Selected properties of oxygen carriers.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"4497",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Treatment of Type 2 Diabetes",title:"Treatment of Type 2 Diabetes",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Obesity and type 2 diabetes are increasing worldwide problems. In this book we reviewed factors that contribute to glucose homeostasis and the pathogenesis of Type 2 diabetes. In addition the book addresses current strategies for treatment of Type 2 Diabetes.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-2032-2",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-7236-9",doi:"10.5772/58508",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"treatment-of-type-2-diabetes",numberOfPages:322,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"8b54eb85fea6536556e88baa86487d26",bookSignature:"Colleen Croniger",publishedDate:"April 1st 2015",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4497.jpg",numberOfDownloads:21512,numberOfWosCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:10,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:17,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 17th 2014",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 8th 2014",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 4th 2014",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 3rd 2014",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 3rd 2014",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"55053",title:"Dr.",name:"Colleen",middleName:null,surname:"Croniger",slug:"colleen-croniger",fullName:"Colleen Croniger",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55053/images/1878_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Colleen Croniger received her graduate degree in Molecular Biology from Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland, Ohio. After completing her graduate studies, she studied and learned metabolism from her post-doctoral mentor, Dr. Richard Hanson at Case Western Reserve. In 2002, Dr. Croniger joined the faculty of the Nutrition Department at Case Western Reserve as an Siistant Professor. Her research is focused on obesity, diabetes, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and alcoholic steatohepatitis (ASH) using genetically modified mouse models. She also teaches graduate and medical students nutrition and metabolism. Dr. Croniger has received Scholarship in Teaching award for her teaching, and for the design and implementation of the current medical school curriculum. In addition Dr. Croniger is a member of American Diabetes Association (ADA) and American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (ASBMB). Finally Dr. Croniger is the Metabolic Core director for the Case Western Reserve University Mouse Metabolic Phenotyping Core (MMPC). The Case MMPC is one of six centers that are NIH-NIDDK funded.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Case Western Reserve University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1013",title:"Pediatric Endocrinology",slug:"pediatric-endocrinology"}],chapters:[{id:"47565",title:"The Role of the Kidney in Glucose Homeostasis",doi:"10.5772/59173",slug:"the-role-of-the-kidney-in-glucose-homeostasis",totalDownloads:2648,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Maria Mota, Eugen Mota and Ilie-Robert Dinu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/47565",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/47565",authors:[{id:"44559",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria",surname:"Mota",slug:"maria-mota",fullName:"Maria Mota"},{id:"171411",title:"Dr.",name:"Ilie-Robert",surname:"Dinu",slug:"ilie-robert-dinu",fullName:"Ilie-Robert Dinu"},{id:"171462",title:"Prof.",name:"Eugen",surname:"Mota",slug:"eugen-mota",fullName:"Eugen Mota"}],corrections:null},{id:"47579",title:"Thiamine and the Cellular Energy Cycles — A Novel Perspective on Type 2 Diabetes Treatment",doi:"10.5772/59224",slug:"thiamine-and-the-cellular-energy-cycles-a-novel-perspective-on-type-2-diabetes-treatment",totalDownloads:1833,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Saadia Shahzad Alam and Samreen Riaz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/47579",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/47579",authors:[{id:"122928",title:"Dr.",name:"Saadia",surname:"Shahzad Alam",slug:"saadia-shahzad-alam",fullName:"Saadia Shahzad Alam"},{id:"172958",title:"Dr.",name:"Samreen",surname:"Riaz",slug:"samreen-riaz",fullName:"Samreen Riaz"}],corrections:null},{id:"47606",title:"Pathogenesis of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus",doi:"10.5772/59183",slug:"pathogenesis-of-type-2-diabetes-mellitus",totalDownloads:3124,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Fuad AlSaraj",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/47606",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/47606",authors:[{id:"171465",title:"Dr.",name:"Fuad",surname:"AlSaraj",slug:"fuad-alsaraj",fullName:"Fuad AlSaraj"}],corrections:null},{id:"47600",title:"Can Adiponectin be a biomarker for Ethnic heterogeneity in Diabetes Mellitus?",doi:"10.5772/59119",slug:"can-adiponectin-be-a-biomarker-for-ethnic-heterogeneity-in-diabetes-mellitus-",totalDownloads:1244,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Fatum Elshaari, F.A. Elshaari, D.S. Sheriff, A.A. Alshaari and S. Omer\nSheriff",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/47600",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/47600",authors:[{id:"39643",title:"Prof.",name:"Dhastagir",surname:"Sheriff",slug:"dhastagir-sheriff",fullName:"Dhastagir Sheriff"},{id:"167875",title:"Dr.",name:"Dhastagir Sultan",surname:"Sheriff",slug:"dhastagir-sultan-sheriff",fullName:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff"},{id:"171416",title:"Mrs.",name:"Fatum",surname:"Elshaari",slug:"fatum-elshaari",fullName:"Fatum Elshaari"},{id:"171417",title:"Dr.",name:"Alshaari",surname:"Aa",slug:"alshaari-aa",fullName:"Alshaari Aa"}],corrections:null},{id:"47580",title:"Clinical Trials on Diabetes Mellitus",doi:"10.5772/59130",slug:"clinical-trials-on-diabetes-mellitus",totalDownloads:1530,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Blas Gil Extremera, Pilar Jiménez López, Alberto Jesús Guarnido\nRamírez, Elizabet García Peñalver, Maria Luz Abarca Martínez and\nIsabel Mérida Fernández",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/47580",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/47580",authors:[{id:"171384",title:"Dr.",name:"Blas",surname:"Gil-Extremera",slug:"blas-gil-extremera",fullName:"Blas Gil-Extremera"}],corrections:null},{id:"47557",title:"Pharmacological Treatments for Type 2 Diabetes",doi:"10.5772/59204",slug:"pharmacological-treatments-for-type-2-diabetes-",totalDownloads:1489,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Roberto Pontarolo, Andréia Cristina Conegero Sanches, Astrid\nWiens, Cássio Marques Perlin, Fernanda Stumpf Tonin, Helena\nHiemisch Lobo Borba, Luana Lenzi and Suelem Tavares da Silva\nPenteado",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/47557",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/47557",authors:[{id:"55129",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto",surname:"Pontarolo",slug:"roberto-pontarolo",fullName:"Roberto Pontarolo"}],corrections:null},{id:"47544",title:"The Preventive and Therapeutic Effect of Caloric Restriction Therapy on Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus",doi:"10.5772/59281",slug:"the-preventive-and-therapeutic-effect-of-caloric-restriction-therapy-on-type-2-diabetes-mellitus",totalDownloads:1665,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,signatures:"Shuhang Xu, Guofang Chen, Li Chunrui and Chao Liu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/47544",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/47544",authors:[{id:"171454",title:"Dr.",name:"Chao",surname:"Liu",slug:"chao-liu",fullName:"Chao Liu"}],corrections:null},{id:"47631",title:"Current Recommendations for Surgical Treatment of Diabetes",doi:"10.5772/59182",slug:"current-recommendations-for-surgical-treatment-of-diabetes",totalDownloads:1338,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Anca Elena Sirbu, Aura Reghina, Carmen Barbu and Simona Fica",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/47631",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/47631",authors:[{id:"171455",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",surname:"Sirbu",slug:"anca-sirbu",fullName:"Anca Sirbu"},{id:"172773",title:"Dr.",name:"Aura",surname:"Reghina",slug:"aura-reghina",fullName:"Aura Reghina"},{id:"173121",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmen",surname:"Barbu",slug:"carmen-barbu",fullName:"Carmen Barbu"},{id:"173122",title:"Prof.",name:"Simona",surname:"Fica",slug:"simona-fica",fullName:"Simona Fica"}],corrections:null},{id:"47508",title:"The Involvement of Environmental Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Development",doi:"10.5772/59110",slug:"the-involvement-of-environmental-endocrine-disrupting-chemicals-in-type-2-diabetes-mellitus-developm",totalDownloads:1534,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Carmen Purdel, Mihaela Ilie and Denisa Margina",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/47508",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/47508",authors:[{id:"47029",title:"Dr.",name:"Denisa",surname:"Margina",slug:"denisa-margina",fullName:"Denisa Margina"},{id:"49035",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihaela",surname:"Ilie",slug:"mihaela-ilie",fullName:"Mihaela Ilie"},{id:"171494",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmen",surname:"Purdel",slug:"carmen-purdel",fullName:"Carmen Purdel"}],corrections:null},{id:"47942",title:"Statins in Type 2 Diabetes",doi:"10.5772/59862",slug:"statins-in-type-2-diabetes",totalDownloads:1331,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Kazuko Masuo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/47942",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/47942",authors:[{id:"40084",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazuko",surname:"Masuo",slug:"kazuko-masuo",fullName:"Kazuko Masuo"}],corrections:null},{id:"47554",title:"Incretin System in the Pathogenesis of Type 2 Diabetes and the Role of Incretin Based Therapies in the Management of Type 2 Diabetes",doi:"10.5772/59241",slug:"incretin-system-in-the-pathogenesis-of-type-2-diabetes-and-the-role-of-incretin-based-therapies-in-t",totalDownloads:2136,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Ayse Nur Torun and Derun Taner Ertugrul",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/47554",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/47554",authors:[{id:"171277",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ayse Nur",surname:"Torun",slug:"ayse-nur-torun",fullName:"Ayse Nur Torun"}],corrections:null},{id:"47775",title:"Anti-Obesity Effects of Androgens, Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and Testosterone",doi:"10.5772/59604",slug:"anti-obesity-effects-of-androgens-dehydroepiandrosterone-dhea-and-testosterone",totalDownloads:1641,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Kazuo Kajita, Ichiro Mori, Masahiro , Takahide Ikeda, Hiroyuki\nMorita and Tatsuo Ishizuka",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/47775",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/47775",authors:[{id:"171404",title:"Dr.",name:"Kazuo",surname:"Kajita",slug:"kazuo-kajita",fullName:"Kazuo Kajita"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"341",title:"Medical Complications of Type 2 Diabetes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4288dc5cb2b73d4039d20c858003314e",slug:"medical-complications-of-type-2-diabetes",bookSignature:"Colleen Croniger",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/341.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"55053",title:"Dr.",name:"Colleen",surname:"Croniger",slug:"colleen-croniger",fullName:"Colleen Croniger"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1039",title:"Role of the Adipocyte in Development of Type 2 Diabetes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"703580c77db309a487a505a32e748af4",slug:"role-of-the-adipocyte-in-development-of-type-2-diabetes",bookSignature:"Coleen Croniger",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1039.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"55053",title:"Dr.",name:"Colleen",surname:"Croniger",slug:"colleen-croniger",fullName:"Colleen Croniger"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2666",title:"Diabetes Mellitus",subtitle:"Insights and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"49a714ae0be8a338523befe4ffc9352f",slug:"diabetes-mellitus-insights-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Oluwafemi O. Oguntibeju",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2666.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"32112",title:"Prof.",name:"Oluwafemi",surname:"Oguntibeju",slug:"oluwafemi-oguntibeju",fullName:"Oluwafemi Oguntibeju"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3829",title:"Antioxidant-Antidiabetic Agents and Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"148f7976e4249aa1f0180cca370e36ce",slug:"antioxidant-antidiabetic-agents-and-human-health",bookSignature:"Oluwafemi Oguntibeju",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3829.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"32112",title:"Prof.",name:"Oluwafemi",surname:"Oguntibeju",slug:"oluwafemi-oguntibeju",fullName:"Oluwafemi Oguntibeju"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1035",title:"Type 1 Diabetes",subtitle:"Complications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b7ba654e889d323762cc9fb4a014cdbf",slug:"type-1-diabetes-complications",bookSignature:"David Wagner",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1035.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"45994",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Wagner",slug:"david-wagner",fullName:"David Wagner"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3857",title:"Glucose Homeostasis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6d19b59871b430fbcfc4bd297e242d",slug:"glucose-homeostasis",bookSignature:"Leszek Szablewski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3857.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3266",title:"Type 1 Diabetes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"21684525ccb8c6acd89bc43ce177f90b",slug:"type-1-diabetes",bookSignature:"Alan P. Escher and Alice Li",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3266.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"46023",title:"Dr.",name:"Alan",surname:"Escher",slug:"alan-escher",fullName:"Alan Escher"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"665",title:"Global Perspective on Diabetic Foot Ulcerations",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b702efe619adff42227dadb5b4bda12b",slug:"global-perspective-on-diabetic-foot-ulcerations",bookSignature:"Thanh Dinh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/665.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"69737",title:"Dr.",name:"Thanh",surname:"Dinh",slug:"thanh-dinh",fullName:"Thanh Dinh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1036",title:"Type 1 Diabetes",subtitle:"Complications, Pathogenesis, and Alternative Treatments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ccb81d334cd838c9e80f3ebafb63eec0",slug:"type-1-diabetes-complications-pathogenesis-and-alternative-treatments",bookSignature:"Chih-Pin Liu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1036.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"47141",title:"Prof.",name:"Chih-Pin",surname:"Liu",slug:"chih-pin-liu",fullName:"Chih-Pin Liu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1038",title:"Topics in the Prevention, Treatment and Complications of Type 2 Diabetes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fedb4b227715729de998791e200ef56f",slug:"topics-in-the-prevention-treatment-and-complications-of-type-2-diabetes",bookSignature:"Mark B. Zimering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1038.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"39545",title:"Prof.",name:"Mark",surname:"Zimering",slug:"mark-zimering",fullName:"Mark Zimering"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"74026",slug:"corrigendum-to-calf-sex-influence-in-bovine-milk-production",title:"Corrigendum to: Calf-Sex Influence in Bovine Milk Production",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/74026.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74026",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74026",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/74026",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/74026",chapter:{id:"73504",slug:"calf-sex-influence-in-bovine-milk-production",signatures:"Miguel Quaresma and R. Payan-Carreira",dateSubmitted:"April 21st 2020",dateReviewed:"September 10th 2020",datePrePublished:"October 8th 2020",datePublished:"January 20th 2021",book:{id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",publishedDate:"January 20th 2021",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"38652",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",email:"rtpayan@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",email:"miguelq@utad.pt",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"73504",slug:"calf-sex-influence-in-bovine-milk-production",signatures:"Miguel Quaresma and R. Payan-Carreira",dateSubmitted:"April 21st 2020",dateReviewed:"September 10th 2020",datePrePublished:"October 8th 2020",datePublished:"January 20th 2021",book:{id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",publishedDate:"January 20th 2021",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"38652",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",email:"rtpayan@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",email:"miguelq@utad.pt",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]},book:{id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",publishedDate:"January 20th 2021",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"8120",leadTitle:null,title:"Metals in Soil - Bioavailability, Contamination and Remediation",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book will be a self-contained collection of scholarly papers targeting an audience of practicing researchers, academics, PhD students and other scientists. The contents of the book will be written by multiple authors and edited by experts in the field.",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:null,priceUsd:null,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"237b134268e3e2fa38c396659b95b325",bookSignature:"",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8120.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 24th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 15th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 14th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 2nd 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 1st 2018",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:1,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"12",title:"Environmental Sciences",slug:"environmental-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"40239",title:"Small Scale Hydrogen Production from Metal-Metal Oxide Redox Cycles",doi:"10.5772/50030",slug:"small-scale-hydrogen-production-from-metal-metal-oxide-redox-cycles",body:'
The industrial production of hydrogen by reforming natural gas is well established. However, this process is energy intensive and process economics are adversely affected as scale is decreased. There are many situations where a smaller supply of hydrogen, sometimes in remote locations, is required. To this end, the steam-iron process, an originally coal-based process, has been re-considered as an alternative. Many recent investigations have shown that hydrogen (H2) can be produced when methane (CH4) is used as the feedstock under carefully controlled process conditions. The chemistry driving this chemical looping (CL) process involves the reduction of metal oxides by methane and the oxidation of lower oxidation state metal oxides with steam. This process utilises oxygen from oxide materials that are able to transfer oxygen and eliminates the need of purified oxygen for combustion. Such a system has the potential advantage of being less energy intensive than reforming processes and of being flexible enough for decentralised hydrogen production from stranded reserves of natural gas. This chapter first reviews the existing hydrogen production technologies then highlights the recent progress made on hydrogen production from small scale CL processes. The development of oxygen carrier materials will also be discussed. Finally, a preliminary economic appraisal of the CL process will be presented.
Hydrogen can be produced from the reaction of feedstock including fossil fuels and biomass with water. Today, 96 % of hydrogen is derived from fossil fuels of which 48 %, 30 % and 18 % originates from natural gas, higher hydrocarbons and coal, respectively and the remaining 4 % comes from electrolysis.Fossil fuel based hydrogen production processes are mature technologies and are currently the most economic routes for large scale hydrogen production.Because coal, natural gas and biomass all contain carbon, carbon dioxide is inevitably produced as a by-product of the energy released.A pictorial overview of the available hydrogen production processes is given in Figure 1. The basics of two commercialised processes, namely steam methane reforming and partial oxidation, are considered in this section. A brief discussion on emerging hydrogen production technology will also be presented.
An overview of existing hydrogen production process from different sources.
Steam reforming of methane (SMR) is one of the most developed and commercially used technologies.Compared to other fossil fuels, natural gas, which contains mostly methane, is a cost effective feedstock for making hydrogen.This is because methane has a high hydrogen-to-carbon ratio, meaning the yield of hydrogen is higher. Today, almost 48 % of the world’s hydrogen is produced from this technology [1].In this process, hydrogen is produced according to the following two reactions:
CH4 + H2O → CO + 3H2∆H = 206 kJ/mol
CO + H2O → CO2 + H2∆H = -41 kJ/mol
In the SMR, the natural gas feedstock is first reformed in the presence of steam over a catalyst at elevated temperatures (700 – 925 C) to produce a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen (syngas) as shown in Equation 1.Then, the yield of hydrogen is further increased by reacting the carbon monoxide with make up steam via the water-gas shift reaction (WGS) as shown in Equation 2.Finally, hydrogen is separated and purified by processes such as pressure swing absorption, wet scrubbing or membrane separation.SMR is currently the most cost effective hydrogen production process which offers a minimum energy efficiency of 80 – 85 % in a large scale facility if residual steam is re-used [1].Furthermore, the process is economically viable for large scale operation [2].According to Pardor et al.[3], the price of hydrogen produced from SMR ranges from $5.97/GJ for a 25.4 million Nm3/day plant to $7.46/GJ for a 1.34 million Nm3/day plant.A figure of $11.22/GJ was estimated for hydrogen produced from a small facility (0.27 million Nm3/day).However, the price of hydrogen varies with the price of natural gas feedstock.In general, the price of the natural gas feedstock accounts for 52 – 68 % and 40 % of the total cost for large and small SMR plants, respectively.It can be seen that decreasing the scale of operation would lead to an increase in cost of the hydrogen produced.
Hydrogen can also be produced from the partial oxidation (POX) of hydrocarbons over a catalyst at high temperatures (Equation 3).
CH4 + 0.5O2 → CO + 2H2∆H = -36 kJ/mol
The reaction requires the use of high purity oxygen and is mildly exothermic. Similar to the SMR process, the yield and purity of hydrogen may be further increased by the WGS reaction and a subsequent purification process. The reported efficiency of POX is in the range of 66 – 76 % [1]. Mirabal [4] estimated the cost of hydrogen to be $12.43/GJ for a 2.83 million Nm3/day plant, which is higher than that produced from SMR. However, based on the use of coke off-gas and residual oil (both having a price of lower than natural gas), Pardro et al.[3] estimated the price to be in the range of $6.94 – 9.83/GJ for large facilities (1.34 – 2.80 million Nm3/day) and $10.73/GJ for a small facility (capacity is 0.27 million Nm3/day). Similar to SMR, the economics appears more favourable for large scale operations.
Gasification can be used to convert a varied range of solid fuels such as coal and biomass into syngas (Equation 4).
C(s) + H2O → CO + H2∆H = 131 kJ/mol
Coal gasification is a mature process and is commercially available.Although the cost of the coal feedstock is generally much cheaper than natural gas, the price of hydrogen produced from coal gasification process is estimated to be $17.45/GJ.This is higher compared to SMR ($10.26/GJ) and POX ($12.43/GJ), and this is due to the higher capital investment required for coal gasification.Coal is an economically viable option for making hydrogen in very large centralised plants where the demand for hydrogen becomes large enough to support an associated large distribution network and establishment costs.It is therefore seen that coal gasification would become more competitive than SMR and POX as the price of natural gas increases [4].Much of the engineering experience accumulated from coal fired power plant is directly useful for coal gasification.
Water splitting is one of the options for producing hydrogen and has received wide attention.The current reported energy efficiency is between 10 – 27 % and the cost of hydrogen is estimated to be 3-10 times of the hydrogen produced from the SMR process [5]. Biological routes for producing hydrogen are also being considered because of the renewable nature and the mild operating conditions of these processes.These alternative routes have yet to become economically competitive with technologies in practice such as SMR and POX that use fossil fuel feedstock.
There is an ongoing demand for viable processes for producing hydrogen on a small scale for decentralised distribution. For this reason, there is currently much attention being paid to the development of cyclic redox processes or commonly referred as chemical looping (CL) processes for small scale hydrogen production. In addition to the compactness of the process, another advantage is the ability to produce a near sequestration-ready stream of carbon dioxide from the process. The operating concept behind these processes resembles the well-known steam-iron process and is illustrated in Figure 2a. Some widely reported variations and applications include chemical looping combustion (CLC) for power generation and, chemical looping hydrogen production (CLH2). The schematic diagrams representing these processes are shown in Figure 2b and\n\t\t\t\tFigure 2c. A typical chemical looping operation consists of a reduction and an oxidation steps. During the reduction, a metal oxide is used as the oxygen carrier to oxidise carbonaceous fuels (e.g. natural gas, coal or biomass) into carbon dioxide and steam. The reduction can be optimised such that syngas (a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen) can be obtained. Subsequently, the partially or fully reduced metal oxide is oxidised with air or steam to re-generate the original metal oxide and other oxidation products. When steam is used, water is split to produce hydrogen as the main product.
One of the fundamental parameters that determine the overall efficiency of many chemical looping processes is the effectiveness of the oxygen carriers. Therefore many research groups have focused on improving the activity and the stability of oxygen carrying materials. This section reports the latest developments of oxygen carrier materials for CL applications.
a) The traditional steam-iron process and chemical looping (CL) processes, b) CLC for power generation, and c) CLH2.
The selection of an oxygen carrier requires comprehensive appraisal of the physiochemical properties of the material.Some properties include reaction kinetics, oxygen content, long-term recyclability and durability, attrition resistance, heat capacity, melting points, tendency to form coke, resistance to carbon deposition, cost and toxicity [6, 7].Nevertheless, the most important requirement is the thermodynamic feasibility of oxygen transfer to and from these oxygen carriers.Figure 3 shows the changes in Gibbs free energy (∆G) of some oxygen carriers commonlystudied for CL applications. Some selected properties are provided in Table 1.
For the current topic, the oxygen carrier can be divided into two groups based on their ability to oxidise methane. The first group contains oxides that are capable of only partially oxidising methane into carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Some representative redox couples are ZnO/Zn, V2O5/V and CeO2/Ce2O3 couples. The second group contains oxides that are able to support the complete oxidation of methane. NiO/Ni, CuO/Cu and Co3O4/Co are redox couples that fall into this category. In addition, the oxidations of these reduced oxides are favourable over a wide temperature range as indicated by the negative ∆G values in Figure 3. Therefore these three redox couples are often regarded as good candidates for CL applications.
Variation of Gibbs free energy of reactions, a) CH4 combustion (CH4 + 4/yMxOy→ CO2 + 2H2O + 4x/yM) and b) CH4 partial oxidation (CH4 + 1/yMxOy→ CO + 2H2 + x/yM), c) steam oxidation (xM + yH2O → MxOy + yH2), and d) air oxidation (xM + y/2O2→ MxOy).See Table 1 for the legends used.
Number | Redox couple | Melting point [°C] | Oxygen transport capacity [kg/kg-metal] | Price [USD/t] |
1 | NiO/Ni | 1955/1455 | 0.27 | 21,800 |
2 | CuO/Cu | 1326/1084 | 0.25 | 7,680 |
3 | Fe3O4/Fe | 1597/1538 | 0.38 | 100 |
4 | MnO2/Mn | 535/1267 | 0.58 | 1,500 |
5 | Co3O4/Co | 895/1495 | 0.36 | 39,700 |
6 | WO3/W | 1472/3407 | 0.26 | 27,000 |
7 | ZnO/Zn | 1975/420 | 0.24 | 2,250 |
8 | SnO/Sn | 1080/232 | 0.13 | 21,000 |
9 | In2O3/In | 1913/157 | 0.21 | 565,000 |
10 | MoO2/Mo | 1100/2623 | 0.33 | 34,900 |
11 | V2O5/V | 670/1910 | 0.78 | 25,600 |
12 | CeO2/Ce2O3 | 2400/2230 | 0.06 | 24,611 |
Selected properties of oxygen carriers.
Compared to oxidation using molecular oxygen, the ∆G shifts to higher values when steam is used as the oxidising agent.As a result, it is not thermodynamically feasible to produce hydrogenby reacting steam with metallic Ni, Cu or Co.MnO2/Mn and SnO/Sn couples are also not reactive when they are brought into contact with steam. ZnO/Zn and V2O5/V couples react with steam to produce hydrogen, however, their melting points in either the oxide or the metallic form are too low for CL applications in general.Despite the moderate ∆G values associated with Fe3O4/Fe, WO3/W and CeO2/Ce2O3 redox couples, the reported redox kinetics and thermo-mechanicalstrength have made them appealing candidates for CL processes.The Fe3O4/Fecouple also possesses a relatively high oxygen content, and is widely available, non-toxic and less costly.When iron oxide is used, it is only possible to oxidise the reduced state to magnetite (Fe3O4) due to thermodynamic limitations.
A number of studies have employed non-gaseous fuels including coal [8-13], biomass [14-17] and pyrolysis oil [18, 19].In a syngas chemical looping (SCL) process, the fuel is first converted into syngas in a separate gasification unit.The syngas generated is then used in the reduction cycle and steam is used to regenerate the oxide and to produce hydrogen.An additional air oxidation cycle may be required to regenerate the oxygen carrier. The SCL process generally has lower efficiency for conversion, owing to the low conversions in the syngas generation step and the steam oxidation step [8].Li et al. [9] examined the cyclic performance of a Fe-based oxygen carrier at 830 C when a simulated syngas was used.They showed that the syngas was completely converted in the reduction half cycle giving an oxygen carrier conversion of 94.6 %.For the steam half cycle, the reduced oxygen carrier was oxidised into Fe3O4 producing a stream of 99.8 % pure hydrogen.In a separate study, the same group also demonstrated the feasibility of using a moving bed reactor at 900 C for the same reaction[10]. A syngas conversion in excess of 99.5% and an oxygen carrier conversion of 50 % were recorded. A process simulation conducted by Gupta et al. [8] confirmed that the maximum efficiency for the SCL process could reach 74.2 % for hydrogen production which is comparable to or more effective than steam reforming (65-75 %), partial oxidation (50 %) and gasification (43-47 %). Considering the complexity of the SCL, it is clear that footprint of the process would be large because of the large number of unit operations involved in its design.
When coal is used as the feedstock, the solid fuelcan be used to reduce oxygen carriers directly.This process is often referred as the coal direct chemical looping (CDCL) process because a gasification unit, as well as air separation and gas cleaning units, is not required[12]. The CDCL process is reported to be significantly more efficient than the SCL process for hydrogen production [6, 13].Yang et al. [11] investigated the CDCL process using a lignite-derived char in a fluidised bed reactor. The complete gasification of the char achieved a maximum carbon dioxide concentration of 90% in the presence of a K2CO3 catalyst.A high oxygen carrier-to-char ratioimproved the complete gasification to carbon dioxide but this also led to lower hydrogen yields as a result of low conversions of the oxygen carrier.Under the optimum condition, thehydrogen production efficiency was reported to be 50.2 % at an oxygen carrier conversion of 70.2 %. The use of counter-current moving bed reactor was found to improve oxygen carrier conversion, and achieved (due to the significantly low mass required) a char conversion of > 90 % and an overall carbon dioxide capturing efficiency of > 95 %[6].
Biomass has found limited applications for SCL processes. This is because of the high water content generally associated with biomass feedstocks.Sime et al. [14] investigated the use of gases derived from woody biomass gases for SCL and reported that such process was less efficient and more costly than conventional gasification processes for producing hydrogen. Li et al. [16] pointed out that it is critical to reduce the moisture content in the biomass feedstock to less than 5 %in order to achieve a conversion of 56.6 % in gasification.Similar to other solid feedstocks, unreacted biomass must be separated before the oxygen carrier is circulated to the steam reactor.Otherwise, the unreacted biomass could be gasified and lower the purity of the hydrogen produced.
Natural gas is an efficient feedstock for CL processes since it is fed to the process in gaseous form. This minimises the need of solid handling and improvesmass transfer processes [20]. Cormos (2011) recently assessed and compared hydrogen production from a natural gas CL process and a coal/lignite based SCL [21]. It was concluded that when natural gas was used to produce hydrogen, the recorded efficiency was 78.1 %. This value was higher compared to the values of 65.7 % and 63.3 % recorded for the coal- or lignite-based SCL processes, respectively. In addition, the separation and capturing of CO2 were said to be more effective when natural gas was used. Another clear advantage of using natural gas as the feedstock is that no additional up-stream unit operations are required for producing syngas.
As mentioned previously, redox kinetics and thermal stability are the two main issues associated with the use of oxide-based oxygen carriers for CL processes.In order to improve their performance, support and/or promoting materials to assist in material stabilisation are often added to improve the performance of the metal oxide. A comprehensive list of oxygen carriers developed for various CL applications in the last decade can be found in an excellent review published by Adanez et al. [7]. This section highlights some recent studies on developing novel oxygen carriers.
Otsuka et al. [22, 23] investigated the effects of 26 different metal dopants on iron oxide.It was found that some metal dopants were more effective in preventing the iron oxide from sintering and some were more effective in facilitating the splitting of water.Among these 26 metals, Mo and Cr were found to improve the thermal stability of iron oxide in the cyclic process.The improved redox stability after the introduction of Mo metal (5 mol%) was also reported by Wang et al. [24], and Liu and Wang [25].Despite the fact that Cr addition could improve the sintering resistance of iron oxide, temperature programmed analysis revealed that a temperature of ca. 500 C is required to split water when compared to a temperature of 420 Cas required by iron oxide modified with Mo [22].In addition, no oxidation of methane was observed when the temperature was lower than 700 C [26].It was proposed that the main role of Cr and Mo dopants was to partially transform the iron oxide into the ferrite structure (MxFe3-xO4, M = Mo and Cr) [22, 26] and therefore inhabited the agglomeration of neighbouring particles.
Some metals including Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Ir and Pt have been shown to improve reaction kinetics by facilitating the dissociation of hydrogen, methane and water.Otsuka et al. [22] reported that the improvement on splitting of water into hydrogen by metal in a CLprocess increased inthe order of Rh > Ir > Ag > Pd > Ru.Ryu et al. [27] also found that Rh was more effective than Pb, Pt and Ru in enhancing the hydrogen production step in a chemical looping process. Therole of Rh was to decrease the onset temperature for the water splitting reaction.A XANES/EXAFS study on Rh-Cr-added iron oxide revealed that Rh was also able to form Rh-Fe alloy upon reductions[26].However, Rh segregated in the alloy structure when it contactedsteam and thus accelerated the sintering of iron oxide.This led to the observed deterioration in redox activity after repeated redox operation.Although Ni- and Cu-ferrites also exhibited an enhancing effect on redox kinetics, Ni and Cu were shown not to be effective in improving sintering resistance [28, 29].
The addition of a second and a third metal have been shown to further improve the redox activity [22, 24-27, 30, 31]. Common choices of metal combinations often consisted of a first metal such as Rh, Pt, Ni and Cu which is thought to catalytically activates the reducing gas (e.g. hydrogen, carbon monoxideormethane), and a second metal such as Mo and Cr which exhibitsa structural stabilising effect.Otsuka et al [22] examined the addition of Rh and Mo to iron oxide for the chemical storage of hydrogen and observed an enhancement in reaction kinetics and a reduction in reaction temperature for hydrogen formation.Most importantly, the Mo provided good stabilising effect and largely mitigated the sintering of the oxygen carrier. The effect of bimetal addition on iron oxide was also investigated under methane oxidation at a temperature range of 200 – 800 C by Takenaka et al. [30]. The methane conversion was found to increase by adding a second metal and the performance increased in the order of Rh-Cr > Ir-Cr > Pt-Cr > Ni-Cr > Pd-Cr > Cu-Cr = Co-Cr.Other research groups also reported similar findings [24, 25, 27, 31].Despite the improvement in reactivity and thermal stability, most of the bimetallic modified oxygen carriers produce carbon upon methane oxidation.The production of carbon usually leads to a rapid deterioration of the oxygen carrier and is the source of carbon oxides (COx) contamination.
Another approach to improve the thermal stability of oxygen carriers is to introduce inert support materials such as Al2O3, SiO2, TiO2 and ZrO2.Adanez et al. [32] assessed the reactivity of 240 different types of oxygen carriers composed of Cu, Fe, Mn or Ni supported on SiO2, TiO2, ZrO2, Al2O3 or sepiolite (Mg4Si6O15(OH)2∙6H2O) over a temperature range of 950 – 1300 C.The best Fe-based oxygen carriers were those supported on Al2O3 or ZrO2.It was also found that the formation of aluminate (NiAl2O4 and CoAl2O4) lowered the oxygen transport capacity and hence reduced the redox activity [33].SiO2 was found to be the most suitable support for Cu-based oxygen carrier because it remained inert at high temperatures and did not form Cu-SiO2 composites.However, Fe-based oxygen carriers showed a strong tendency to form unreactive iron silicates with SiO2[34].ZrO2 and TiO2 were suggested as the best supports for Mn- and Ni-based oxygen carriers, respectively.In terms of the cyclic redox activity, however, TiO2 supported Ni-based oxygen carriers showed lower reactivities, compared to Ni supported on Al2O3. This is because NiO is more prone to react with TiO2 and form NiTiO3 which is known to be less reducible than NiO. It also exhibits a high carbon formation tendency.Therefore, Al2O3 supported Ni-based oxides were considered to be the most promising oxygen carrier for a large scale CLC applications.
Some metal doped iron oxide oxygen carriers were also supported on ZrO2 for CL processes [29, 35-37]. Kodama et al. [35, 36] showed improved thermal resistance for the Ni- and Co-ferrites when ZrO2 support was introduced. The reported methane conversion and carbon monoxide selectivity by using Ni0.39Fe2.61O2 (33 wt%)/ZrO2 were 46-58% and 44-48%, respectively. However, since Fe and Ni are excellent catalysts for methane decomposition, the material was severely deactivated by coke and the subsequent carbide species formed. Because Cu has lower activity for methane decomposition, CuFe2O4 was used to produce syngas from methane [29]. The results showed that no COx was formed during the operation. The same group also found beneficial effects of ZrO2 and CeO2 supports for CuFe2O4 (20 wt%) [38]. Compared to the methane conversion obtained for CuFe2O4 (34–56 %), the methane conversions achieved by CuFe2O4/CeO2 and CuFe2O4/ZrO2 were 89-92 % and 74-83 %, respectively. From these results, CeO2 was found to be more active in promoting methane oxidation while ZrO2 was considered to be a more effective stabiliser against thermal sintering. Since CeO2 is known to be able to oxidise soot through lattice oxygen transfer [39, 40], it is thought that this property could help to minimise carbon formation when CuFe2O4/CeO2 is used. Cha et al. [37] also confirmed that CeO2 modified CuFe2O4/ZrO2 was a more effective oxygen carrier than Ni- modified CuFe2O4/ZrO2 for chemical looping syngas and hydrogen productions.
A recent study conducted by Yamaguchi et al. [41] also demonstrated the improved performance of CeO2/ZrO2 modified Fe2O3for producing hydrogen from methane-steam cycles.Some results obtained from temperature programmed analysis and isothermal reduction are shown in Figure 4 and are summarised in Table 2.Figure 4a shows that CeO2 and ZrO2 altered the redox properties of Fe2O3 with the most significant enhancement observed for the reducibility at low temperatures (< 600 C) (see Table 2).The isothermal reduction analysis (Figure4b) further confirmed the accelerated reduction kinetics after the introduction of CeO2 and ZrO2.The observed overall enhancement was derived from the combined effects of CeO2 and ZrO2.CeO2 improved the reducibility of Fe2O3 while ZrO2 provided thermal stability and helped to suppress the reduction of FeO to metallic Fe.The latter was supported by the incomplete reduction of Fe15Ce10Zr75 and Fe40Zr60 (Table2).Similar observations were also reported when WO3 was modified with CeO2 and ZrO2[42].The synergic effect provided by CeO2 and ZrO2 effectively defined the redox window of the oxygen carriers.An immediate consequence is the minimisation of carbon and carbide formation during repeated redox cycles.This can be demonstrated by the fact that COx free hydrogen was produced by using CeO2-ZrO2 modified WO3 in a methane-steam CL process [42]. The addition of a small amount of Mo or Cr could further improve the thermal stability of this type of oxygen carrier.Galvita et al. [43]showed the addition of 2 wt% of Mo to Fe2O3/Ce0.5Zr0.5O2 could maintain a stable level of hydrogen production over 100 cycles in a cyclic water-gas shift process.In this reaction, the main role of Mo is to improve the dispersion of Fe-Mo oxide material and minimise the migration of material across the boundary of adjacent particles [44].
Effect of CeO2 and/or ZrO2 addition on Fe2O3 reducibility during a) temperature programmed and b) isothermal reduction with H2[41].
Oxygen carrier | Oxygen removal1 [mg-O/g-Fe] | Overall reduction efficiency2 [wt%] | H2 yield [μmol/g-Fe] | H2 purity [%] |
Fe100 | 125 | 98.1 | 15 | 11.5 |
Fe60Ce40 | 169 | 97.1 | 368 | 49.1 |
Fe40Zr60 | 153 | 66.7 | 88 | 17.4 |
Fe15Ce10Zr75 | 255 | 77.2 | 6283 | 97.5 |
A summary of oxides used in methane-steam redox cycle [41]. 1The oxygen removal represents a cumulative weight reduction at temperatures < 600 C during the TPR analysis (Figure4a). 2The overall reduction efficiency represents a final reduction efficiency obtained during isothermal reduction analysis at 750 C for 240 min.
Recently, many naturally occurring minerals and ashy waste produced from industry have been considered for use as oxygen carriers. These materials include natural ilmenite (Fe and Ti mixed oxide often denoted as FeTiO3), iron ore, manganese ore and oxide scales. An advantage of using these materials is the low cost compared to many synthetic oxygen carriers. In addition, naturally occurring oxides usually contain Si, Al, Mg, and many other metals which have been shown to modify the physiochemical properties of the materials to various degrees. Leion et al. [45] investigated the feasibility of using ilmenite, iron ores, oxide scales from steel industry and manganese ores as oxygen carriers in a fluidised bed reactor. They concluded that many Fe based oxides, particularly ilmenite, were suitable for CLC application. However, the Mn-based oxides showed poor mechanical stability and fluidising properties, and were determined to be non-ideal candidates for this application. In a separate study, Leion et al. [46] also proved the feasibility of using ilmenite to completely capture carbon dioxide upon its reaction with syngas and reported a moderate conversion when methane is used. Adanez et al. [47] observed increases in ilmenite, and syngas and methane conversions with increasing the time on stream and the number of redox cycles. Another important finding was the enhanced activation of ilmenite when the raw ilmenite material was subjected to an oxidation pre-treatment. The authors also found the redox properties of ilmenite changed with the temperature of oxidative pre-treatment. However, the positive effect only became apparent when the ilmenite was first oxidised to pseudobrookie (Fe2TiO5) which is usually formed above 1000 C.
Pre-oxidation temperature [°C] | Major crystalline phases1 | Oxygen transfer capacity [wt%] |
Raw | FeTiO3, TiO2 | 1.1 |
800 | Fe2O3, TiO2 | 1.0 |
1000 | Fe2TiO5, TiO2 | 1.8 |
Oxygen transfer capacity and major phase of various ilmenite samples before and after pre-oxidation. 1 Phases were identified by XRD analysis
Leion et al. [46] also reported that an ilmenite sample remained active with minimum carbon formation after a continuous operation for three days at 975 C.Furthermore, natural ilmenite is known to react just as well with petroleum coke, syngas and methane as synthetically prepared Fe2O3/MgAl2O4[48].Lorente et al. [49] reported a better hydrogen storage capacity and redox stability when iron ore samples was used instead of pure Fe2O3.The improvement in the overall redox performance was due to the presence of impurities including SiO2, Al2O3, MgO and CaO.Among these impurities, Al2O3 and SiO2 are considered to be good stabilisers against sintering, while CaO and MgO are able to facilitate kinetics of water splitting.
The life time of the oxygen carrier is a critical factor in determining the efficiency and viability of CL processes.In general, the efficacies of oxygen carriersdecrease over time because of material alternation by sintering and/or coking.
Generally, for the CLH2 application, a relatively high temperature is required for driving the reduction reaction in order to achieve satisfactory conversion and kinetics. As a result, the high temperature environment irreversibly alters the structure and the morphology of oxygen carriers, and lowers the activity during the cyclic operation. The sintering process starts as two spherical particles adhere to one another. The process involves the diffusion of metal cations between neighbouring spheres. Figure 5 shows the SEM images of a pure Fe2O3 sample and the same material recovered after six methane-steam redox cycles performed at 750 C. Severe sintering is clearly evident. The heat generated from the redox reactions could accelerate the rate of sintering. When oxygen carriers sinter and agglomerate inside a fluidised bed reactor, bed defluidisation may occur. The change in solid circulation and the subsequent occurrence of gas by-pass would significantly lower the gas-solid contact and hence the overall conversion efficiency.
SEM images of Fe2O3 sample before and after six methane-steam redox cycles at 750 Cand representative schematics of neck growth between two particles[41].5
One of the approaches to minimise material sintering is to inhibit the diffusion in the solid particle.The complete reduction of the oxygen carrier to the corresponding zero valent metal is also a main cause of sintering since most metals agglomerates easily under elevated temperature conditions.Fukase and Suzuka [50] reported that the formation and accumulation of FeO during CL operation was mainly responsible for deactivation when iron oxide was used as the oxygen carrier.They also pointed out the importance of balancing the stoichiometry of reduction and oxidation of iron oxide and to avoid the formation of FeO by controlling reduction and oxidation temperatures.It is also important that the reduced iron species were completely oxidised to Fe3O4 phase.This mitigates the crystallite growth of the iron oxide and effectively prevents it from any structural changes.
Carbon is a common by-product of the CL process when a carbonaceous fuel is used as the feedsstock.Two possible routes for carbon formation are the decomposition of methane (Eq. 5) and the Boudouard reaction (Eq. 6). Methane decomposition is an endothermic reaction, and it is thermodynamically favourable at a high temperature, while the Boudourard reaction is favourable at a low temperature.These reactions could become significant in the presence of catalysts.Upon reduction, many metal oxides such as NiO, CuO and Fe2O3 could give rise to active metal centres which are able to rapidly produce carbon on the oxygen carrier surfaces.Once the solid carbon is formed, it will be carried over to the subsequent oxidation cycle where it is gasified to produce COx.When this happens, the purity of the hydrogen produced will be inevitably lowered.
CH4→ C + 2H2∆H = 74.6 kJ/mol
2CO → C + CO2∆H = -172.4 kJ/mol
In general, as the oxygen ratio in the system decreases, there is a higher tendency towards carbon formation. The oxygen ratio is defined as the actual amount of oxygen contained in the metal oxide to the stoichiometric amount of oxygen required for complete oxidation of the fuel. It is also clear that carbon formation becomes more favourable as the oxygen in the oxygen carrier is depleted through the reaction with fuel. Cho et al. [51] reported that when more than 80 % of the available oxygen in the Ni-based oxygen carrier was consumed, the rate of carbon formation increased rapidly. This was accompanied by a drastic decrease in the fuel conversion because of the decreasing oxygen content available for oxidation. Galvita and Sundmacher [43] reported that a maximum Fe reduction of 60 % largely minimised carbon formation and a high purity hydrogen stream (< 20 ppm CO) could be obtained.
In view of the lack of information on the cost of hydrogen produced from the CLprocess, the preliminary economic analysis and greenhouse gas footprint (GHG equivalent emissions in terms of carbon dioxide) of a methane-steam redox process will be provided in this section. A simple design for hydrogen production via a two-reactor layout wasfirst obtained by considering the mass and energy balances as well as the overall pressure balance in order to establish a circulation of solids between the two reactors. The means of exchanging heat (direct, indirect, counter-current, available surface area, approach temperatures etc) has been considered, but has not been addressed further in this study. The pressure balance was affected by variables including the physical properties of the solid and gas, fluid velocity, solids recirculation rate as well as the geometry of the system.The pressure balance was solved using a one-dimensional model[52].The basis of the design was a hydrogen production rate of 49 kg/h (or 547 Nm3/h). This process considered the use of iron oxide as the oxygen carrier. Because the reduction of the iron oxide was much slower than its oxidation, a bubbling fluidised bed was chosen for the fuel reactor and a riser for the steam reactor.A particle size and density of the iron oxide particles were assumed to be 160µm and 5850kg/m3, respectively. Other assumptions made for the operation are listed in Table 4.A high solids (i.e. the iron oxide) flow rate was required through the riser in order to meet the mass balance.This resulted in a high pressure drop across the riser, which was reduced by increasing the excess steam used for oxidation of the reduced iron oxide in the riser (at constant superficial gas velocity). The resultant mass balance is given inFigure6 and the CLH2 design is presented in Figure 5.
Steam Reactor (riser) | Downcomer | Fuel Reactor (bubbling fluidised bed) | Loop Seal to Steam Reactor | |
Superficial gas velocity [m/s] | 6.0 | 0.1 | 0.15 | 0.1 |
Temperature [C] | 750 | 700 | 750 | 700 |
Feed gas | Steam | Steam | Natural Gas | Steam |
Feed gas temperature [C] | 240 | 240 | 500 | 240 |
Feed gas pressure [bar] | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 |
Conversion | 100% FeO to Fe3O4 | None | 20% F3O4 to FeO 100% conversion of NG | None |
Residence time required | 1 minute |
Assumptions used in the design of a CLH2process.
A schematic of CLH2processand the mass balance used for hydrogenproduction.Flow rates are represented in kg/hr and compositions in mass percentage.
The process flow diagram including the major peripheral equipment is shown inFigure7. The heat from the exothermic reaction in the riser is used to raise superheated steam at 20 bar and 400 C. This is used to generate electricity, with the steam let down to 5 bar and 240 C. 25% of the steam is used as feed to the steam reactor and to fluidise the two loop seals. The water vapour content in the hydrogen product stream is due to the excess steam fed to the riser as well as from steam used to fluidise the loop seals. This is condensed out and returned with the water from the steam turbine to the boiler, in order to reduce the fresh water requirement. The heating required for the endothermic reaction in the fuel reactor is reduced by pre-heating the natural gas using the waste heat from the off gas from the fuel reactor. For the current heat balance purpose it is assumed that there are different ways of supplying this remaining heat. One of the possible ways of supplying direct heat is by including a third combustion loop operated at higher temperature, which is outside the scope of this study.
Steam reactor | Steam down-comer | Fuel reactor | Units | ||||
Gas flow | Entering | 957 | 16 | 159 | Nm3/h | ||
Exiting | 457 | 14 | 137 | Nm3/h | |||
Superficial gas velocity | 6.0 | 0.1 | 0.15 | m/s | |||
Gs | Entering | 346 | 346 | 51 | kg/m2s | ||
Internal diameter | 0.32 | 0.32 | 0.83 | m | |||
Temperature | 750 | 700 | 750 | C | |||
Pressure | Bottom | 113 | 98 | 107 | kPa,g | ||
Top | 102.45 | 179.31 | 179.31 | kPa,g | |||
Height | Total internal | 15 | - | 3.9 | m | ||
Gas exit (from top of riser) | 0.8 | - | - | m | |||
Downcomer (not including cyclone) | - | 7 | - | m | |||
Bubbling bed /loop seal | - | 0.7 | 1.1 | m | |||
Height relative to datum | |||||||
Bottom | 0.0 | 5.1 | 1.9 | m | |||
Loop seal entrance to riser | 1.2 | - | - | m | |||
Solids voidage (ε) | 0.88 | 0.47 | 0.53 |
Reactor configuration for CLH2process.
Proposed flow diagram of CLH2 process, showing peripheral equipment.
The greenhouse gas emissions associated with the production of a unit of hydrogen were calculated using lifecycle assessment (LCA) techniques. Principally, LCA is a technique used to assess the environmental impacts of all stages associated with the production, use and disposal of a product or delivery of a service (product life from cradle to grave).In the case of a fossil fuel for example, this includes not only the combustion emissions associated with the fuel’s use, but also includes pre-combustion or upstream emissions resulting from the extraction, production, transportation, processing, conversion and distribution of the fuel.The international standards contained in the ISO 14040 series [53] provide a basic framework in which to undertake LCA.A more general introduction to LCA may be found in Horne et al. [54]and Weidema et al. [55].In this study, all fuel production and feedstock supply processes, as specified in Figure 7, were included in the LCA. The analysis is therefore limited to processes upstream of the refinery gate and thus does not include the delivery and combustion of hydrogen.Emission results are reported using the concept of a global warming potential (GWP), which enables different greenhouse gases to be compared and expressed using an equivalent carbon dioxide (gCO2e) value.Data used for the analysis are summarised in Table 6 based on an hourly hydrogen production rate of 49 kg.The GHG impact of the CLH2 processunder consideration is 18,690 gCO2e/kg H2 produced or 154 gCO2e/MJ H2.The impact is dominated by the need to supply process heat to the fuel reactor(redox heater emissions:9,628 gCO2/kg H2) as shown in Figure 8.
Inputs | Value | Units | Comments |
Resources | |||
Natural gas | 99 | kg | Natural gas for reaction |
Oxide material | 1.26 | kg | Yearly make-up (per hour) |
Water | 440 | kg | Make-up water (reaction and cooling) |
Energy | |||
Natural gas | 151 | kg | Fuel reactor heat requirement |
Electricity | 189 | kW | Net electricity requirement |
Outputs | |||
Hydrogen | 49 | kg | Compressed hydrogen output |
Emissions | |||
H2O | 217 | kg | Fuel reactor (stack emissions) |
CO2 | 272 | kg | Fuel reactor (stack emissions) |
CO2 | 419 | kg | Fuel reactor (heater emissions) |
LCA inputs/outputs (per hour) for the CLH2 process.
Redox emissions breakdown (per kg H2).
Preliminary results demonstrate the need to optimise the delivery of heat to the fuel reactor. The introduction of a third combustion loop operated at higher temperature is one such means to reduce upstream emissions. However, this may negatively influence total capital expenditure.The literature reports hydrogen production through current steam reforming technology produces between 9,830 gCO2e/kg H2 (24,000 kg H2/day; midsized facility) and 12,130 gCO2e/kg H2 (480 kg H2/day; distributed facility), and thus are higher than the direct redox process emissions [56], although significantly lower than the total CLH2 emissions.The literature only considered electricity and natural gas related emissions and thus total upstream emissions of existing technologies maybe higher than the reported values.
The commercial viability of the redox process was estimated using cost estimate practices outlined in the literature [56, 57]. Results are reported in $/kg H2. Material and fuel operating expenditure was calculated using the inputs identified in Figure 7, as summarised in the lifecycle analysis section (Table 6). Fixed operating and maintenance costs were calculated based on the total capital expenditure. Battery limit capital expenditure (e.g. redox process) is based on the engineering judgment of the authors, with capital build-up (facilities, engineering, permitting, start-up, contingencies, working capital and land) estimated using a percentage of the battery limit cost. Capital charges are calculated using a percentage of total capital expenses. Importantly, although the estimates may look precise, they are simply estimates based on the judgment of the authors. There remains significant uncertainty about the actual cost of the redox process as it has not been commercially demonstrated. A breakdown of cost data is provided in Table 7.
Initial costing estimates show that the redox process may produce hydrogen at $8.93/kg ($9.36/kg, including carbon tax). The cost breakdown demonstrates that onsite storage of compressed hydrogen represents a significant expense. However, this arises from the conversion of stranded methane. If demand for hydrogen is identified close to a stranded gas reserve, storage costs will decrease significantly. Delivery of compressed hydrogen represents an additional cost that has not been considered in this analysis. Literature cost estimates for at gate hydrogen production via steam reforming, using current technology, range between $1.51/kg (midsize facility: 24,000 kg H2/day) to $3.68/kg (distributed facility: 480 kg H2/day facility). Hence the hydrogen at gate cost for the CLH2 process is higher than steamreforming technology. Electrolysis production of hydrogen ranges between $4.94 and $6.82 per kg for a midsize and distributed facility respectively and thus is closer to CLH2production costs [56]. Experience gained through the commercialisation and deployment of the redox technology is expected to reduce costs, particularly capital build-up costs. However the stranded nature of the product may significantly increase total delivered hydrogen cost.
Expense | $M/yr | Comment |
OpEX | Variable (fuel and materials) | |
Oxide material | 0.55 | $50/kg |
Natural gas | 0.20 | Reaction feed and reducer heating |
Electricity | 0.12 | Net electricity demand |
Water | 0.01 | Make-up supply |
Total OpEX | 0.88 | |
CapEX | $M | |
CLH2 reactor | 10.0 | |
H2 Compression | 0.44 | $3,000/kW capacity |
H2 Storage | 5.97 | $26,417/m3 capacity; 5 days storage |
Total process units | 16.42 | |
General facilities | 3.28 | 20 % of process unit CapEX |
Engineering | 2.46 | 15 % of process unit CapEX |
Contingencies | 1.64 | 10 % of process unit CapEX |
Working capital | 0.82 | 5 % of process unit CapEX |
Total CapEX | 24.62 | |
Balance | $M/yr | |
OpEx (variable) | 0.88 | |
OpEx (fixed) | 0.49 | 2 % of total CapEX |
Capital charge | 2.46 | 10 % of total CapEX |
Carbon Tax | 0.18 | $23/T CO2 |
Total ($M/yr) | 4.02 | |
Total ($/kg H2) | 8.93 | (ex. carbon tax) |
9.36 | (inc. carbon tax) |
Redox process cost estimates.
The feasibility of producing hydrogen from the metal/metal oxide redox process has been demonstrated in the literature. This process offers several advantages including the ability to produce hydrogen of high purity and a concentrated stream of carbon dioxide. Most importantly this process eliminates the need for a supply of high purity oxygen and a water gas shift process that are generally required by commercial processes. However, this redox process is not regarded as a fully developed technology and further R&D development is required for commercialisation.
In view of the literature, much research effort has been devoted to formulating novel oxygen carrier materials. Although several types of improved oxygen carrier materials have been identified, full appraisals of their performance and further optimisation studies are required.Iron oxidesand nickel oxides appear to be attractive candidates for this application in terms of their activity. However, their thermal stabilities need further improvement. Current practices include doping, introducing a diffusional barrier provided by a second oxide, and/or adding a second oxide with higher oxygen storage capacity. There are also a limited number of studies that investigate the life time of oxygen carriers. Apart from chemical stability, the changes in the physical properties such as size and attrition of the carrier particles during fluidisation have received little attention and should be addressed in future research. It is viewed strongly that improvement in these areas would significantly increase process efficiency and economic viability of the cyclic redox process.
The lack of pilot scale studies also impedes the commercialisation of cyclic redox and chemical looping processes. Limited data are available for process design, scale-up and optimisation. For example, the transfer of the oxygen carrier particles between oxidation and reduction is a critical issue when it comes to process design.Fixed bed, moving bed and circulating fluidised bed have been proposed, and the choice of reactor will depend on the reaction kinetics and the required flow dynamics of the process. Because the cyclic redox process is considered as an unsteady process, the definition of the operation window of the process will be determined by limiting the upper and the lower oxidation states of the metal/metal oxide couple. This parameter has a direct impact on the overall conversion efficiencies, process designs and economics. Since the redox reactions usually take place at temperatures above 600 C, most of the sensible heat stored in the gas existing from the oxidation and reduction reactors can be used to generate power with a steam generator.The co-production of excess electricity would reduce the cost of the hydrogen produced and increase overall process viability. Hence, the issue of heat management requires much closer examination when it comes to process optimisation.
Finally, the current preliminary LCA-Economic study has made the first attempt to provide an indicative price of hydrogen produced from the redox process. Although the cost of hydrogen produced from the redox process is higher than hydrogen produced from other commercial processes, several design parameters have been identified as the areas for future improvement. It is seen that the LCA techniques are valuable tools for process optimisation.
The authors acknowledge the support from CSIRO Petroleum and Geothermal Research Portfolio in conducting this study
One of the main challenges in computational mechanics is the prediction of cracks and fragmentation in dynamic fracture. There are high demands on the modeling side, but mainly the complicated structure and the nonregular behavior of the cracks turn numerical simulations into a difficult task. Every crack in a solid forms a new surface of a priori unknown position, which needs to be identified. Different discretization techniques have been developed to solve such problems, for example the cohesive element technique [1, 2, 3], the extended finite element method [4, 5], eroded finite elements or eigenfracture strategies [6, 7], and phase-field approaches [8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13].
\nThe numerical techniques to treat the moving boundary problem of crack propagation can roughly be divided into two different strategies: sharp interface and diffuse interface modeling. The sharp interface approach describes a crack as a new boundary \n
An alternative way to describe moving boundaries are diffuse interface models where the cracks are smeared over a small but finite length \n
By \n
Here we compare a sharp interface method with crack tracking algorithm and a diffuse interface method for its usability in material identification. Background for our comparison are our experimental investigations on the fracture toughness of ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC). Specifically, we use the cohesive element technique and the phase-field fracture approach to simulate spalling experiments performed with concrete specimen in a Hopkinson-Bar (HB) setup.
\nUHPC is a class of advanced cementitious-based composites whose mechanical strength and durability surpass classical concrete. Typically, UHPC composites are fine grained, almost homogeneous mixtures of small aggregates of cement, a certain amount of silica, other supplements, and a low water content—and so they are more similar to brittle ceramics than to construction concrete. UHPCs are still under development and in order to optimize their composition mechanical tests have to provide material data. Hereby classical experiments determine the concrete’s elasticity as well as its compressive and flexural strength under static loading conditions. For the dynamic properties, however, such as dynamic tensile resistance and fracture energy, it is more complicated to ensure reproducible test conditions. Here numerical simulations in the sense of an inverse analysis are helpful to evaluate the reliability of the obtained material data.
\nHB spalling experiments are test arrangements to determine the failure strength of brittle materials, see [15, 16, 17, 18, 19]. In these tests the experimental setup of a classical HB is modified in such a way, that the induced pressure impulse is transmitted via an incident bar into the specimen, see Figure 1. Within the specimen a superposition of transmitted and reflected waves determines the stress state. For details of the experimental work we refer to another work [20], here we just use the experimental setup to compare two numerical techniques employed for quantitative analysis. Specifically, for fracture parameter identification we need: (i) numerical methods that are able to find the crack position dependent on the external load and the material parameter of the specimen; (ii) the pressure wave and the stress distribution in the fast (cracking) specimen; and (iii) we need to quantify the fracture energy and the critical energy release rate of the material.
\nIllustration of the HB-spallation test setup where the pressure tank accelerates the impactor and the impact-induced wave propagates trough the specimen (left) and UHPC specimen cracked after wave reflection (right).
The remaining paper is organized as follows. In the next section we provide shortly the governing equations of elasto-dynamics and fracture mechanics. Then we introduce the cohesive element technique in Section 3 and the phase-field fracture method in Section 4. Both sections conclude with a short study on the influence of the relevant model parameters. In Section 5 the simulations of the HB spalling experiment are described in detail and a range of values for the fracture parameters is derived. The inverse analysis is presented in Section 6. Here we provide several numerical simulations and evaluate both methods. Such a quantitative comparison is new and has not yet been presented before. In particular, predictive applications of the phase-field approach to fracture are not common by now. A summary of the pros and cons of both methods in Section 7 concludes the paper.
\nWe consider a body of domain \n
Linear-elastic material is presumed to follow Hooke’s law with elastic strain energy density,
\nwhere the Lamé material parameters \n
where \n
with normal vector \n
Let the evolving internal cracks be represented by a set of boundaries \n
where \n
The specific energy \n
Another fracture criterion is the crack tip opening displacement with critical value \n
The motions of a solid can be characterized by recourse to Hamilton’s principle of stationary action. The action of a motion within a closed time interval \n
and with \n
for all admissible test functions \n
For discretization the domain \n
where \n
where \n
Discretization in time is performed by an implicit Euler method, that is, with time step \n
The nucleation and the propagation of cracks are efficiently modeled through the cohesive zone model where fracture is assumed to happen along an extended crack tip triggered by tractions on the crack flanks, [23, 24]. A particularly appealing aspect of the cohesive zone model is that it fits naturally in the framework of finite element analysis and leads directly to the cohesive element technique introduced by Needleman, Ortiz, and co-workers [25, 26, 27]. The main idea of this approach is to add cohesive interfaces between the continuum elements that are able to model crack growth, see Figure 2. We employ this classical cohesive element approach combined with an automatic fragmentation and cohesive surface insertion procedure. The method has proven to be reliable and efficient for numerous applications, see among others [2, 28, 29, 30].
\nDiscretization of a solid with the cohesive element technique (left) and geometry of a 2D and 3D cohesive element, respectively (right). The surfaces \n\n\nΓ\nC\n−\n\n\n and \n\n\nΓ\nC\n+\n\n\n coincide if the element is closed.
In cohesive theories, the displacement jump across a cohesive surface \n
plays the role of a deformation measure while the tractions \n
Typically, isotropic and anisotropic materials behave differently in crack opening (mode-I separation) and sliding (mode-II and mode-III separation) and, therefore, normal and tangential components of the displacement jump across the surface \n
Here the parameter \n
A cohesive law defines the relation between crack opening displacements d and tractions on the crack flanks \n
An appropriate choice of cohesive variable is the maximum attained (effective) crack opening displacement \n
Typical cohesive laws: (left) linear cohesive envelope (blue) of Eq. (17); concave bilinear envelope (red) with \n\n\nδ\n1\n\n=\n\nδ\nc\n\n/\n4\n,\n\nσ\n1\n\n=\n\nσ\nc\n\n/\n4\n\n; and (right) convex trilinear envelope (blue), modification with smooth transitions (red), both with \n\n\nδ\n1\n\n=\n\nδ\nc\n\n/\n4\n,\n\nδ\n2\n\n=\n\nδ\nc\n\n/\n2\n\n, and exponential law (green) of Eq. (19) with \n\n\nδ\n0\n\n=\n3\n\nδ\nc\n\n/\n20\n\n.
The simplest cohesive law for brittle materials has a linear loading envelope
\nThe two parameter cohesive strength \n
There are several modifications of Eq. (17), for example bilinear laws for concrete [31] or convex cohesive laws for ductile materials [32]. A cohesive law that can be adapted to brittle and ductile behavior is the universal binding law of Smith and Ferrante [33].
\nwhere \n
The class of cohesive elements considered here consists of two surface elements, which coincide in the reference configuration of the solid. Each surface element has \n
Basis of the finite element implementation is Hamilton’s principle given in Eq. (7). Inserting the balance of linear momentum and the static boundary conditions gives the deformation power with variation
\nwhere \n
The kinetic energy does not have any support in the cohesive element and only the external virtual work has to be determined. For one cohesive element it is
\nThe tangent stiffness matrix follows by its consistent linearization, with the result \n
Since in most problems the expected crack path is not known the decision where the cohesive elements should be inserted has to be made during the simulation. The analysis proceeds incrementally in time. Our decision criterion is based on the effective tensile stress given in Eq. (15), which has to exceed a threshold. This means, in every time step of the calculations, this condition is checked for each internal face. The faces that met the criterion are flagged for subsequent processing. A cohesive element will be inserted at the flagged face and in this manner, the shape and location of a successive crack front is itself an outcome of the calculations.
\nWithin the finite element mesh the insertion of cohesive elements requires topological changes. The local sequential numbering of the corner-nodes defines the orientation; the mid-side node is subsequently duplicated. Owing to the variable environment of the edges in the triangulation, the data structure has to be adapted as illustrated in Figure 4 with case 1: the marked edge with nodes k\n1 and k\n2 is inside of the body, the edge with all nodes will be duplicated: \n
Classification according to whether the fractured segment has zero (case 1), one (case 2), or two (case 3) nodes on the boundary.
Here we illustrate the influence of the cohesive strength \n
The test specimen with material data \n
During the simulation a cohesive element will be added if the effective traction Eq. (15), here \n
\nFigure 5 demonstrates the crack evolution in a mesh of 25 × 25 squares, each divided into eight triangular finite elements with linear shape functions. The computed stresses \n
Crack propagation of the mode-I tension test with \n\n\nx\ny\n\n∈\n\n0\n1\n\n×\n\n0\n1\n\n\n m2 and an initial crack of length 0.2 m. the meshes show the initial configuration and the crack in the final configuration magnified by a factor of 25. On the right the corresponding stress component \n\n\nσ\ny\n\n\n [MPa] is plotted.
At next we apply the traction \n
Normalized crack growth versus the critical cohesive stress.
The evolving crack in a solid with potential energy of Eq. (5) is represented in the phase-field fracture approach by an additional continuous field \n
The crack-surface density function can be chosen in different ways. If a second-order phase-field approach is considered (like originally proposed in [36, 37]) it has the form
\nThe parameter \n
Analytic solution of a crack in a second- and a fourth-order phase-field.
which has been used, for example, in [38, 39]. However, in a finite element discretization ansatz given in Eq. (24) requires \n
Here we use the ansatz of Eq. (23) and the corresponding total potential energy reads
\nThe tensor \n
At this point the evolution equation for the phase-field parameter s is stated in a general Allen-Cahn form,
\nwhere the nonnegative function \n
This evolution equation can also be deduced in a fully variational manner from energy dissipation, cf. [41]. For more theoretical details we also refer to our recent works [42, 43].
\nThe quadratic form of the elastic strain energy density does not distinguish between tensile and pressure states in the material. A direct use of the formulations Eq. (25) or Eq. (27) would allow a crack to grow also in a compressive regime, which clearly contradicts the physics of the underlying problem. For that reason a split of the elastic strain energy into a tensile and a compressive part is necessary. We use the degradation function \n
we define the positive and the negative parts of the strain tensor as \n
Furthermore, the irreversibility of the crack growth has to be considered. This can be done by Dirichlet constraints on the phase-field parameter, that is \n
The numerical solution of the phase-field fracture model within the finite element framework leads to a coupled-field problem. The weak formulation of the mechanical field is derived in the usual way with the result given in Eq. (9). The weak formulation of the phase-field equation is set up analogously
\nwith test functions \n
The shape and test functions given in Eq. (10) are inserted in Eq. (9) to obtain the discrete mechanical problem of Eq. (11). For the phase-field we approximate
\nwith ansatz functions \n
In short hand notation we get for the mechanical problem the matrix Eq. (11), whereby now the Hookean matrix \n
Here we assumed the same ansatz functions for \n
After the discretization in time by using Eq. (12) the following system of global equations is obtained:
\nNote that the coupled problem of Eq. (11) and Eq. (30) is nonlinear. The solution of the implicit problem is obtained with recourse to a Newton-Raphson method. The necessary linearization (tangent stiffness matrix) can be calculated monolithically or by recourse to a staggered scheme. For the HB experiment we employ an explicit time discretization, which simplifies the solution.
\nWith the problem formulation at hand we now illustrate the influence of the parameter mobility M and regularization length \n
Mode-I tension-test with \n\n\nx\ny\n\n∈\n\n0\n1\n\n×\n\n0\n1\n\n\n, an initial crack of length 0.5, and a prescribed total displacement of \n\n\nu\n¯\n\n=\n±\n1.2\n⋅\n\n10\n\n−\n3\n\n\n\n. Plotted is the normalized crack length a versus the kinematic mobility M.
The kinematic mobility parameter \n
The influence of the length-scale parameter \n
whereby the Lebesgue-measure of a set is denoted with \n
Please note, that the effect of the length-scale parameter \n
In Figure 9 the crack width b is plotted over different values of \n
Influence of the length-scale parameter \n\nε\n\n on the crack width in the converged state of the mode-I-tension-test of \nFigure 8\n. In the left panel the half crack width \n\nb\n/\n2\n\n is plotted versus \n\nε\n\n, the linear regression coefficient is \n\n\nR\n2\n\n=\n0.9986\n\n, and the right plot demonstrates the phase-field s in the diffuse interface zone to the crack in corresponding colors.
A classical Split-Hopkinson-Pressure Bar consists of a steel projectile (striker), an incident bar and a transmission bar. The specimen is placed between the bars and an analysis of the propagating waves allows to deduce its Young’s modulus. For our UHPC mixture the result is \n
Schematics of the HB-spalling experiment and typical incoming stress wave in the middle of the specimen with \n\n\nt\n1\n\n=\n0\n\n and \n\n\nt\n2\n\n=\n\nt\n3\n\n=\n30\n \nμs\n\n.
The aim of spalling experiments is to determine a material’s resistance to fracture, specifically its fracture energy \n
The UHPC specimen has a length of 200 mm and a diameter of 20 mm. Because of the cylindrical symmetry of the problem we can use an axialsymmetric finite element model. This model maps a fully three-dimensional material behavior with the reduced effort of a plane mesh, which allows us to do extensive parametric studies.
\nA first challenge was the correct reproduction of the incident and reflected stress pulses in the specimen. From the strain pulse measured in the incident bar, the difference in impedance, and a low-amplitude pulse measured in the specimen we conclude on the shape of the transmitted wave. It is applied on the (left) boundary as a pressure impulse of trapezoidal form \n
The dynamic tensile resistance of a brittle material \n
Our specimen is meshed uniformly with triangular finite elements (2560 elements) and a mixed-mode cohesive law is employed. We start with the linear envelope given in Eq. (17) and an effective opening displacement \n
\nFigure 11 shows one symmetry half of the specimen at the end of the simulation for different values of \n
Finite element mesh of the specimen with adaptively inserted cohesive elements. A variation of the critical cohesive stress leads to different positions of the crack. Here the inserted but not yet fully open elements are purple, the cracks (open elements) are black.
Obviously, the cohesive stress \n
We further studied the influence of the critical crack opening displacement \n
Influence of the critical crack opening displacement on the time of crack initiation t\n1 and of total crack opening t\n2 for \n\n\nσ\nc\n\n=\n15\n\n\nMPa with (left) \n\n\nδ\nc\n\n\n in the linear cohesive law Eq. (17) and (right) \n\n\nδ\n0\n\n\n in the exponential form with \n\n\nδ\nc\n\n=\n30\n\nμm\n\n\nEq. (19).
In phase-field simulations the fracture energy is the essential parameter for crack growth. Other parameter, like the mobility, are of numerical nature and can be calibrated. Further, the length-scale parameter \n
For a large critical energy release rate, \n
Influence of the specific fracture energy \n\n\nG\nc\n\n\n on the width given in Eq. (32) of the crack; left plot shows the phase-field parameter at crack position in longitudinal direction and right plot shows width b as function of \n\n\nG\nc\n\n\n, approximated with R-coefficient \n\n\nR\n2\n\n≈\n0.9894\n\n.
and the cracked zone is given by \n
\nFigure 14 shows the effect of the specific fracture energy on the time of crack evolution. In opposite to the cohesive model the time difference between crack formation and final state grows linearly with \n
Influence of the specific fracture energy \n\n\nG\nc\n\n\n is shown in left plot and the length parameter \n\nε\n\n on the time of crack initiation t\n1 and of total crack opening t\n2 is shown in the right plot, computed with \n\nM\n=\n0.2\n\n\nμs\n\n−\n1\n\n\n\n and \n\nε\n=\n3\nh\n\n (left), \n\n\nG\nc\n\n=\n90\n\nN\n/\nm\n\n (right).
Further studies have been performed to simulate the experiments, cf. [34], and with the collected knowledge we conclude, that for UHPC the tensile strength \n
The aim of our study was to evaluate the two fracture simulation methods for the use in an inverse analysis where the measured data of the experiment are used to deduce fracture parameters and the obtained results are used to simulate the experiment. The deduced parameters are considered “correct” when the difference between experiment and simulation is small.
\nAfter spallation two fragments result with the crack located at the position where the stress exceeds the tensile resistance first. Depending on the energy of the incoming wave the same process may continue in both fragments with the results of additional cracks. The total fracture energy \n
Cracked specimen in a phase-field simulation and fragments after spallation.
where \n
In order to deduce \n
For the inverse analysis we proceed as follows: we use the data obtained in our previous simulations to define a range of input data \n
We mesh the specimen uniformly with 2560 elements and employ the linear cohesive law from Eq. (17) with parameter \n
In Figure 16 the computed specific fracture energy \n
Determination of the specific fracture energy with the cohesive element technique: displayed are the values \n\n\nG\nc\nsim\n\n\n derived from the velocity and mass data obtained in the simulation versus the input parameter \n\n\nG\nc\ninp\n\n\n of the experiment. The dotted line marks the identity \n\n\nG\nc\nsim\n\n=\n\nG\nc\ninp\n\n\n; the dashed line is approximated with \n\n\nR\n2\n\n≈\n0.9928\n\n and corresponds roughly to \n\n\nG\nc\nsim\n\n=\n1.5\n\nG\nc\ninp\n\n\n.
For phase-field simulations we use a finer mesh of 5760 elements, \n
Since the phase-field model is a diffuse interface approach, which does give a discrete distinction between the both states, it is necessary to specify tolerances for the states \n
In Figure 17 the computed specific fracture energy \n
Determination of the specific fracture energy with the phase-field fracture approach: displayed are the values \n\n\nG\nc\nsim\n\n\n derived from the velocity and mass data obtained simulations with \n\nε\n=\n5\n/\n2\n \nmm\n\n, \n\ns\n\n\nt\n1\n\n\n=\n0.8\n\n, \n\ns\n\n\nt\n2\n\n\n=\n0.2\n\n versus the input parameter \n\n\nG\nc\ninp\n\n\n of the experiment. The dotted line marks the identity \n\n\nG\nc\nsim\n\n=\n\nG\nc\ninp\n\n\n; the dashed line is approximated with \n\n\nR\n2\n\n≈\n0.9969\n\n and corresponds well to \n\n\nG\nc\nsim\n\n=\n0.9\n\nG\nc\ninp\n\n\n.
In the previous we compared the possibilities of a sharp interface method and a diffuse interface method for crack nucleation and quantitative dynamic fracture analysis. Exemplarily, we validated investigations on the fracture toughness of high-performance concrete in a Hopkinson bar spallation experiment whereby, in particular, the fracture energy values have been determined. Both methods, the cohesive element technique and the phase-field fracture approach, allow numerical simulations of crack growth with an a priori unknown path, and both methods allow to determine the related material parameter in a quantitative manner. Reliability, precision, and numerical costs differ however. Pros and cons of both methods are summarized in the following.
\nThe core of the cohesive zone model is a cohesive law, \n
Sensitive for the cohesive element technique is the critical traction for adaptive insertion of the cohesive elements, which has no direct physical background but strongly influences energy dissipation and numerical efficiency. Wrongly inserted elements may dissipate energy but do not contribute to fracture and skew the simulation results.
\nThe phase-field approach to fracture is based on an evolution equation that essentially refers to the elastic strain energy density \n
In the cohesive zone model cohesive elements are adaptively inserted between the continuum elements to describe the crack opening. The continuum elements themselves are not directly affected and the crack can only propagate along the element boundaries, which results in a certain mesh dependence. The adaptive insertion of cohesive elements require a continuous update of the data structure, which leads to a significant programming effort and also increases the costs of computation. Additionally, the cohesive zone has to be equipped with contact constraints in order to prevent penetration in case of unloading. In total, the numerical implementation of an adaptive cohesive zone model becomes very complex.
\nIn contrast, the structure of the finite element mesh in the phase-field approach remains constant during the simulation. The phase-field parameter can decrease to zero at each node and the crack is able to propagate theoretically everywhere in the whole domain. Essential requirement is a very fine mesh with \n
For numerical computation of the coupled fields \n
The major advantage of the cohesive zone model is that the crack properties can be mapped exactly. The local opening is known, the crack width is the separation \n
In phase-field fracture by definition a continuous function s and a diffuse interface with width \n
Summarizing we state that both methods are mechanically consistent and have a clear variational structure. The cohesive element technique is difficult to implement but provides a strong physical background. For static computations with expected way of crack propagation it is definitely preferred because it allows cohesive laws, which may consider anisotropy, friction, and other material specific properties. In general dynamic applications of unknown crack path, however, its numerical drawbacks, together with the fact that a suboptimal insertion may lead to wrong predictions, dominate. Here the phase-field approach to fracture is clearly the better choice. Unknown crack paths can simply be followed—as long as the mesh resolution is fine enough. The major drawback of phase-field fracture is its parameter sensitivity. Also, extensions to more complex fracture models, which account, for example, for sliding, anisotropy, and interlocking, contradict the original variational derivation and are still an open problem.
\nGeneral requirements for Open Access to Horizon 2020 research project outputs are found within Guidelines on Open Access to Scientific Publication and Research Data in Horizon 2020. The guidelines, in their simplest form, state that if you are a Horizon 2020 recipient, you must ensure open access to your scientific publications by enabling them to be downloaded, printed and read online. Additionally, said publications must be peer reviewed.
',metaTitle:"Horizon 2020 Compliance",metaDescription:"General requirements for Open Access to Horizon 2020 research project outputs are found within Guidelines on Open Access to Scientific Publication and Research Data in Horizon 2020. The guidelines, in their simplest form, state that if you are a Horizon 2020 recipient, you must ensure open access to your scientific publications by enabling them to be downloaded, printed and read online. Additionally, said publications must be peer reviewed. ",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Publishing with IntechOpen means that your scientific publications already meet these basic requirements. It also means that through our utilization of open licensing, our publications are also able to be copied, shared, searched, linked, crawled, and mined for text and data, optimizing our authors' compliance as suggested by the European Commission.
\\n\\nMetadata for all publications is also automatically deposited in IntechOpen's OAI repository, making them available through the Open Access Infrastructure for Research in Europe's (OpenAIRE) search interface further establishing our compliance.
\\n\\nIn other words, publishing with IntechOpen guarantees compliance.
\\n\\nRead more about Open Access in Horizon 2020 here.
\\n\\nWhich scientific publication to choose?
\\n\\nWhen choosing a publication, Horizon 2020 grant recipients are encouraged to provide open access to various types of scientific publications including monographs, edited books and conference proceedings.
\\n\\nIntechOpen publishes all of the aforementioned formats in compliance with the requirements and criteria established by the European Commission for the Horizon 2020 Program.
\\n\\nAuthors requiring additional information are welcome to send their inquiries to funders@intechopen.com
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Publishing with IntechOpen means that your scientific publications already meet these basic requirements. It also means that through our utilization of open licensing, our publications are also able to be copied, shared, searched, linked, crawled, and mined for text and data, optimizing our authors' compliance as suggested by the European Commission.
\n\nMetadata for all publications is also automatically deposited in IntechOpen's OAI repository, making them available through the Open Access Infrastructure for Research in Europe's (OpenAIRE) search interface further establishing our compliance.
\n\nIn other words, publishing with IntechOpen guarantees compliance.
\n\nRead more about Open Access in Horizon 2020 here.
\n\nWhich scientific publication to choose?
\n\nWhen choosing a publication, Horizon 2020 grant recipients are encouraged to provide open access to various types of scientific publications including monographs, edited books and conference proceedings.
\n\nIntechOpen publishes all of the aforementioned formats in compliance with the requirements and criteria established by the European Commission for the Horizon 2020 Program.
\n\nAuthors requiring additional information are welcome to send their inquiries to funders@intechopen.com
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5766},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5228},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1717},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10370},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15791}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118192},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"0",sort:"ebgfFaeGuveeFgfcChcyvfu"},books:[],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:19},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5240},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9669",title:"Recent Advances in Rice Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12b06cc73e89af1e104399321cc16a75",slug:"recent-advances-in-rice-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur- Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-Ur-",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-Ur- Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1225",title:"Optical Physics",slug:"optics-and-lasers-optical-physics",parent:{title:"Optics and Lasers",slug:"optics-and-lasers"},numberOfBooks:5,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:92,numberOfWosCitations:47,numberOfCrossrefCitations:36,numberOfDimensionsCitations:55,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"optics-and-lasers-optical-physics",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10075",title:"Nonlinear Optics",subtitle:"From Solitons to Similaritons",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b034b2a060292c8511359aec0db1002c",slug:"nonlinear-optics-from-solitons-to-similaritons",bookSignature:"İlkay Bakırtaş and Nalan Antar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10075.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"186388",title:"Prof.",name:"İlkay",middleName:null,surname:"Bakırtaş",slug:"ilkay-bakirtas",fullName:"İlkay Bakırtaş"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8350",title:"Fiber Optic Sensing",subtitle:"Principle, Measurement and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d35774b28952d3c4c4643b58dec25549",slug:"fiber-optic-sensing-principle-measurement-and-applications",bookSignature:"Shien-Kuei Liaw",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8350.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206109",title:"Dr.",name:"Shien-Kuei",middleName:null,surname:"Liaw",slug:"shien-kuei-liaw",fullName:"Shien-Kuei Liaw"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7582",title:"Nonlinear Optics",subtitle:"Novel Results in Theory and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a3ad4a3553a3ec59f7992d4f6495ac07",slug:"nonlinear-optics-novel-results-in-theory-and-applications",bookSignature:"Boris I. Lembrikov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7582.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"2359",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",middleName:"I.",surname:"Lembrikov",slug:"boris-lembrikov",fullName:"Boris Lembrikov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6599",title:"Small Angle Scattering and Diffraction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b1efb6a54c3fbdadd875f7bac0f6718",slug:"small-angle-scattering-and-diffraction",bookSignature:"Margareth K. K. D. Franco and Fabiano Yokaichiya",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6599.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"186337",title:"Dr.",name:"Margareth Kazuyo Kobayashi",middleName:null,surname:"Dias Franco",slug:"margareth-kazuyo-kobayashi-dias-franco",fullName:"Margareth Kazuyo Kobayashi Dias Franco"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5348",title:"Luminescence",subtitle:"An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d982c49fed4423a0ea7367af4f917b82",slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",bookSignature:"Jagannathan Thirumalai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5348.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",middleName:null,surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:5,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"52294",doi:"10.5772/65118",title:"Photon-Upconverting Materials: Advances and Prospects for Various Emerging Applications",slug:"photon-upconverting-materials-advances-and-prospects-for-various-emerging-applications",totalDownloads:2472,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:9,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"Manoj Kumar Mahata, Hans Christian Hofsäss and Ulrich Vetter",authors:[{id:"185891",title:"Dr.",name:"Manoj Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Mahata",slug:"manoj-kumar-mahata",fullName:"Manoj Kumar Mahata"},{id:"194423",title:"Prof.",name:"Hans",middleName:null,surname:"Hofsäss",slug:"hans-hofsass",fullName:"Hans Hofsäss"},{id:"194424",title:"Dr.",name:"Ulrich",middleName:null,surname:"Vetter",slug:"ulrich-vetter",fullName:"Ulrich Vetter"}]},{id:"52465",doi:"10.5772/65385",title:"Bioluminescent Fishes and their Eyes",slug:"bioluminescent-fishes-and-their-eyes",totalDownloads:1372,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"José Paitio, Yuichi Oba and Victor Benno Meyer-Rochow",authors:[{id:"185998",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuichi",middleName:null,surname:"Oba",slug:"yuichi-oba",fullName:"Yuichi Oba"},{id:"186175",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Rui",middleName:null,surname:"Lima Paitio",slug:"jose-rui-lima-paitio",fullName:"Jose Rui Lima Paitio"},{id:"202747",title:"Dr.",name:"Victor B.",middleName:null,surname:"Meyer-Rochow",slug:"victor-b.-meyer-rochow",fullName:"Victor B. Meyer-Rochow"}]},{id:"52672",doi:"10.5772/65185",title:"Luminescence in Rare Earth Ion‐Doped Oxide Compounds",slug:"luminescence-in-rare-earth-ion-doped-oxide-compounds",totalDownloads:2918,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"Carlos Ruvalcaba Cornejo",authors:[{id:"186306",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Ruvalcaba",slug:"carlos-ruvalcaba",fullName:"Carlos Ruvalcaba"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"52173",title:"The Dynamics of Luminescence",slug:"the-dynamics-of-luminescence",totalDownloads:1531,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"Luyanda L. Noto, Hendrik C. Swart, Bakang M. Mothudi, Pontsho S.\nMbule and Mokhotjwa S. Dhlamini",authors:[{id:"102985",title:"Dr.",name:"Mokhotswa",middleName:null,surname:"Dhlamini",slug:"mokhotswa-dhlamini",fullName:"Mokhotswa Dhlamini"}]},{id:"52294",title:"Photon-Upconverting Materials: Advances and Prospects for Various Emerging Applications",slug:"photon-upconverting-materials-advances-and-prospects-for-various-emerging-applications",totalDownloads:2476,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:10,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"Manoj Kumar Mahata, Hans Christian Hofsäss and Ulrich Vetter",authors:[{id:"185891",title:"Dr.",name:"Manoj Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Mahata",slug:"manoj-kumar-mahata",fullName:"Manoj Kumar Mahata"},{id:"194423",title:"Prof.",name:"Hans",middleName:null,surname:"Hofsäss",slug:"hans-hofsass",fullName:"Hans Hofsäss"},{id:"194424",title:"Dr.",name:"Ulrich",middleName:null,surname:"Vetter",slug:"ulrich-vetter",fullName:"Ulrich Vetter"}]},{id:"52672",title:"Luminescence in Rare Earth Ion‐Doped Oxide Compounds",slug:"luminescence-in-rare-earth-ion-doped-oxide-compounds",totalDownloads:2922,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"Carlos Ruvalcaba Cornejo",authors:[{id:"186306",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Ruvalcaba",slug:"carlos-ruvalcaba",fullName:"Carlos Ruvalcaba"}]},{id:"65854",title:"The State-of-the-Art of Brillouin Distributed Fiber Sensing",slug:"the-state-of-the-art-of-brillouin-distributed-fiber-sensing",totalDownloads:793,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"fiber-optic-sensing-principle-measurement-and-applications",title:"Fiber Optic Sensing",fullTitle:"Fiber Optic Sensing - Principle, Measurement and Applications"},signatures:"Cheng Feng, Jaffar Emad Kadum and Thomas Schneider",authors:[{id:"280943",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Cheng",middleName:null,surname:"Feng",slug:"cheng-feng",fullName:"Cheng Feng"},{id:"290271",title:"Mr.",name:"Jaffar",middleName:null,surname:"Kadum",slug:"jaffar-kadum",fullName:"Jaffar Kadum"},{id:"290272",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Schneider",slug:"thomas-schneider",fullName:"Thomas Schneider"}]},{id:"64727",title:"Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation",slug:"nonlinear-schr-dinger-equation",totalDownloads:822,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"nonlinear-optics-novel-results-in-theory-and-applications",title:"Nonlinear Optics",fullTitle:"Nonlinear Optics - Novel Results in Theory and Applications"},signatures:"Jing Huang",authors:[{id:"198550",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jing",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",slug:"jing-huang",fullName:"Jing Huang"}]},{id:"52568",title:"Trap Level Measurements in Wide Band Gap Materials by Thermoluminescence",slug:"trap-level-measurements-in-wide-band-gap-materials-by-thermoluminescence",totalDownloads:1546,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"Pooneh Saadatkia, Chris Varney and Farida Selim",authors:[{id:"185781",title:"Prof.",name:"Farida",middleName:null,surname:"Selim",slug:"farida-selim",fullName:"Farida Selim"},{id:"186734",title:"Ms.",name:"Pooneh",middleName:null,surname:"Saadatkia",slug:"pooneh-saadatkia",fullName:"Pooneh Saadatkia"},{id:"186735",title:"Dr.",name:"Chris",middleName:null,surname:"Varney",slug:"chris-varney",fullName:"Chris Varney"}]},{id:"66415",title:"Magnetic Solitons in Optical Lattice",slug:"magnetic-solitons-in-optical-lattice",totalDownloads:227,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"nonlinear-optics-from-solitons-to-similaritons",title:"Nonlinear Optics",fullTitle:"Nonlinear Optics - From Solitons to Similaritons"},signatures:"Xing-Dong Zhao",authors:[{id:"283277",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhao",middleName:null,surname:"Xingdong",slug:"zhao-xingdong",fullName:"Zhao Xingdong"}]},{id:"52708",title:"Bioluminescence of the Black Sea Ctenophores-Aliens as an Index of their Physiological State",slug:"bioluminescence-of-the-black-sea-ctenophores-aliens-as-an-index-of-their-physiological-state",totalDownloads:1126,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"Tokarev Yuriy Nikolaevich and Mashukova Olga Vladimirovna",authors:[{id:"186292",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuriy",middleName:null,surname:"Tokarev",slug:"yuriy-tokarev",fullName:"Yuriy Tokarev"},{id:"186293",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Mashukova",slug:"olga-mashukova",fullName:"Olga Mashukova"}]},{id:"52133",title:"Excitation‐Intensity (EI) Effect on Photoluminescence of ZnO Materials with Various Morphologies",slug:"excitation-intensity-ei-effect-on-photoluminescence-of-zno-materials-with-various-morphologies",totalDownloads:1427,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"Prasada Rao Talakonda",authors:[{id:"185838",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasada Rao",middleName:null,surname:"Talakonda",slug:"prasada-rao-talakonda",fullName:"Prasada Rao Talakonda"}]},{id:"52293",title:"Luminescent Glass for Lasers and Solar Concentrators",slug:"luminescent-glass-for-lasers-and-solar-concentrators",totalDownloads:1537,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",title:"Luminescence",fullTitle:"Luminescence - An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications"},signatures:"Meruva Seshadri, Virgilio de Carvalho dos Anjos and Maria Jose\nValenzuela Bell",authors:[{id:"185581",title:"Dr.",name:"Seshadri",middleName:null,surname:"Meruva",slug:"seshadri-meruva",fullName:"Seshadri Meruva"},{id:"193648",title:"Prof.",name:"Anjos",middleName:null,surname:"V",slug:"anjos-v",fullName:"Anjos V"},{id:"193649",title:"Prof.",name:"Bell",middleName:null,surname:"M.J.V",slug:"bell-m.j.v",fullName:"Bell M.J.V"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"optics-and-lasers-optical-physics",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/184842/amy-williams",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"184842",slug:"amy-williams"},fullPath:"/profiles/184842/amy-williams",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var m;(m=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(m)}()