil’ev and Alexander S. 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These concerns have led to the utilization of renewable resources such as biomass as an alternative feedstock for the development of Biorefinery [1]. Biorefineries are facilities that convert renewable biomass into biofuels, chemicals, and materials such as plastics and polymers [2]. The products developed in biorefinery are usually called bioproducts because it is based on the sustainable manufacture of products from biomass, this encompasses all processes, from feedstock production and supply to processing stages and end product manufacturing, as well as research, development, and commercialization procedures. The advantage of renewable resources over fossil fuels is that renewable resources can be replaced over time by natural processes. Moreover, complying green chemistry principle these renewable resources-based methods are also environmental benign. The global market for biorefinery products, by application includes industrial, manufacturing, transportation, flame retardants, safe food and supply, environment, communication, construction/housing, recreation, agriculture, health and hygiene, and energy. As an estimate, the worldwide market for biorefinery products would increase from $586.8 billion in 2020 to $867.7 billion by 2025, with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 8.1 percent from 2020 to 2025 [3].
The main raw material for a biorefinery is the plant biomass, whose structural carbohydrate polymers (cellulose and hemicellulose) can be used to develop a variety of platform chemicals. The Department of Energy (DOE) of the United States (US) discovered 12 platform chemicals that can be produced from cellulose in biomass: 1,4-diacids (succinic, fumaric, and malic), 2,5-furan dicarboxylic acid, 3-hydroxypropionic acid, aspartic acid, glucaric acid, glutamic acid, itaconic acid, levulinic acid, hydroxybutyrolactone, glycerol, sorbitol, and xylitol/arabinitol [4]. A brief outline of the platform chemicals that are produced from biomass (cellulose) is illustrated in Figure 1.
Platform chemicals that are produced from biomass (cellulose).
The application of platform chemicals which makes them very interesting for industrial purpose. In the following section the focus will be on the cellulose, various pre-treatment used in biomass, more information about the platform chemicals and how they are produced from biomass, examples of platform chemicals produced from biomass.
Cellulose (C6H10O5)n is a stable crystalline homopolysaccharide polymer composed of the anhydroglucopyranose monomers formed via β-1,4-D-glucose linkage of carbohydroglucose units and contains several intra and intramolecular hydrogen bonds as well as intermolecular van der Waals forces [5]. Cellulose is insoluble in water and unlikely to be dissolve in most organic solvents due to the strong intra-molecular and intermolecular hydrogen bonds which increases the rigidity [6]. Natural cellulose molecules are bundle of microfibrils (i.e, crystalline and amorphous regions) that are stabilized by hydrogen bonds between hydroxyl groups [7]. Figure 2 shows the structure of one chain of the polymer cellulose [8].
Chemical structure of cellulose [
Cellulose, the most abundant natural polymer, is predominantly found in plant cell wall. However, besides cellulose, plant cell wall also comprised of hemicellulose and lignin, which make an interwoven structure in plant cell wall to make it recalcitrant for microbial and/or enzymatic attack [9]. Table 1 illustrate how the compositional analysis of different type of biomass differs.
Biomass | Cellulose (%) | Hemicellulose (%) | Lignin (%) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Sugarcane bagasse | 44 | 28 | 24 | [10] |
Wheat straw | 30 | 50 | 15 | [11] |
Rice straw | 28–36 | 23–28 | 15–23 | [12] |
Oil palm fronds | 45 | 20 | 11 | [13] |
Cotton straw | 43 | 27 | 18 | [14] |
Empty fruit bunch | 41.1 | 13.3 | 25 | [15] |
Kenaf | 32 | 9.9 | 40 | [15] |
Corn stover | 34 | 21 | 15 | [16] |
Switch grass | 31–38 | 25–32 | 17–18 | [17] |
Sorghum | 34 | 22 | 19 | [16] |
Miscanthus | 39 | 20 | 21 | [16] |
Elephant grass | 36 | 24 | 28 | [18] |
Bamboo | 45 | 24 | 20 | [19] |
Corn hobs | 45 | 35 | 15 | [11] |
Various feedstock composition analysis.
The conversion of biomass into value added chemicals involves the hydrolysis of plant biomass to fermentable sugars. However, to access cellulose a pre-treatment step to remove hemicellulose and lignin is required [20]. Biomass recalcitrance is due to various factors such as the degree of lignification, crystalline structure of cellulose, and the structural heterogeneity and complexity of cell-wall elements and it needs to be overcome for valuable exploitation of lignocellulosic feedstocks [21]. The recalcitrant structure of lignocellulose is disrupted during the pre-treatment process, resulting in lignin sheath breakage, hemicellulose degradation, and a reduction in crystallinity and degree of polymerization of cellulose [22, 23].
There are various types of pre-treatments such as physical methods (such as milling, grinding, irradiation, and sonication); chemical methods (such as alkali, acid, oxidizing agents, organic solvents, ionic liquids, and deep-eutectic solvents); physico-chemical methods (such as steam pretreatment with/without a catalyst, wet-oxidation, and hydrothermolysis); or biological methods (Table 2).
Pre-treatment methods | Pre-treatment type | Advantages | limitations |
---|---|---|---|
Physical methods | Mechanical pulverization |
|
|
Physicochemical methods | Steam explosion |
|
|
Microwave radiation | |||
Chemical methods | Acid hydrolysis |
|
|
Alkaline hydrolysis |
|
| |
Biological methods | Mixed microorganism |
|
|
Adding manure | |||
Microaerobic pre-treatment |
The alkali pre-treatment involves the addition of bases to biomass, which increase the internal surface by swelling, and it decreases the polymerization degree and crystallinity, destruction of links between lignin and other polymers, and lignin breakdown [27, 28]. While, acid treatments are known to extract hemicellulose by disrupting the Van der waals force, hydrogen bonds, and covalent bonds that hold the biomass components, which consequently causes the solubilization of hemicellulose and the reduction of cellulose [27]. Steam explosion is another important pretreatment method. Steam explosion is carried out by treating biomass with high-pressure saturated steam, and then the pressure is abruptly lowered, causing the materials to decompress explosively. Steam explosion is generally initiated at a temperature of 160–260°C (corresponding pressure, 0.69–4.83 MPa) for few seconds to a few minutes before the material is subjected to air pressure [29]. It facilitates the removal of hemicelluloses from the microfibrils exposing the cellulose surface and increasing the enzyme accessibility. Lignin is only partially eliminated during the pretreatment, but it is redistributed on the fiber surfaces as a result of melting and depolymerization/repolymerization processes. Liquid hot water (LHW) treatment is similar to steam explosion, except instead of steam, LHW uses water at extreme temperatures (170–230°C) and pressure (up to 5 MPa). LHW hydrolyzes hemicellulose by releasing its acetyl groups and eliminates lignin, exposing cellulose fibers [30]. Figure 3 illustrates the necessity of pre-treatments in biomass [31].
Illustrates how the pre-treatments detach hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin from biomass [
These pre-treatments methods can be combined depending on the requirement of the pre-treated material. The pre-treatment method selection is not only based on the yields of the cellulose, hemicellulose, or lignin it was able to extract but there are other factors also to consider, such as the effectiveness of the pre-treatment for a certain post-processing step. For instance, for ethanol production besides sugars, low level of toxic inhibitor compounds such as aldehydes, organic acid, ketones, phenolic compounds, in the hydrolysate is one of the prerequisite factors [32]. While in case of production of polymers, gels or binders from plant biomass, the mechanical strength and swelling properties of the polymers should be kept in consideration while selecting the appropriate pretreatment method.
Most chemicals produced in biorefinery are platform chemicals. A platform chemical is a building block which can be converted to a wide range of chemicals or materials. Bomtempo et al. [33] listed ways on how to determine if a compound is a platform chemical:
Act as a link in the value chain.
Have a flexible chemical structure with functional groups that allow them to produce a variety of derivatives.
Have interfaces with varying degrees of openness that allow them to be transformed into a diverse range of derivatives at a reasonable cost. These interfaces are chemical and physical transformation processes that can be integrated or performed by external agents.
Possess a flexible chemical structure with functional groups that enable them to synthesize a variety of derivatives.
Relate to innovation agents with varying levels of competence and diverse interests which is located at different points along the value chain and are interested in different final products, so that they are structured in innovation ecosystems formed by a set of production chains.
Are governed by control and command mechanisms that vary depending on the organizational context. The governance mechanisms should enable the platform leader to capture value in a favorable position.
Add value by leveraging scope and scale economies.
Various processes have been used for the production of platform chemicals from cellulose in the biomass based biorefinery. Table 3 summarize different methods used to produce the platform chemicals from plant biomass.
Building blocks | Processes |
---|---|
1. 5-Hydroxymethyl furfural | Dehydration of fructose |
2. Levulinic acid | Acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of glucose |
3. Furfural | Dehydration of xylose |
4. Succinic acid | Fermentation of glucose |
5. Sorbitol | Enzymatic hydrolysis and hydrogenation of glucose |
6. Glycerol |
|
7. Ethanol | Thermal gasification with chemical catalytic method, or biochemical fermentation process |
8. Lactic acid | Fermentation of glucose |
9. Xylitol | Hydrogenation of xylose |
10. 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid | HMF oxidation |
11. Isoprene | fermentation |
12. 3-hydroxypropionic acid | Fermentation of glycerol and oxidation |
Among various platform chemicals produced from cellulose, ethanols and acids have already been explored more hence in this chapter the focus is on the less explored platform chemicals which may have more enormous potential.
Illustrate platform levulinic acid applications.
Undergoing condensation reaction, LA produces diphenolic acid (DPA), which is a replacement of bisphenol-A (BPA) used in food containers and consumer products [34]. γ-valerolactone can be produced by hydrogenation of LA, which subsequently can be used as a solvent for lacquers, insecticides, liquid fuel, food addictive and adhesives, and brake fluid. Another LA based product 5-aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA), a porphyrin precursor, is produced via two ways through C4 and C5 pathways. The C4 process, which is present in photosynthetic bacteria, yeast, and human cells, involves the pyridoxal-phosphate-dependent condensation of succinyl-CoA and glycine by ALA synthase (EC 2.3.1.37). The C5 process, found in photosynthetic algae and cyanobacteria, uses glutamate as a co-substratum with ATP and NADPH, and consists of three stages catalyzed by glutamyl-tRNA synthetase, glutamyl-tRNA reductase, and glutamate-1-semialdehyde aminotransferase [42]. 5-ALA is used to treat actinic keratosis of the face, scalp, and upper extremities, as well as to visualize a glioma, esterification of LA results levulinate esters which are used in the flavoring and fragrance, solvents, plasticizers, or as a blending component in biodiesel [43]. GF Biochemicals located in Caserta, Italy commercialized the production of LA from biomass in 2015 [44].
The conversion of the lignocellulosic biomass to LA requires pre-treatment to remove the lignin and hemicellulose and be left with cellulose which is where LA is produced. To demonstrate effective polymerization of biomass carbohydrate, the catalytic conversion of biomass to LA needs the presence of both Bronsted and Lewis acids [45, 46]. Current commercial production of levulinic acid utilizes sulfuric acid which is corrosive and not environmentally friendly hence more research now focuses on utilizing ionic liquids because they are environmentally friendly. Ionic liquids, which are frequently fluid at room temperature and composed of ionic species, are known as “designer solvents” because their unique characteristics for a given demand may be obtained by suitable alteration of cations or anions. For example, the addition of sulfonic acid (SO3H) groups and carboxylic acid groups clearly increased their acidities and water solubility, allowing for the development of ecologically acceptable acidic catalysts [47, 48]. Another approach to synthesize LA is one-pot biomass conversion in ionic liquid [49, 50]. However, compared to biomass feed without separation, separated pre-treated biomass will still produce more LA in the following reaction [51].
Illustrate succinic acid applications.
Various chemicals can be produced from SA. To mention few, succinate ester is produced via esterification reaction, which is used as a precursor for 1.4-butanedion, γ-butyrolactone, and tetrahydrofuran [26, 27, 34, 55, 56]. Succinic acid anhydride produced via dehydrogenative cyclization reaction is utilized as a starting material to produce fumaric acid and maleic acid [55]. Coatings, surfactants, dyes, detergents, green solvents, and biodegradable polymers are common SA uses [57]. The worldwide succinic market is predicted to be USD132 million in 2018 and is expected to grow to USD183 million by 2023 [57].
Succinic acid is produced commercially by chemical processes from maleic anhydride, a petroleum-based raw material. Although chemical hydrogenation produces a high yield, purity, and selectivity of succinic acid, it is a complex and costly process with environmental concerns [58]. A more viable method is to use microorganisms to generate succinic acid. Furthermore, bio-based succinic acid has additional environmental benefit using CO2, a greenhouse gas, as a substrate [59]. Many research on bio-based SA synthesis use pure sugars as substrates. High yields have been produced in these cases using
Several companies, such as Myriant, Reverdia, BASF, and BioAmber have commercialized production of succinic acid from glucose [62, 63, 64] but SA production from lignocellulosic hydrolysate has yet to be realized at commercial scale [60].
Illustrate sorbitol and derivatives applications.
The direct conversion of cellulose to sorbitol includes two primary reactions: cellulose hydrolysis to glucose, which is facilitated by the presence of acidic sites, and subsequent hydrogenation of glucose to sorbitol over metal catalysts [68]. One of the major problems in the manufacture of sorbitol is the high cost of processing the raw materials, notably the conversion of cellulose to glucose and the separation process; hence, attempts have been made to accomplish direct conversion of cellulose into sorbitol [69, 70]. Efforts have been undertaken to create a one-pot conversion of cellulose into sorbitol in order to minimize current manufacturing costs. Fukuoka and Dhepe. [71] evaluated the effectiveness of various supporting metal (platinum, Pt, and ruthenium, Ru) catalysts in the conversion of cellulose into sugar alcohols, namely sorbitol and mannitol Pt/g-Al2O3 produced the greatest yield (31%) of sugar alcohols with a molar ratio of sorbitol/mannitol of 4:1 or higher.
Zhang et al. [72] produced sorbitol directly from cellulose with the Cu/Al/Fe catalyst in an exceptionally low concentration of phosphoric acid (0.08 percent, w/w), yielding 68.07 percent sorbitol When compared to the fresh catalyst, the catalytic activity of Cu/Al/Fe dropped by 29% in the fourth run. A typical difficulty with direct cellulose-to-sorbitol conversion is the poor sorbitol yield when compared to glucose-to-sorbitol conversion in a commercial process [73]. Zhu et al. [74] also produced sorbitol from cellulose using a sulfonic acid-functionalized silica-supported ruthenium catalyst (Ru/SiO2–SO3H), the catalyst was reused five times with a slight decrease in sorbitol yield (up to 61.2%). Sorbitol is commonly industrially produced from the hydrogenation reaction of glucose using metal catalysts, and it global market size is projected to reach USD 2918.1 million by 2026, from USD 2400 million in 2019, at a CAGR of 2.8% during the forecast period 2021–2026 [68, 75, 76, 77]. However, the noble metal catalyst is extremely costly for industrial use [74].
Applications of furfural and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural derivatives.
These bio-based, sustainable chemicals can be produced via selective hydrogenolysis, reduction, ring opening, aldol condensation reactions [80]. Furfural is a substantial component of bio-oil and is widely used in the production of pharmaceuticals, resins, food additives, fuel additives, and other specialty chemicals [81, 82]. It is a significant component of bio-oil and widely applied in the manufacture of medicines, resins, food additives, fuel additives and other special chemicals [81, 82]. Tetrahydrofurfuryl alcohol, tetrahydrofuran, dihydropyran, acetylfuran, furfurylamine, and furoic acid are other significant furfural-derived compounds. Furfuryl alcohol synthesis followed by acid hydrolysis can also be used to produce levulinic acid from furfural. Furfural is also used in the production of medicines, cosmetics, perfumes, flavors, and resins (the latter produced by condensation with phenol, formaldehyde, acetone, or urea to make thermosetting resins with exceptional physical strength), as well as household cleansers and detergents [79]. While, 5-(hydroxymethyl)furfural (5-HMF) consists of a furan ring with two functional groups namely aldehyde and alcohol group. 5-HMF is utilized for the production of value-added fuels and chemicals (biofuel, solvents, polymers, adhesives, plastic, pesticides, and organic compounds) that were only produced from petroleum-based feedstock [57, 83, 84] 5-HMF is a precursor for the production of levulinic acid, 2,5-furan dicarboxylic acid (FDCA), 2,5-diformylfuran, dihydroxymethylfuran, and 5-hydroxy-4-keto-2-pentanoic acid [85].
Illustrates chemicals produced from glycerol with the method used and their applications.
Glycerol is a common energy-producing food that is widely distributed in food, both naturally and as a GRAS (generally recognized as safe) additive. Glycerol is a solvent that is used in the production of flavors and food colors. It’s also used in low-fat food products like cookies as a humectant, plasticizer, emollient, sweetener, and filler.
Glycerol is used in the production of dynamite and propellants (nitroglycerol), cosmetics, candy, liqueurs, printing and copying inks, lubricants, pharmaceuticals (suppositories, cough syrups, elixirs, expectorants, and cardiac medications), personal care products (toothpaste, mouthwashes, skin care products, hair care products, and soaps), and antifreeze. Glycerol can also be utilized to treat glaucoma-related intraocular pressure and cerebral edema [90]. Glycerol is also used to keep textiles malleable, as well as cellophane and high-quality papers flexible and durable. Furthermore, glycerol derivatives include glycerol carbonate, which has several uses in the production of industrial compounds such as glycidol and polymers, coatings, adhesives, and lubricants [34].
Illustrates isoprene and derivatives applications.
Isoprene is an important platform chemical for synthesizing pesticides, medicines, oil additives, fragrances, and more and is especially important in the rubber production industry. Isoprene is still commercially produced from petroleum-based feedstocks because the utilization of biomass as the feedstock is under investigation. Biologically isoprene is produced by fermentation of glucose. Since, the conventional production processes of isoprene is unsustainable, and the chemical synthesis processes could cause serious environmental problems [91].
Illustrates lactic acid and derivatives applications.
Biomass based biorefineries are the best sustainable alternative to the fossil fuel crisis and environment protection. There are varies types of biomass with varying cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin content. To extract cellulose from biomass a pre-treatment is necessary due to biomass components being recalcitrant. The common pre-treatments have disadvantages and limitations, and it is necessary to understand that the pre-treatment cannot be selected based on the yield of cellulose only because there are other effect caused by the pre-treatment which may be in conflict with the next reaction step to value-added products. This chapter have made an attempt to throw some light on the significance of the use of cellulose as a potential feedstock for various platform chemicals. Although the production of such platform chemicals using green chemistry approach is in very nascent phase however these processes have shown immense potential. Both government and industries should switch their focus towards the development of environmentally friendly and efficient process for such platform chemicals.
The Authors wish to show gratitude to Durban University of Technology and L’Oréal-UNESCO for Women in Science Sub-Saharan Africa Regional fellowship for funding.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
In the field of cutting-edge remote media communication, the Internet of Things (IoT) is quickly establishing itself as a new paradigm. In the Internet of Things, people, data, processes, and things are connected to make network connections that are more relevant and useful than ever before. With the rapid advancement of IoT, it is exposed to numerous risks and challenges, such as handling huge amounts of data, processing energy efficiently, responding to security threats, and encrypting/decrypting huge amounts of data. The concept refers to a system of interlinked computing items, such as RFID tags, sensors, actuators, and cell phones; digital machines; and people, allowing the sharing of data over a network without the need for human-to-human interactions. In an IoT world, massive amounts of raw data will be continuously collected, requiring real-time sensor data streams as well as techniques for converting this raw data into useful information. Furthermore, data privacy and security will be a serious concern. A cryptographic algorithm designed for a device with incredibly low resources will have different design criteria than one commonly used. Modern cryptography has evolved from this very specific area into lightweight cryptography. The low energy requirement of these algorithms makes them resistant to physical attacks.
The storage space requirements of multimedia applications are more challenging due to the size of multimedia data, the need for real-time processing, transmission delay, and security protection. Many new applications have emerged in the Internet of Things (IoT) and cloud computing fields, where multiple devices and servers perform thousands of operations at the same time. Multimedia applications require real-time processing, resulting in a critical role for encryption and decryption speed. A variety of technological fields, including smart cities and homes, have benefited from the Internet of Multimedia Things (IoMT). Most multimedia contents require large storage discs to be uploaded and streamed to different devices. As a result, video data or media content can be thoroughly analyzed if an issue occurs. IoT devices are low-powered and small in size, so they have been needed a cloud platform or third-party storage device to store, operate, and process information collected.
A majority of encryption is related to encrypting and decrypting text messages or documents, but images are also a prime bearer of crucial information, therefore, they have been needed to be encrypted. The encryption process involves modifying the pixels of an image so they had no longer representative of the original image. Once the receiver receives the encrypted image, it must be decrypted to reconstruct the image. Having encrypted images ensures that even if an interceptor gets access to a picture during transmission they had incomprehensible to them. Another practical use of encrypted images is for the security of biometric data. Fingerprint and retina scans involving biometric identification have become increasingly common, so these data must be securely shared and stored. When data is encrypted, it can be unintelligible to the intruder even if it is accessed maliciously.
IoT security has been emphasized by many organizations and research agencies. Open Web Application Security Project has identified privacy issues, inadequate authentication/authorization, lack of transport encryption, and poor physical layer security as the main causes of cyber-attacks on IoT. Identifying a device, validating its identity, authorizing it, establishing keys and managing them, as well as establishing trust and reputation are the five features in IoT security. Cryptographic primitives can help accomplish all of these objectives, including authentication, access control, non-repudiation, confidentiality, integrity, and availability. Figure 1 shows the Thrust area in IoT security.
The thrust area in IoT security [
This chapter is organized in the following manner: in Section 2, I have presented a literature review. In Section 3, I have discussed the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) and have described its detailed architecture framework. Section 4 presents the compared the current algorithms and approaches. Section 5 presents the results and discussion, while I have discussed the conclusions and provided further suggestions.
Several systems and approaches have been proposed to address the challenges and restrictions involved with the encrypted transmission of big multimedia data. Moreover, the security of multimedia data needs to be researched further. This section presents studies that have been previously conducted in different categories.
In their study, Shadi Aljawarneh, Muneer Bani Yassein & We’am Adel Talafha [2], the encryption of big multimedia data, developed and designed a multithreaded encryption algorithm system. An advanced encryption standard (AES), genetic algorithms, and the Feistel Encryption Scheme (FEES) are used in this system. The system was evaluated concerning computational run time and throughput for the encryption and decryption process to analyze the performance of the system on actual medical data and benchmarked against the RC6, MARS, 3-DES, DES, and Blowfish algorithms. They have been also implemented the encryption system with a multithreaded programming approach to improve efficiency and performance. Finally, they have been tested their system against the sequential version to evaluate its resource efficiency. Comparing our system to other available encryption algorithms, their results showed that our system took the least amount of time to run and delivered a higher throughput. Furthermore, they have been also able to achieve a 75% improvement in computation run time and a 4-fold increase in throughput versus their sequentially structured version. Based on the security objectives, our algorithm performed better than existing algorithms in achieving the Avalanche Effect, and they could therefore include it in any encryption/decryption process of large, plain, multimedia data.
Haidar Raad Shakir [3], a new method that combines the Haar wavelet transformation with the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), as well as pixel shuffling based on chaotic logistic maps. This method calculates the Haar wavelet transform from the original image and uses the fields of the approximation coefficient (LL) and detail confidences (LH, HL, and HH) to derive the different frequency domains of the image. Using the AES algorithm, the approximation part (LL) is encrypted, and the Haar wavelet transformation inverse is then applied. In addition to the chaotic logistic map, a shuffled image is used to impede malicious image reconstruction attempts to strengthen the encryption. Several representative methods from the literature were examined and compared to the method. According to the test results, it achieved better levels of encryption and less image degradation across a variety of images.
Yong Zhang [4], designed a C program that uses AES in cipher block chaining mode for image encryption. He presented an image cryptosystem that is compared with existing chaos-based image cryptosystems based on encryption/ decryption speed and security performance. In simulations, AES is shown to apply to image encryption, which argues against the commonly held perception that AES is not suited to image encryption. As a result of this paper, He recommends using AES-based image encryption as a benchmark for the speed of image encryption algorithms. And all other encryption algorithms whose speeds are lower should be discarded in practical communications.
Yong Zhang, Xueqian Li, Wengang Hou [5], According to their study, AES cannot cryptograph images in CBC mode. However, AES in CBC mode could be used to encrypt images. AES can be used to encrypt an image and generate an initial vector (IV). AES is secured by far, so the tested image cryptosystem is secure. Simulation results indicate the AES-based image cryptosystem is faster than some chaotic systems-based image cryptosystems. The tested system can thus be used as a reference for comparing other newly offered image cryptosystems. Cryptosystems for images that perform encryption and decryption slower than AES in the same computer need to be enhanced.
Sohel Rana. Saddam Hossain, Hasan Imam Shoun, Dr. Mohammod Abul Kashem [6], propose a lightweight cryptographic algorithm with 16.73% lower power usage than the existing cipher. Modern electronics and the internet will enable resource-constrained devices to become daily necessities for everyone, so data security will be an important consideration. Those devices will be communicating with one another incessantly, so information must be protected at all times. The implementation shows promising performance making the algorithm an ideal candidate for resource-constrained devices.
Charanjit Lal Chowdhary, Pushpam Virenbhai Patel, Krupal Jaysukhbhai Kathrotia, Muhammad Attique, Kumaresan Perumal, and Muhammad Fazal Ijaz [7], an analysis to decrypt and encrypt images using hybridization of Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) and Hill Cipher (HC), ECC and AES (Advanced Encryption Standard), and ElGamal and Double Playfair Cipher (DPC). The measurements used in this analysis are (i) encode and decrypt times, (ii) entropy of the encrypted image, (iii) intensity loss of the decrypted image, (iv) Peak Signal to Noise Ratio (PSNR), (v) Number of Pixel Change Rate (NPCR), and (vi)Unified Average Changing Intensity (UACI). ECC and ElGamal cryptosystems offer asymmetric key cryptography, while HC, AES, and DPC provide symmetric key cryptography. Hybrid processes combine the speed and ease of implementation of symmetric algorithms with the security of asymmetric algorithms. According to the metric measurement with test cases, ECC and HC have a good overall solution for image encryption with smaller image sizes when using AES with ECC.
Bing Ji, LLijunWang an, d Qinghua Yang [8], an improved AES-ECC hybrid encryption system that has good flexibility and versatility and optimized ECC multiplication unit design according to the characteristics of wireless sensor networks. It was capable of generating and authenticating digital signatures at a faster rate. It also fully met wireless sensor networks’ reliability, processing power, and power consumption requirements. AES encryption module is currently undergoing high-performance enhancements (increase throughput, decrease logic unit occupancy) and optimizations of ECC cryptographic module random point multiplications are currently being implemented. There are three properties of the scheme: (1) it provides better security with relatively low resource requirements, (2) it is straightforward to administer keys, and (3) it is resistant to some attacks and a digital signature can be generated and verified quickly and easily.
Alireza Jolfaei(B), Xin-Wen Wu, and Vallipuram Muthukkumarasamy [9], method encrypts texture images via bit masking and permutation procedures using Salsa20/12 stream cipher as part of a novel texture encryption scheme that complements the existing methods for 3D object encryption. As a result, the method has very low overhead and meets the security requirements, and protects the 3D surface geometry from partial disclosure by keeping the texture patterns hidden. Compared to full encryption and selective encryption (using the 4 most significant bits), the scheme has a higher speed-security profile. The schemes are implemented and tested with 500 sample texture images. Comparing the experimental results with full/selective encryption by 128-bit AES, the scheme demonstrated better encryption performance.
M. Sankari P. Ranjana [10], To protect the image data in the mobile cloud through privacy-preserve lightweight image encryption (PLIE), they have been introduced a method that keeps metadata on mobile while maintaining user privacy. Mobile data is split, distributed, and scrambled (SDS) to maintain user privacy and store it in the cloud. As a result, the throughput increases, the encryption time is sped-up, and the complexity is minimized. Using the PLIE method implemented in Python language, the encryption time was approximately 50% shorter than that of AES. They have been measured the performance of the existing method (AES) versus the method (PLIE) using various parameters. Furthermore, they have been evaluate the security level by presenting some security attacks.
The AES encryption algorithm is symmetric in the group, and there are three different key lengths: 128 bits, 196 bits, and 256 bits, with the packet size being 128 bits. The algorithm is reasonably flexible in its application. The AES algorithm is widely used in software and hardware. In the three key lengths, the 128bit key length is commonly used. The internal algorithm performs a ten-time iterative process when the key length is under. The five sections of the final round are joined by the Sub Bytes, S-box, Shift Rows, Mix Columns, and Add Round Key. AES has five different units of measurement: bits, bytes, characters, groups, states. A round of AES is composed of byte replacement (Sub Bytes), line displacement (Shift Rows), mixed column displacement (Mix Columns), key replacement (Add Round Key), and so on. AES algorithm design should meet three criteria during all phases of the data packet transformation, in the beginning, and ending stages of encryption:
Can resist all known attacks.
Fast and coding compaction.
Simple in design.
Figure 2 shows the process of AES Encryption and Decryption. It relies on the packet size and the length of the key, and it is controlled by the key. The iteration round of the number is controlled by the key and the length of the block.
Process of AES encryption and decryption.
As a Figure 2, a cryptographic algorithm is shown on the left and a cryptographic algorithm is shown on the right of the figure. A key expansion algorithm is shown in the middle of the figure. It consists of N iterations having four different steps: byte replacements (Sub Bytes), line displacements (Shift Rows), mixed column shifts (Mix Columns), and key shifts (Add Round Key). There are no mixed column transformations in the final round. The decryption algorithm is the opposite of encryption (inverse byte substitution, inverse shift rows, and inverse mix columns).
For full encryption, the data is passed through Nr rounds (Nr = 10, 12, 14). These rounds are governed by the following transformations:
Add Round Key transformation uses a sub-key for every round, which corresponds to the number of bytes from the initial key. For example, AES-128 converts to 44 bytes per word, and every word are indexed as W[index] = [0…43]. The first set of columns (W0, W1, W2, and W3) are all full with the given cipher key and the columns in locations that are multiples of four (W4, W8, W12, …, W40) are all generated using the following three operations:
Rot Word: Rot Word rotates a word to the left for one rotation.
Sub Word: With Sub Word, individual bytes are replaced.
Word Wi-4 and a defined constant from the Recon matrix are XOR’d with the result of Rot Word and Sub Word operations.
In refs. [8, 9, 10], by comparing three papers, I presented them in my study, which compared their results.
In ref. [8], three hybrid methods have been proposed for image encrypting and decrypting. This section describes the key generation, background process, and algorithm for image encryption and decryption. The algorithms are mentioned below:
Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) with Hill Cipher,
ECC with AES,
ElGamal with Double Play fair Cipher.
In this section I will explain two things:
How does the ECC generate the key?
ECC with AES for Image Encryption and Decryption.
Here is an overview of the elliptical curve cryptography method. Elliptical curves are used over a finite prime field.
Where Fp is the finite field over a prime number p with generator G. a, b are curve parameters.
Whenever you multiply a point with different scalars, it creates every point on the curve. This is the generator of the curve G. To generate keys for elliptic curve cryptography, they have been defined the order of elliptic curve n as the smallest integer which when multiplied by generator G gives the zero point at infinity, that is, nG = O. Figure 3 shows how does the ECC key generates.
Key generation of ECC [
For the encryption and decryption of images, Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) is used in combination with AES. AES-128, AES-192, or AES-256 encryption and decryption are performed using the Cipher Feedback (CFB) mode. The initialization vector (IV) must be the same length and it should be a multiple of 16 or 24 or 32 bits, respectively. The initialization vector (IV) is not required for the Electronic Code Book (ECB) mode. AES encrypted bytes are converted to large integers to reduce operating costs by encrypting 2 × group size number of bytes in one ECC operation. This is because Base 256 represents values from 0 to 255 on the XY plane, and ECC encryption uses a point addition formula to encrypt any point on the XY plane. The algorithm is working with an 8-bit image whose pixel intensities range from 0 to 255. The benefit of performing such an operation is to eliminate the need to create a mapping table, which would otherwise be computationally impossible if an extremely large prime number was used to generate the finite field and share it between users. Decrypting is achieved by reflecting the SSK coordinates for the x-axis and taking modulus p. The reflected point is then added to the x-axis using the point addition formula for performing the inverse operation. Figure 4 shows an AES-ECC hybrid encryption system.
AES-ECC hybrid encryption system [
In ref. [9], Using Salsa20/12 for the upper nibble image encryption, the bitstreams of the lower nibble image are scrambled by permuting a zigzag pattern on the bitstream. They have been called our encryption mechanism ‘Salsa Dance’ since it is consistent with (Latin American) Salsa movement. Infer the steps of the encryption algorithm, P being the plain image, N being the nibble image, and C being the cipher image. If RGB is a 24-bit representation, each flat image, nibble image, or cipher image is represented by three M * N matrices, so R, G, and B color layers. For any pair of x (1 ≤ x ≤ M) and y (1 ≤ y ≤ N), multiply p (x, y) by n (x, y) and the result is the flat image, nibble image, or cipher image. P (x, y) and c (x, y) are the entry values for the plain-images, nibble images, and cipher images, respectively; n (x, y) ∈ {0, 1, …, 15}.
A 24-bit texture image with one color layer has the encryption procedure described below. For the other color layers, the procedure is similar. By splitting every entry into upper and lower nibbles, we could break the plain image into two nibble images that correspond to x and y. For any x (1 ≤ x ≤ M) and y (1 ≤ y ≤ N), n1 (x, y) and n2 (x, y) are defined as follows:
Figure 5 shows a zigzag path for scanning an image with the dimensions 3 * 4 in Figure 5a if mod(s, 12) = 7. In this case, entry scanning starts at the 7th entry and ends at the 9th entry, which is the entry immediately before the initial one. Scanning involves the placement of bits, column by column, in a matrix sequentially as they have been encountered. Permutation affects both bit-plane image bits (diffusion) as well as the values of nibbles (confusion). A mod (s, 12) = 7, the permutation result of the test bit-plane image can be seen in Figure 5b. Following the permutation process, when the scrambled bit-plane image is combined with every 4 consecutive columns, the encrypted lower nibble-image with size M * N can be reconstructed.
(a) A zigzag path to scramble bits of a bit-plane image, and (b) permutation result [
The final step is to create the cipher image by combining the encrypted upper and lower nibble images. To summarize, the whole encryption process is as follows:
Where,
PK (plain image), N1, N2 (lower nibble image), and C (upper nibble image) refer to plain, lower, and upper nibble images, respectively. In decryption, cipher images are further divided into upper and lower nibble images. In 24-bit texture images, there is a close correlation between different layers of color in the image. The upper and lower nibbles are decrypted with the same keystream used in encryption, while the inner nibble is decrypted by inverse permutation. To meet this requirement, Salsa20/12 uses a 64-bit nonce each time the color layer is encrypted. The same message will never be encrypted twice in the same way so that there is always a different ciphertext. If the same nonce and key are used on two different plaintexts, then you can cancel the keystream out by masking the ciphertexts together.
In ref. [10], this method ensures image data security using three different processes, of splitting, distributing, and scrambling the images. In addition, it ensures user privacy by keeping metadata in the mobile device, and finally storing it on the cloud. A split image file is broken into two parts: the header and the contents. The header contains several privacy-protecting features, including the image type, size, date of creation, chunk size, height, width, and resolution. There are many chunks of content. For distribution, chunks may be divided based on a pattern, such as a key, a predefined function, or an individual chunk. PLIE categorizes patterns as odd chunks (file1) and even chunks (file2) that are sequentially repeated. The maximum number of chunks is m = (image size/chunk size)—header size, where the image size is the size in bytes of the image file, and chunk size is the size of the chunks.
After studying the previous papers, I will be compared by showing them the different performance results. Table 1 shows the different results.
In reviewing the results in the table, we note that the time taken for coding in the first and second papers is greater than that spent on coding in the third paper.
The following parameters were considered in the comparative analysis: ECC with AES, test samples [7].
PSNR measures signal-to-noise ratio in decibels between two images. It is used to determine whether the original image is better than the compressed image. For the egg (grayscale), egg (colored), Mona Lisa (grayscale), and Mona Lisa (colored), the PSNR values are between 8 and 9.5.
The NPCR metric value (%) is the expected change in the cipher image’s pixels (when only one pixel of the plain image is changed) when the number of pixels from the input image is varied in the encrypted image. Based on the result of the Eggs (Grayscale), Eggs (Colored), Mona Lisa (Grayscale), and Mona Lisa (Colored) tests, it indicates that there is a significant number of pixels that differ from the original image in the encrypted image.
The average value of the UACI (%) is 30% for varying numbers of pixels in the encrypted image from the input image. The UACI measure shows how secure an algorithm is against differential attacks, such as plaintext attacks or cipher-only attacks. Higher values indicate that this image is more resistant to such attacks. Values obtained for Eggs (Grayscale), Eggs (Colored), Mona Lisa (Grayscale), and Mona Lisa (Colored) range from 26 to 30%.
Square error: in a decrypted image, the square error represents the discrepancy between the decrypted image pixels and the original pixels. For a good algorithm, the square error should be close to zero.
The PSNR, NPCR, UACI, and Mean Squared Error (MSE) metrics for Mona Lisa and Egg image are shown in Table 2.
Performance analysis | Size of input image encrypt | Size of output image decrypt | Algorithm used | Encryption time (seconds) | Decryption time (seconds) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
In ref. [8], Eggs (Grayscale 256 × 256 Pixels) Image | 256 × 256 pixels | 256 × 256 pixels | AES-256 with ECC | 2.82401 | 2.75127 |
In ref. [8], Eggs (colored 256 × 256 Pixels) Image | 256 × 256 pixels | 256 × 256 pixels | AES-256 with ECC | 2.52632 | 2.50829 |
In ref. [8], Mona Lisa (Grayscale 256 × 256 Pixels) Image | 256 × 256 pixels | 256 × 256 pixels | AES-256 with ECC | 2.84150 | 2.7866 |
In ref. [8], Mona Lisa (Colored 256 × 256 Pixels) Image | 256 × 256 pixels | 256 × 256 pixels | AES-256 with ECC | 2.53642 | 2.52728 |
In ref. [9], Selective AES | M × 4 N | M × 4 N | ECB mode of AES-128 | 2.47 | Not Calculated |
In ref. [9], Full AES | M × 4 N | M × 4 N | ECB mode of AES-128 | 4.95 | Not Calculated |
In ref. [9], (Salsa Dance) | M × 4 N | M × 4 N | ECB mode of AES-128 | 1.00 | Not Calculated |
In ref. [10], Baby | 256 × 256 pixels. That used file sized 4.9 KB | 256 × 256 pixels | AES-128 | 0.0007 | Not Calculated |
In ref. [10], Leaf | File size 5.7 KB | 256 × 256 pixels | AES-128 | 0.0009 | Not Calculated |
In ref. [10], Wheel | File size 6.5 KB | 256 × 256 pixels | AES-128 | 0.00113 | Not Calculated |
In ref. [10], Ball | File size 8.7 KB | 256 × 256 pixels | AES-128 | 0.00113 | Not Calculated |
In ref. [10], People | File size 13.3 KB | 256 × 256 pixels | AES-128 | 0.0011 | Not Calculated |
Comparison of performance analysis.
Evaluation metrics for | Mean squared error (MSE) in decrypted image | PSNR (dB) | NPCR (%) | UACI (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Eggs (grayscale) | 0.0000 | 9.129 | 99.60632 | 28.90828 |
Eggs (colored) | (0, 0, 0) | (8.86691, 8.54116, 7.9478) | (99.63379, 99.64142, 99.6109) | (29.60341, 30.65091, 32.69575) |
Mona Lisa (grayscale) | 0.0000 | 8.62078 | 99.58191 | 30.37332 |
Mona Lisa (colored) | (0, 0, 0) | (9.39128, 8.98602, 8.7218) | (99.646, 99.63684, 99.62463) | (28.15297, 29.32043, 30.11092) |
Metric measures.
Based on the test image in Figure 7a, Table 3 offers the PSNR values for the encrypted images. Given the test image in Figure 7a, it is apparent that encryption using slightly different secret keys results in different Salsa Dance or AES cipher images. Salsa Dance, however, generates more dissimilar cipher-images than selective/full AES although the secret key is only changed by one bit. Thus, the method is highly sensitive to changes in the key, making the adversary’s analysis of Salsa Dance even harder in terms of finding any relationship between the keys used.
Encryption schemes | Selective AES | Full AES | (Salsa Dance) |
---|---|---|---|
Between the original and encrypted image with the original key | 6.0403 dB | 6.0345 dB | 6.0839 dB |
Between the original and encrypted image with 1-bit different key | 6.2709 dB | 6.1846 dB | 6.0821 dB |
Between the encrypted images using the original and modified keys | 8.5122 dB | 8.3964 dB | 7.7680 dB |
Comparison of the PSNR values.
According to the first paper [8], Compression of the image uses techniques that use less space to provide the same information, which solves the computation and high protection problem. The result is a low bandwidth, reduced storage space, and shortened computation times due to the compression.
According to the second paper [9], This paper describes a technical solution for meeting the confidentiality requirements associated with texture images that overcome the limitations of current techniques, in addition, large data volumes and high application requirements, including real-time performance, complexity, and security, are common.
According to the third paper [10], to reduce resource consumption, throughput, increase processing speed and reduce complexity, the PLIE method is an excellent choice for image encryption on mobile devices, It has been shown by a variety of performance measurements to maintain privacy for users in mobile and to reduce encryption time by nearly 50% compared to existing methods such as AES.
For the study, input and output images include Mona Lisa (Grayscale 256 * 256 Pixels), Mona Lisa (Colored 256 * 256 Pixels), and Eggs (Grayscale 256 * 256 Pixels). Representative input and output images, with encryption and decryption algorithms, are provided [8]. Figure 6 shows Sample input and output for hybrid algorithms.
Sample input and output for hybrid algorithms [
An example texture image and its encryption results are shown in Figure 7. Salsa Dance seems to disrupt the correlation between entries of the image while both full and selective encryption using AES fail to destroy the coarse pattern.
Encryption results of a sample texture image: (a) original image, and (b) encrypted [
Nowadays, all smartphones, laptops, and other communication devices connect to the cloud, making data accessible to everyone. IoT network is a group of various devices interconnected over the internet that exchange data between themselves and other services. It has a wide application range from smart applications to a variety of industrial applications. Encryption is one of the best techniques to guarantee end-to-end security in the IoT network, as the volume of data transferred is so high. Because nodes in an IoT network have limited resources, classical cryptography methods are costly and inefficient, so lightweight block ciphers are one of the most sophisticated ways to overcome security shortcomings in this environment. When we have compared the systems, we have found that these modifications were made to the original AES algorithm, while the original algorithm security remains robust, the modified AES algorithm remains lightweight and faster, providing more satisfaction for embedding in IoT devices and sensors that consume little power. Especially this algorithms that compared, improved AES-ECC hybrid encryption system that has good flexibility and versatility and optimized ECC multiplication unit design according to the characteristics of wireless sensor networks. It was capable of generating and authenticating digital signatures at a faster rate. It also fully met wireless sensor networks’ reliability, processing power, and power consumption requirements. Salsa 20/12 method that encrypts texture images via bit masking and permutation procedures using Salsa20/12 stream cipher as part of a novel texture encryption scheme that complements the existing methods for 3D object encryption. Therefore, mobile data is split, distributed, and scrambled (SDS) to maintain user privacy and store it in the cloud. As a result, the throughput increases, the encryption time is sped-up, and the complexity is minimized. Using the PLIE method implemented in Python language, the encryption time was approximately 50% shorter than that of AES.
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Deficient or incorrect family planning methods, wrong attitudes and behaviors toward the methods and consequent unplanned pregnancies, increased maternal and infant mortality rates are the main health problems in most countries. Individuals’ learning modern family planning methods and having positive attitude for these methods may increase the usage of these methods and contributes the formation of healthy communities. It is considered important to examine the current attitudes and determinants in order to spread the choice of effective method.",book:{id:"6142",slug:"family-planning",title:"Family Planning",fullTitle:"Family Planning"},signatures:"Nazli Sensoy, Yasemin Korkut, Selcuk Akturan, Mehmet Yilmaz,\nCanan Tuz and Bilge Tuncel",authors:[{id:"216377",title:"Prof.",name:"Nazli",middleName:null,surname:"Sensoy",slug:"nazli-sensoy",fullName:"Nazli Sensoy"},{id:"216589",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasemin",middleName:null,surname:"Korkut",slug:"yasemin-korkut",fullName:"Yasemin Korkut"},{id:"216595",title:"Dr.",name:"Selcuk",middleName:null,surname:"Akturan",slug:"selcuk-akturan",fullName:"Selcuk Akturan"},{id:"216596",title:"Dr.",name:"Canan",middleName:null,surname:"Tuz",slug:"canan-tuz",fullName:"Canan Tuz"},{id:"216598",title:"Dr.",name:"Bilge",middleName:null,surname:"Tuncel",slug:"bilge-tuncel",fullName:"Bilge Tuncel"},{id:"216599",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yilmaz",slug:"mehmet-yilmaz",fullName:"Mehmet Yilmaz"}]},{id:"69631",title:"Cultural Practices and Health Consequences: Health or Habits, the Choice Is Ours",slug:"cultural-practices-and-health-consequences-health-or-habits-the-choice-is-ours",totalDownloads:889,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Human beings are social animals with an innate desire to conform to socially accepted norms and values. Over periods of time, some of these norms become standards that all members of the community are expected to adhere to. Deviance from these standards is seen as absurd, wrong, or frankly abnormal. However, many of these cultural mores have no scientific basis and, some of them actually promote behaviors with negative health consequences. This chapter examines the cultural practices of some communities in Africa and their health consequences and, explores ways to address the challenges.",book:{id:"9138",slug:"public-health-in-developing-countries-challenges-and-opportunities",title:"Public Health in Developing Countries",fullTitle:"Public Health in Developing Countries - Challenges and Opportunities"},signatures:"Radiance Ogundipe",authors:[{id:"302308",title:"Dr.",name:"Radiance",middleName:null,surname:"Ogundipe",slug:"radiance-ogundipe",fullName:"Radiance Ogundipe"}]},{id:"55808",title:"The Role of Legumes in Human Nutrition",slug:"the-role-of-legumes-in-human-nutrition",totalDownloads:5425,totalCrossrefCites:63,totalDimensionsCites:109,abstract:"Legumes are valued worldwide as a sustainable and inexpensive meat alternative and are considered the second most important food source after cereals. Legumes are nutritionally valuable, providing proteins (20–45%) with essential amino acids, complex carbohydrates (±60%) and dietary fibre (5–37%). Legumes also have no cholesterol and are generally low in fat, with ±5% energy from fat, with the exception of peanuts (±45%), chickpeas (±15%) and soybeans (±47%) and provide essential minerals and vitamins. In addition to their nutritional superiority, legumes have also been ascribed economical, cultural, physiological and medicinal roles owing to their possession of beneficial bioactive compounds. Research has shown that most of the bioactive compounds in legumes possess antioxidant properties, which play a role in the prevention of some cancers, heart diseases, osteoporosis and other degenerative diseases. Because of their composition, legumes are attractive to health conscious consumers, celiac and diabetic patients as well as consumers concerned with weight management. The incorporation of legumes in diets, especially in developing countries, could play a major role in eradicating protein-energy malnutrition especially in developing Afro-Asian countries. Legumes could be a base for the development of many functional foods to promote human health.",book:{id:"5963",slug:"functional-food-improve-health-through-adequate-food",title:"Functional Food",fullTitle:"Functional Food - Improve Health through Adequate Food"},signatures:"Yvonne Maphosa and Victoria A. Jideani",authors:[{id:"201151",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Yvonne",middleName:null,surname:"Maphosa",slug:"yvonne-maphosa",fullName:"Yvonne Maphosa"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"200",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82616",title:"The Quantum Theory of Reproduction. How Unique is an Individual?",slug:"the-quantum-theory-of-reproduction-how-unique-is-an-individual",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105769",abstract:"Our understanding of nature’s way is founded on quantum mechanics. In its existence of over 80 years, quantum theory has been describing the physical world. The attraction of studying quantum mechanics is the perception of the conceptual structure of nature. This is aided by the mathematical structure that exposes the internal logic of the subject by inventing a notation that embeds the philosophy of the question. To describe how unique each individual is. A calculation method was applied. The uniqueness of an individual is one in two nonillion, octillion, septillion, sextillion, quintillion, quadrillion, trillion, billion, million and thousand. Individuals are indefinitely unique.",book:{id:"11284",title:"Studies in Family Planning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11284.jpg"},signatures:"Zouhair O. Amarin"},{id:"81930",title:"Smoking and Its Consequences on Male and Female Reproductive Health",slug:"smoking-and-its-consequences-on-male-and-female-reproductive-health",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104941",abstract:"Smoking contributes to the death of around one in 10 adults worldwide. Specifically, cigarettes are known to contain around 4000 toxins and chemicals that are hazardous in nature. The negative effects of smoking on human health and interest in smoking-related diseases have a long history. Among these concerns are the harmful effects of smoking on reproductive health. Thirteen percent of female infertility is due to smoking. Female smoking can lead to gamete mutagenesis, early loss of reproductive function, and thus advance the time to menopause. It has been also associated with ectopic pregnancy and spontaneous abortion. Even when it comes to assisted reproductive technologies cycles, smokers require more cycles, almost double the number of cycles needed to conceive as non-smokers. Male smoking is shown to be correlated with poorer semen parameters and sperm DNA fragmentation. Not only active smokers but also passive smokers, when excessively exposed to smoking, can have reproductive problems comparable to those seen in smokers. In this book chapter, we will approach the effect of tobacco, especially tobacco smoking, on male and female reproductive health. This aims to take a preventive approach to infertility by discouraging smoking and helping to eliminate exposure to tobacco smoke in both women and men.",book:{id:"11284",title:"Studies in Family Planning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11284.jpg"},signatures:"Amor Houda, Jankowski Peter Michael, Micu Romeo and Hammadeh Mohamad Eid"},{id:"81468",title:"The Knowledge and Use of Intra-Uterine Device by Women Attending Ante-Natal Clinic at Enugu State Teaching Hospital, Parklane",slug:"the-knowledge-and-use-of-intra-uterine-device-by-women-attending-ante-natal-clinic-at-enugu-state-te",totalDownloads:24,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104097",abstract:"Intrauterine contraception has been recognized globally as one of the modern long-term reversible contraceptive methods suitable for women of all reproductive ages. It represents the most cost-effective method for preventing unwanted pregnancies, scientifically proven for its safety, efficacy and cost-effectiveness and is known to last longer in preventing pregnancy than other methods. This study assessed the knowledge of mothers attending ESUT teaching hospital, Parklane on intrauterine contraceptive device, the use as well as the common side effects experienced by the users. A descriptive survey research design was used to sample 175 mothers. A structured researcher developed questionnaire was used for data collection. The findings revealed that more than half of the respondents have good knowledge of intrauterine device but only 23 (14%) respondents make use of it. The commonly experienced side effects identified were irregular bleeding (75%) and vaginal discharge (62.5%). Although, the respondents had good knowledge of intrauterine device, their uptake of the method was poor. Therefore, there is a need to improve contraceptive counseling to ensure that women understand the relative effectiveness of IUDS. The study also recommended the need for better education for both clients and providers to improve the accessibility and acceptability of intrauterine device.",book:{id:"11284",title:"Studies in Family Planning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11284.jpg"},signatures:"Chukwuasokam Caleb Aniechi and Uloma Cynthia Ezuma"},{id:"81003",title:"Perspective Chapter: Modern Birth Control Methods",slug:"perspective-chapter-modern-birth-control-methods",totalDownloads:38,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103858",abstract:"This chapter focuses on various modern birth control methods, including combined oral contraceptives, progestogen-only pills, progestogen-only injectables, progestogen-only implants, intrauterine devices, barrier contraceptives, and emergency contraceptive pills. Each contraceptive method is covered in detail, including mechanism of action, effectiveness, health benefits, advantages, disadvantages, risks, and side-effects.",book:{id:"11284",title:"Studies in Family Planning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11284.jpg"},signatures:"Rahma Al Kindi, Asma Al Salmani, Rahma Al Hadhrami, Sanaa Al Sumri and Hana Al Sumri"},{id:"80084",title:"Contraceptive Implants",slug:"contraceptive-implants",totalDownloads:174,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101999",abstract:"Contraceptive implants or implantable contraceptive are five subdermal implants, rods the size of pencil lead that are embedded just under the skin on the inside of the upper arm. The rods contain etonogestrel, the metabolite of desogestrel, an equivalent progestin. Implants are often used during breastfeeding without an impact on milk production. It was identified that age does not affect the use of contraceptive implants but educational status is significant to its usage; there is an association between the age at first birth and the use of contraceptive implants; the number of liveborn children has a significant impact or influence on the use of implants; etc. This chapter focuses on types of contraceptive implants and its mechanism of action; global statistics on contraceptive implants; side effects; health benefits and positive characteristics of contraceptive implants; those who can and cannot use contraceptive implants; reasons women are not interested in contraceptive implants and factors influencing its usage.",book:{id:"11284",title:"Studies in Family Planning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11284.jpg"},signatures:"Paul Hassan Ilegbusi"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:5},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11403,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11404,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11405,editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. His research interests include biomaterials, nanomaterials, bioengineering, biosensors, drug delivery systems, and tissue engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:42,paginationItems:[{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"82875",title:"Lipidomics as a Tool in the Diagnosis and Clinical Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105857",signatures:"María Elizbeth Alvarez Sánchez, Erick Nolasco Ontiveros, Rodrigo Arreola, Adriana Montserrat Espinosa González, Ana María García Bores, Roberto Eduardo López Urrutia, Ignacio Peñalosa Castro, María del Socorro Sánchez Correa and Edgar Antonio Estrella Parra",slug:"lipidomics-as-a-tool-in-the-diagnosis-and-clinical-therapy",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82440",title:"Lipid Metabolism and Associated Molecular Signaling Events in Autoimmune Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105746",signatures:"Mohan Vanditha, Sonu Das and Mathew John",slug:"lipid-metabolism-and-associated-molecular-signaling-events-in-autoimmune-disease",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82483",title:"Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105891",signatures:"Laura Mourino-Alvarez, Tamara Sastre-Oliva, Nerea Corbacho-Alonso and Maria G. Barderas",slug:"oxidative-stress-in-cardiovascular-diseases",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Importance of Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant System in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11671.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:33,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"10",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Physiology",keywords:"Physiology, Comparative, Evolution, Biomolecules, Organ, Homeostasis, Anatomy, Pathology, Medical, Cell Division, Cell Signaling, Cell Growth, Cell Metabolism, Endocrine, Neuroscience, Cardiovascular, Development, Aging, Development",scope:"Physiology, the scientific study of functions and mechanisms of living systems, is an essential area of research in its own right, but also in relation to medicine and health sciences. The scope of this topic will range from molecular, biochemical, cellular, and physiological processes in all animal species. Work pertaining to the whole organism, organ systems, individual organs and tissues, cells, and biomolecules will be included. Medical, animal, cell, and comparative physiology and allied fields such as anatomy, histology, and pathology with physiology links will be covered in this topic. 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